eChapters

India has made a considerable progress during the last three decades in horticulture production in India producing 300.6 million tonnes of horticultural produce from 24.85 million hectares in 2016-17. The average productivity of different horticultural crops is quite low as compared to the best yields at national and world level, indicating the scope to enhance the yield in different horticultural crops by many fold along with its quality specially in vegetables. Unlike vegetables, flower cultivation is growing at a very fast speed and registered a marked growth along with employment generation through protected cultivation. According to NHB (National Horticulture Board), during the year 2014-15 the area under floriculture production in India was 248.51 thousand hectares with a production of 1,658 thousand tonnes loose flowers and 484 thousand tonnes cut flowers. However, India’s total export of floriculture was Rs. 548.74 crores/ 82.05 USD Millions in 2016-17. This is because of an appealing gap between potential yield and the actual yield of various vegetable crops. In many vegetable crops, the yields realized are even less than 50 % of their potential yield. Due to fluctuating market prices and poor storage infrastructure available for horticultural crops, farmers are not able to get their production cost. Though, there are some crops, fetches high prices during off-season. Several biotic and abiotic stresses are major factors, responsible for low productivity and poor quality in several horticultural crops under their open field cultivation during rainy and post rainy season more specifically, in vegetables. The increasing demand of off-season and high quality vegetables in various markets of the big cities has drawn the attention of the vegetable growers for diversification from traditional system.

Abstract

Demand for horticultural commodities is increasing over a period of time. There is increasing pressure on available land for growing of such crops. The production of quality fruits, vegetables and other horticultural crops can be enhanced either by increasing productivity, use of improved cultivars/hybrids and effective production system, bringing additional land under horticultural crops or by promotion of protected cultivation which supports production in adverse climatic conditions and off seasons. Among horticultural crops, production of vegetables, flowers, medicinal and aromatic plants under protected condition is the best alternative to use the land and other resources more efficiently. Greenhouse cultivation is useful and is in practice in all kinds of climatic conditions, may it be severe and extreme cold (Canada and Russia), intolerant summer (Israel, UAE and Kuwait), excessive rains (Phillippines) and in moderate climate in several other countries. Nursery production of crops under protected conditions is highly economically viable.

The area under protected cultivation was only 0.23 per cent of the total area under horticultural crops in India in 2012. To boost up this, a number of varieties are bred for cultivation especially under polyhouse conditions. Greenhouse for vegetable production encompasses glasshouse, polyhouse, insect-proof net house, low tunnel polyhouse and zero energy polyhouse. Protected structures are of different kinds, viz. open-ventilated; closed polyhouse with fan and pad system; shade net house; sloped roof, rain shelter etc. Micro-irrigation has proved its efficacy in saving water, improving the yield and also is responsible for reducing diseases which develop in rather moist conditions. Protected structures appeared as the best means and are being used by many nursery growers for multiplication of healthy planting materials and are becoming popular especially in the hilly regions. Use of techniques like soilless culture, production of high value and low volume flowers and vegetables, hybrid seed of important vegetable crops and grafting of promising varieties on desirable root stocks can be made more efficiently under protected environment. Seed yield of many crops can be 3-4 times more under cover compared to their open field cultivation along with ensured quality.

Protected cultivation technologies in Himalayan high altitudes of India for the welfare of the soldiers and the society are a landmark in cultivation of horticultural crops in non-conventional areas. The protected production system has the potential to contribute greatly for achieving high productivity and stability to production in the present scenario of climate change. Extension of growing/harvesting period including off season is another desirable feature associated with protected cultivation.

Abstract

Protected cultivation technology in black pepper and cardamom offers distinct advantages over conventional farming. Production of quality planting materials irrespective of the season was made possible. Such propagating materials can be well maintained under polyhouse, irrespective of the seasons and can be used judiciously for replanting/ gap filling. In this era of climate change, protected cultivation assumes significance. In black pepper and cardamom, rapid multiplication techniques of planting materials were made possible. A novel idea of growing pepper, different from conventional system as “bush” that can be grown under potted and field conditions were also developed. Nutrition and water management studies could be undertaken with precision. In cardamom, quality planting material production and high quality capsule production are made possible all throughout the year by the adoption of protected cultivation. For optimizing production, prescriptions of fertilizers, using DRIS norms were developed for black pepper and cardamom based on critical soil and foliar nutrient concentrations. Typical deficiency symptoms of major and micro nutrients on black pepper were characterized to rectify the deficiency. Technology for propagation and cultivation of bush pepper in pots, under protected cultivation was also developed and popularized. Technology for using organic manures, non edible oil cakes, biofertilizers towards production of high quality zero defect black pepper and cardamom was also developed and popularized.

Protected cultivation can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro-climate surrounding the plant is controlled partially or fully as per the requirement of the plant species during their growth period. This cropping technique is the most modern approach to grow different horticultural crops mainly, vegetable crops and flowers for enhancement of both productivity and product quality. This technology has spread extensively the world over in the last few decades. This technology involves the cultivation of different crops particularly, horticultural crops in a controlled environment wherein the environmental parameters like the temperature, humidity, light, soil, water, plant nutrition, etc. are manipulated for enhancement of production as well as product quality even during off-season which ensures additional return to the growers.

Growing population, rapid urbanization and changing climate have created a global challenge to meet the food and nutritional needs. In India, rapid urbanization is not only taking place in larger cities, but satellite towns are competing for food, water, transportation and above all adding to pollution of the environment. As warming of the climate gathers alarming pace, posing a danger to agriculture, greenhouse cultivation is the only answer to save crops of flowers and vegetables. The yield under polyhouse cultivation can be achieved to the level of 5-8 times as compared to open field cultivation.

PROTECTED STRUCTURES

Protected cultivation is unique and specialized form of agriculture. Protected or greenhouse cultivation of vegetables is one of the means for clean vegetable production in peri-urban areas. The protected cultivation facilitates year-round production of high- quality produce with minimum labour and irrigation water, and almost wards off pest problem. In peri-urban regions, where climate prevents or does not favour year-round production of crops in open field, vegetable production can be taken up in protected environment. Use of protected structure for cultivation of crops as a commercial venture is a recent phenomenon, especially in the tropical areas.

Protected cultivation is a specialized agricultural system in which a certain control of the soil–climate ecosystem is exercised modifying its conditions (soil, temperature, solar radiation, wind, humidity and air composition). Plants are cultivated by means of these techniques modifying their natural environment to prolong the harvesting period, alter the conventional cropping cycles, increase yields, improve product quality, stabilize production and provide products when open field cultivation is limited (Wittwer and Castilla, 1995). It is the most contemporary approach to produce mainly, horticultural crops qualitatively and quantitatively and has spread extensively the world over in the last few decades. Protected cultivation also known as controlled environment agriculture (CEA) is highly productive, conservative of water and land and also protective of the environment (Jensen, 2002). Protected cultivation is now becoming popular in Kerala experiencing humid tropical climate with the adoption of locally suitable green house technologies.

Protected cultivation has rapidly expanded in many regions across the globe as early as 1960, when plastics were introduced/used in agriculture and subsequently during 1970’s, when the rise in oil prices resulted in increase of energy costs. About 115 countries in the world are into greenhouse vegetable production commercially (Sabir and Singh, 2013). The world scenario shows the area under protected cultivation to be nearly 6,23,302 ha. while total estimated world greenhouse vegetable production area is 4,02,981 ha. Of the total world greenhouse vegetable area, soilless/hydroponic culture systems account for 95,000 ha (Hickman, 2011).

The advent of protected cultivation technology in India materialized during the early nineties, post globalization. In India, area under protected cultivation is presently around 25,000 ha while the greenhouse vegetable cultivation area is about 2,000 ha. Faced with constraints of land holdings, rapid urbanization, declining crop production, declining biodiversity and ever increasing population, demand for food, especially vegetables has increased manifold and protected cultivation has offered a new dimension to produce more in a limited area. Today Dutch protected cultivation is one of the most intensive farming systems in the world with high levels of output by using the latest technologies (Goncharova, 2004).

Abstract

Keeping in view the increasing demand of off-season and high value vegetables in several big cities of the country, there is an urgent need for diversification from the traditional agriculture by production of high value vegetable crops under different protected conditions for increasing their productivity and quality not only for getting high returns but in a Horti-Business / Veggie-business model. Nursery raising under protected cultivation is highly suitable for such Horti-business model or can be adopted as an agri entrepreneur business in major vegetable growing areas of the country by unemployed youths who are graduates in agriculture or post graduates in horticulture. Low cost protected technologies like plastic low tunnels or walk in tunnels, shade net houses can be used for off season vegetable cultivation for getting high returns. Similarly, insect proof net houses can be used on a large scale for safe vegetable cultivation by way of minimizing the use of pesticides in vegetable cultivation and virus free quality seed production in large number of vegetables in a horti-business model. Some of the technologies like low pressure drip irrigation and low cost nursery raising technology can also be replicated in other parts of the country even among the resource poor and tribal farmers.

India is endowed with diverse agro- climatic conditions which facilitate to cultivate various horticultural crops all through the year in one part of the country or others, but the quality of fruits under open field conditions particularly in high value crops (vegetables & flowers) by and large fall short of domestic and international markets standards. Some time there no guarantee of consistent production of from open cultivation, as the crop is exposed to number of environmental factors that changes frequently. Hence it is imperative to increase the productivity and quality of produce to meet the demand of quality conscious consumers. A break through in production technology that integrates market driven quality parameters with the production system simultaneously ensuring a vertical growth is warranted. In this context, most important technology is the Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) i.e. Protected Cultivated Technology (PCTs) such as greenhouse, net house, glasshouse and low tunnel. “Protected cultivation” means modification of plant environment to achieve optimum plant growth avoiding the harmful effect of climatic factors.

Introduction

Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique where in the micro environment surrounding the plant body is controlled partially or fully as per plant need during their period of growth to maximize the yield and resource saving. Protected structures can play important role to minimize the impact of temperature fluctuation, over/under precipitation, fluctuating sun shine hour and infestation of disease and pest. The controlled environment can be utilized for growing early season /off-season vegetables and high value vegetables. This may become relevant to those farmers having small land holding who would be benefitted by a technology, which helps them to grow more crops each year and save them from adverse situation. Vegetable crops are very sensitive to climatic vagaries and sudden rise in temperature as well as irregular precipitation at any phase of crop growth can affect the normal growth, flowering, pollination, fruit development and subsequently decreased the crop yield. Apart from that high input cost and higher labor wages make vegetable cultivation less profitable under open field condition. Again, in the present scenario, more people are demanding early season/off-season vegetables and high value vegetables at higher price which are not possible to grow under open field situation.

Present status in world: In world, China has the largest area (2,760 thousand hectares) under greenhouse cultivation followed by Korea having 57.44 thousand hectares (Nair and Barche, 2014). The advent of protected cultivation technology in India materialized during the early nineties, post globalization.

India: India is the second largest producers of vegetable in the world, however as per medical council of India, the production is much less than the requirement if balanced diet are to be provided to every individual. The advent of protected cultivation technology in India materialized during the early nineties, post globalization. In India, the area under protected cultivation faced with constraints of land holdings, rapid urbanization, declining crop production, declining biodiversity and ever increasing population, demand for food, especially vegetables has increased manifold and protected cultivation has offered a new dimension to produce more in a limited area. Today Dutch protected cultivation is one of the most intensive farming systems in the world with high levels of output by using the latest technologies.

Introduction

Alstroemeria also known as the lily of the Incas, Peruvian lily or Inca lily, has been grown mainly as a cut flower crop. Recently, it has become popular as a garden flower and also as a potted flowering plant. The plants produce beautiful large inflorescence in many different colours viz. lavender, orange, yellow to dark yellow, white, pink, red, purple and bi-colors. Flowers are characterized by black dots at the base of the petals and throats. The cut flowers have a long post harvest life, up-to two weeks. These valuable characteristics have made Alstroemeria one of the top cut flowers at the Dutch Flower Auction Centers. The plants produce high yield and possess an ever blooming habit after flower initiation has occurred but in general most cultivars flower best during spring and early summer. The straight, un-branched shoots emerge from underground rhizomes which also produce enlarged storage roots. It is gaining popularity in Indian flower market due to long stem flowers and prolonged vase life. Recently flower growers have shown great interest about its production as a cut flower crop.

Abstract

Agricultural produce, such as vegetables, flowers and some fruits capture higher market price if they can be produced ahead or later than the main crop season. The demand of such unseasonal products is particularly high in the fashionable markets of big cities. Good quality of the product is, however, an essential requirement to realise this price advantage. Modern technologies can pave the way to take the full advantage of high price realisation. Growing crops under protected covers is being popularised and the application of various approaches of greenhouse technology can further extend this advantage because it offers greater control over the production environment and timing of crops. There has been a consistent increase in area under greenhouse cultivation nationally and is turning out to be a useful technology for resource efficient agriculture. The types of greenhouse structures range from hi-tech climate controlled systems to very elementary trenches or solar greenhouses used in high altitude cold desert regions of the Himalayas. Greenhouse vegetable production on a commercial scale is a capital and labour intensive production system and requires proper planning for sustainable production. Higher yield, efficient resource use, earliness, off-season availability and superior quality is the hallmark of greenhouse grown vegetables. Greenhouse vegetable production can be done from very basic soil based planting to fully automated hydroponic or soilless systems. This production system requires specialised crops and cultivars which should meet the demand of high value markets.

Protected Cultivation

Protected cultivation (PC) may be defined as the “modification of the natural environment to achieve optimum plant growth” (Singh, 2005). Modifications can be made to both the aerial and root environments to increase crop yields, extend the growing season and permit plant growth during periods of the year not commonly used to grow open field crops. PC may also indicate comprehensive systems of ‘Controlled Environmental Agriculture’ in which all the aspects of natural environment are modified for maximum plant growth and economic return.

Introduction

Protected cultivation or greenhouse cultivation is the most common technique to grow vegetable crops qualitatively and quantitatively, and has spread widely all over the world in recent decades. Greenhouse agriculture is also known as environmentally controlled planting. The technology involves the cultivation of vegetable crops in a regulated environment in which factors such as tem perature, soil, light, humidity, irrigation, fertilizers, etc. are controlled in order to achieve optimum production and ensure a steady supply even in off-season conditions. In India, the total area under protected cultivation or green house is currently approximately 25 000 ha whereas the protected vegetable area is approximately 2000 ha which has been challenged by land ownership limita tions, decreasing crop production, rapid urbanization, ever increasing popu lation and decreasing biodiversity. Food demand, especially vegetables, has increased growing of different crop varieties as protected crops, or greenhouse has opened up a new dimension to extra production within a limited crop area.

Abstract
India faces a shortfall of 10 million tonnes in vegetable production against a demand of 135 million tonnes, exacerbated by extreme temperatures (5-48°C) that hinder year-round cultivation. Protected cultivation, including greenhouses, polyhouses, and shade nets, offers a solution by enabling off-season vegetable production, enhancing yield, quality, and input efficiency. In regions like Bundelkhand, where agriculture dominates the economy, low-cost protected structures have shown promise in cultivating high-value crops like tomatoes and capsicum, despite challenges such as farmer unawareness, limited capital, and poor infrastructure. Government initiatives, like those by Banda University of Agriculture and Technology, promote low-cost protected cultivation through training and infrastructure development, fostering agripreneurship and improving rural livelihoods by increasing yields and market prices.
Keywords: Protected Cultivation, Vegetable Production, Agripreneurship, Greenhouse Technology, Bundelkhand, Food Security, High-Value Crops, Low- Cost Structures, Rural Development, Input Efficiency

Greenhouse

It is constructed by plastic, polythene, and fibreglass material having temperature control and ample light availability needed for propagating plants by seed, cutting and grafting.

Types of greenhouse

1. Based on shape and style: The commonly followed types of greenhouse based on shape are lean–to, even span, uneven span, ridge and furrow, saw tooth and quonset greenhouse.

Lean–to type greenhouse:

• It is limited to single or double–row plant benches with a total width of 7–12 feet.
• It is typically facing south side. It should face the best direction for adequate sun exposure.
• This design makes the best use of sunlight and minimizes the requirement of roof supports.
  • It has the disadvantages: limited space, limited light, limited ventilation and temperature control.

Introduction

India is a land of diverse agro climatic zones and each of these zones offer a great potential for cultivation of wide range of crops across all seasons. Vegetables form major and important part of our dietary requirements, which are widely grown in the rural and peri-urban areas. Hi-tech horticulture including protected cultivation of high value and exotic vegetables has been on the increase, targeting high end domestic and export market. Of late, due to the population pressure, fragmentation of land holdings and urbanization has led to decline in cultivable area, more so in urban and peri-urban areas. Production of vegetables under protected cultivation system results in effective use of the land resources, besides being able to increase the production of quality vegetables both for the export and domestic markets by offsetting biotic and abiotic stresses to a great extent that otherwise is prevalent in open cultivation. Under protected cultivation, vegetables are widely grown due to higher productivity and economic feasibility.

2.1 Introduction

The great impact of increase in population as well as rapid economic growth has given us cause for concern about the future situation of the earth in recent years. Desertification as well as deforestation is continuously changing the landscape. Irrigated areas are being damaged by salinization. The effect to increase arable lands cannot match with the speed of these deteriorating processes. Weather is also being changed gradually by urbanization. In the new millennium, the challenges in the agricultural sector are very different from those met in the previous decades. The enormous pressure to produce more food from less land with shrinking natural resources is a tough task for the farmers. This calls for special effort to manage the key input without eroding the ecological assets and sound knowledge base to sustain agricultural productivity and profitability.

The maximum crop response depends on the level of the balanced environmental parameters. The natural environment and input availability may not be optimum for a given crop. The environmental factors which affect plant growth includes air temperature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide concentration soil temperature and moisture content to the soil. The micro-climate can be artificially controlled by means of plastic covering structure like greenhouse. The plastic covered greenhouse is the only mechanism, which transmits the useful wavelengths of the light spectrum for photosynthetic activity. Further, it also reduces the air movement, which is of great importance for the plant growth and often used to control the spread of plant diseases.

As far as plant propagation is concerned sunlight provides the primary energy for photosynthesis, the food chain and all human nutrition. The expansion of crop and flower production in various types of greenhouse during the recent years has enabled the growth of agricultural products throughout the year. An agricultural greenhouse consists of frames of metallic or wooden structure covered with a transparent material preferably plastic which provide a suitable environment for the intensive production of various crops. A greenhouse is essentially an enclosed structure, which traps the short wavelength solar radiation and convert and finally stores the long wavelength thermal radiation to create a favorable microclimate for higher productivity. Open field agricultural farming has no control on the environmental parameters such as sunlight, air composition and temperature that influence the plant escalation. Hence, a large number of winter vegetables, flowers and other horticultural crops have to be transported from distant places. Future greenhouse systems in moderate climates will have to be energy efficient. Greenhouses will have decreased transmission for long-wave length radiation and increased transmission for short-wave-radiation compared with common shelters.

Greenhouses are frames or inflated structures covered with a transparent or translucent material in which crops can be grown under partially controlled or totally controlled conditions of atleast. It is large enough to permit persons to work within, to carry out cultural operations. Greenhouse cultivation as well as other modes of controlled environment cultivation has been evolved to create favourable microclimate, for the crop production all through the year or during off season, when the produce is highly priced and remunerative. Green house is a broader term of protected structures which includes different types of structures according to the need. Green houses vary in size and complexity from small home or hobby structures to large commercial units, from solar green house to sophisticated environment controlled ones.

1. Which type of vegetable is often grown in shade net house?

a) Tomato

c) Radish

b) Lettuce

 d) Cucumber

2. What is the primary advantage of greenhouse cultivation for vegetable production?

a) Increased exposure to natural elements

 b) Protection from pests and diseases

 c) Lower cost of production

 d) Reduced need for irrigation

Protected cultivation provides controlled or modified growing environments that enable horticultural crops to be produced beyond their normal climatic limitations. This chapter covers greenhouses, polyhouses, shade nets, insect-proof structures, tunnels, and other protected systems. It explains environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, light, ventilation, carbon dioxide, irrigation, and fertigation. Protected cultivation can improve productivity, quality, resource-use efficiency, and production timing while reducing exposure to adverse weather and certain pests. The chapter also discusses crop selection, substrate culture, automation, and integrated management. Proper environmental control and economic planning are essential because protected systems involve higher initial investment but can generate high returns through quality produce and extended market opportunities.

Due to increase in population, rapid urbanization, industrialization and shrinking land holdings, there is tremendous pressure on availability of land resources for agriculture, which results in decreased arable land area year after year. The huge gap between present production and future requirements necessitates intensive vegetable production and availability at affordable prices. Vegetable production can be enhanced either by increasing productivity, use of improved cultivars and ago-techniques, bringing additional land under vegetable crops or by promotion of protected cultivation. By adopting protected cultivation, year round availability of quality produces both for domestic use and export can be assured.

Several biotic and abiotic stresses are the major factors responsible for low productivity and poor quality in large number of vegetable crops under open field cultivation more specifically during rainy and post rainy season. The increasing demand of off-season and high quality vegetables in various markets of the big cities had call the attention of the vegetable growers for diversification from traditional ways of vegetable cultivation to modern methods of vegetables cultivation in an agri-business entrepreneurial models. Under the new era of FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) in retail these kinds of models are having high potential for betterment of the farmers opting for quality and offseason vegetable cultivation through protected cultivation. Protected cultivation structures are useful for combating both biotic and abiotic stresses that limits the productivity and quality of vegetable crops. This requires careful planning, attention and details about timing of production and moreover, harvest time to coincide with high market prices, choice of varieties adopted to the off season environments, and able to produce economical yields of high quality produce etc.

Introduction

Biodiversity conservation and sustainable use are critical for maintaining the health and well-being of the Earth and all its inhabitants. Biodiversity provides essential ecosystem services, resources, and cultural values, and is under threat from various human activities. Conservation and sustainable use are necessary for preserving biodiversity and ensuring a sustainable future, and require the participation and collaboration of all stakeholders.

The protection and restoration of biodiversity are complex challenges that require a multidisciplinary approach and a commitment to sustainability. This includes addressing the underlying drivers of biodiversity loss, promoting sustainable land-use practices, protecting ecosystems and wildlife, and engaging in education and awareness-raising activities. By working together to conserve and sustainably use of biodiversity, we can ensure a healthy planet for future generations.

Introduction

Since 2001, India’s human beings population has crossed 1000 million, which is presently 1361 million and will became more than 1462 million during 2025. Such a large population of human beings can be fed and clothed only if we make the best use of the country’s land and water resources. While water is replenishable natural resource. Contrary to this, the land is a non-renewable and irreplaceable resource. It, therefore, becomes an imperative to think of about the main problems of protecting/preserving and managing the land resources f irst of all and thereafter managing the water resources. Such an approach will, infant, prove a solution of both of these resources. It is because if the land of the country is looked after properly, the problem of water management would be automatically tackled (Singh, 2007)

Out of the total land area of India, about 329 million hectares (m ha) as many as175 m ha suffer from degradation, caused for the most part by the soil erosion, water logging, soil salinity and sodicity as well as acidity. This denotes that on an average at least two out of every 3 acres (1.2 ha) of land is in poor condition. It is also known that at least half of the sick land i.e., one third of the total is almost completely unproductive. Another one third is partially productive and it is only the remaining one third is in good health.

Productivity measures, such as rate of growth or reproduction have traditionally been used as indicators of biological functioning. If this is regarded as closely related to animal welfare, then high productivity should be evidence for a high state of welfare. In some cases, selection for production has pushed animals to the point where basic biological functioning and body maintenance is compromised. Therefore, Production measures are always misused.  Productivity of the group is a different measure than productivity of the individual. Such group overall is performing poorly but that productivity from a few outstanding individuals makes average productivity look high. Similarly specific individuals who are performing very poorly may be overlooked if average group performance is high. Although commercial organized dairy farms are very limited, but welfare issues are always there in both small and large farm. Some of the important issues in the organized farms are discussed below.

Performing animal means any animal which is used at, or for the purpose of any entertainment to which the public are admitted through sale of tickets. Thousands of wild animals are used worldwide to perform demeaning and unnatural tricks to entertain the public (circuses, side-shows, within zoos, and in advertising, film and television). 
There are number of welfare issues related to performing animals which involves animal fighting, shows, (among domestic animals) or entertaining wild animals.

Pig production is concentrated mainly in the North-eastern corner of the country and consists primarily of backyard and informal sector producers. Though pig population is only 2% of all the livestock animals, Pork production in India  represents 7% of the country’s total meat production. This value is highest compared to any other species of meat animals.

1 Broilers

The broilers are also called young meat chickens; generally attend a body weight of 2 kg at 35-38 days of age with a feed conversion of 1.5-1.8. This improvement in growth is equivalent to reduction of market age by one day per year. This fast growth is possible due to intense feeding good quality feed & growth promoters in less space. However, this type of rearing has challenges many welfare issues in broiler farming.

Sheep and goat rearing in India continues to be traditional even today. This sector is primarily in the hands of poor, landless or small and marginal farmers who raise their animals on natural vegetation, stubbles and supplement tree lopping. The productivity of sheep in India is relatively low with an average body weight gain of 20 to 50 g/day. The major causes for the low productivity are inadequate grazing resources, tropical heat and disease incidences and a lack of awareness about improved management practices.

Long used as beasts of burden, animals in India are still regarded today as little more than commodities rather than sentient beings who feel pain, stress, exhaustion and depression. Low literacy rates and the tendency to follow traditional practices and cultural traditions have left India surely lacking in the area of animal welfare. India holds the majority of the world’s working animal population. Animals that are forced to work in India include bullocks, horses, ponies, mules, donkeys, camels, elephants and dogs. Despite a proud heritage and a culture rooted in tolerance and compassion, animal welfare is largely ignored by Indian society, leading to extreme animal suffering. Our villages and to a great extent, the urban population still allow working animals to be mercilessly exploited in fields, on the streets, in brick kilns, on battlefields, on playgrounds and in timber areas – all in the name of agriculture, entertainment, security and any number of other “justified” pursuits.

ABSTRACT

This paper is an attempt to draw the attention of readers of this volume to understand the importance of documentation and preservation of earth’s resources.  

Introduction

Earth has innumerable treasures that were and are being exploited by mankind. Geo-resources in the form of minerals, non-renewable hydrocarbons, paleontologic relics and related evidences indicate earth’s evolutionary history. Continuum of biological activity albeit varying rates of proliferation had resulted in accumulation of natural resources embedded in Earth and distributed at specific geographical niches. Biological perspective of earth history is significant in unraveling bio-geo-sphere interactions through geological time. Fossil records of invertebrates, vertebrates and plants are signals of major changes in earth’s evolutionary history. These constitute unparalleled windows to understand continental separation. Intercontinental and intra continental migration of living forms are also traced through fossil study.

Introduction
The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 (PCRA) is a crucial piece of legislation in India, designed to address social discrimination and uphold the equality enshrined in the Constitution. Originally known as the Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955, it was later amended to become the Protection of Civil Rights Act. This law aims to eliminate the social stigma associated with untouchability and caste-based discrimination, providing a framework to ensure that all individuals enjoy civil rights, regardless of caste, creed, or background.
Historical Background
India’s caste system has deep historical roots, often leading to various forms of social exclusion and discrimination, especially for those belonging to the lower castes or “Dalit” communities. Recognizing the need for legal safeguards, India’s Constituent Assembly introduced Article 17 in the Constitution, abolishing untouchability. However, legal provisions were needed to enforce these rights effectively, leading to the enactment of the Untouchability (Offences) Act in 1955. With amendments and broader interpretation, it evolved into the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955.
Objectives of the Protection of Civil Rights Act
The PCRA aims to
1. Abolish untouchability in all forms.
2. Protect and promote civil rights, ensuring equal access to public places and services.
3. Prohibit discrimination in any social, economic, or educational sphere based on caste or religion.
4. Penalize those who commit acts of discrimination or deprive others of their rights based on caste or other prejudicial factors.

Introduction

A generator is subjected to electrical stresses imposed on the insulation of the machine, mechanical forces acting on the various parts of the machine, and temperature rise. These are the main factors which make protection necessary for the generator or alternator. Even when properly used, a machine in its perfect running condition does not only maintain its specified rated performance for many years, but it does also repeatedly withstand certain excess of overload.

Preventive measures must be taken against overloads and abnormal conditions of the machine so that it can serve safely. Even ensuring an efficient design, construction, operation, and preventive means of protection – the risk of a fault cannot be completely eliminated from any machine. The devices used in generator protection, ensure that when a fault arises, it is eliminated as quickly as possible.

Abstract

GIS has several products that can be protected in India as copyright. The paper describes major provisions of copyright Act, 1957 that has been amended five times. GIS products qualify to be registered within various sections of the copyright Act. Patenting of software is permitted in some countries but not in India, a comparative account of these two forms of protection has been discussed with practical examples. General public licensing of open source software, translation, exclusive licensing and data sharing & accessibility policy are other areas covered in the present study and analytical learning.

Key words : copyright, patent, GIS, software, data sharing

1.0 Introduction

The copyright Act 1957 was mainly amended in 1994 and1999 to bring into complete harmony with Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs), further major amendment has been done in 2012, that include wide range changes in ownership, term of protection, copyright security, cinematography and broadcasting provisions. In the same year government of India has initiated ‘National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP)’ which came into operation from February 2012. At present the copyright Act and data sharing policy are the two legal and administrative instruments which facilitate the intellectual property protection and appropriate sharing among stakeholders in the country.

1. PPV & FR ACT

With the signing of TRIPs agreement of the World Trade Organization (WTO), India has agreed to provide protection to plant varieties. The Government of India, therefore, enacted “ The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act (PPV&FR Act)” in 2001 and the Regulations for implementing the Act were formulated in 2003.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, has been identified as the nodal agency for implementing the PPV& FR Act through an Authority known as “The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmer Rights Authority”. The Authority came into force in November, 2005.

PPV & FR act has 11 chapters, 4 schedules and 97 sections.

14.1. PPVFR Act

TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) agreement of WTO (World Trade Organization) was signed.

Enacted PPVFR act in 2001.

Regulation formulated in 2003.

Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001 (PPVFRA-2001) was enacted by government of India in 2001 to create a sui generis system of providing a legal framework as an IPR mechanism to protect the varieties of crop plants in India along with grant of breeders’ and farmers’ rights in the interest of all the stakeholders and also to comply with WTO guidelines to which India is a legal signatory. The salient features of this act are as follows.

The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001, Act no. 53 of 2001, (30th october, 2001)

This act is in place to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants. It recognizes and protects the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving; improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of new plant varieties; it encourages accelerated agricultural development in the country; it protects plant breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development, both in the public and private sector, for the development of new plant varieties; it facilitates the growth of the seed industry in the country which will ensure the availability of high quality seeds and planting material to the farmers. To give effect to the aforesaid objectives, it is necessary to undertake measures for the protection of the rights of farmers and plant breeders; as India, has ratified the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights should, inter alia, make provision for giving effect to sub-paragraph (b) of paragraph 3 of article 27 in Part II of the said Agreement relating to protection of plant varieties. Accordingly, this act is in place.

Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001 (PPVFRA-2001) was enacted by government of India in 2001 to create a sui generis system of providing a legal framework as an IPR mechanism to protect the varieties of crop plants in India along with grant of breeders’ and farmers’ rights in the interest of all the stakeholders and also to comply with WTO guidelines to which India is a legal signatory.

Chapter I
Preliminary 
1. Short Title and Commencement 
    (1)    These rules may be called the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Rules, 2003.   
    (2)    They shall come into force on the date on which the Act shall come into force.   

2. Definitions 
        In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires, -   
    (a)    “Act” means the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001(53 of 2001);

The plant variety is related to intellectual property that needs to be protected for controlled commercial unitization for a specified period. New plant varieties development requires scientific skill, knowledge, significant investment of land and specialized equipments. These varieties are cultivated by farmers in their adaptive region. In development of new variety 10 to 15 years are required. If developed variety successfully commercialized on farmer’s field, then the market business is much higher than input investment. The major issue in developed variety that can be easily reproduced by someone without permission of original breeder. Thus, the original breeder deprived for their f inancial benefit. It is, therefore, critical to provide an effective system of plant variety protection, which encourages the development of new varieties of plants thereby benefiting the breeder and society at large. The sustainable and long-term breeding effort for development of new varieties needs encouragement and financial reward for investing time and skills. To secure legal protection of the developed variety breeder needs to obtained exclusive right from government.After establishment of WTO in 1995 under TRIP the right to protect plant varieties become mandatory for signatory country. It has also realised that existence of the private seed industry, the protection of plant varieties become necessity.

In order to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants it has been considered necessary to recognize and protect the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of the new plant varieties. Moreover to accelerate agricultural development, it is necessary to protect plants breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development for the development of new plant varieties.

India is known for its rich wildlife heritage. In fact, the country is considered one of the best among available mega-biodiversity areas in the world. The landscape and agro-climatic conditions of India make it a unique habitat for wild animals. The government of India has made attempts to conserve wildlife through different projects like Corbett tiger, Elephant projects etc. The wild life management in India is at present ‘preservation-oriented’. This is bound to remain so for a long time because of the significantly depleted status of our wild life population. Indian government in pursuit of conserving the heritage of wilderness has made committed efforts with several wildlife and Forest Acts to ensure protection by declaring the areas as protected under the spectrum of national park and wildlife sanctuaries. The eco-tourism and conservation awareness has created environmental consciousness among the people.

Duff and  Daly (2002) briefly describes the commonly found orchid diseases. These include the Bacterial soft rot caused by Erwinia carotovora, black leg or slow decline caused by Fusarium spp., petal blight caused by Curvularia eragrostidis [PseudocochlioBolus eragrostidis] and Alternaria alternata, top rot/shoot rot caused by Phytophthora parasitica, and stem rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii [Athelia rolfsii].

ABSTRACT

The present study was designed to evaluate the effect of α-mangostin on cardiac markers against isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in rats. Induction of rats with Isoproterenol (150 mg/kg body wt, i.p) for 2 days resulted in a marked reduction in the activities of cardiac tissue marker enzymes (LDH, CPK, GOT and GPT). Pretreatment with α-mangostin (200 mg/kg of body wt/day) orally for 6 days significantly prevented these alterations and restored the enzyme activities to near normal levels. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate the protective effect of α-mangostin on isoproterenol induced experimental myocardial infarction in rats.

1. The protein is derived from Greek word “Proteins” which means
   1. Principal
   2. Prime
   3. Holding the first place
   4. All of the above
2. The name protein to the group of organic compounds that are utmost important to life is suggested by
   1. Mulder
   2. Berzelius
   3. Kulim
   4. Sanger

1. Protein Estimation

The method developed by Lowry et al. (1951) is largely followed for the estimation of soluble protein. This method is quite sensitive and gives a moderately constant value.

Protein may also be estimated by analyzing the total nitrogen content. Multiplying total nitrogen value with 6.25 will give the crude protein content. However, the nitrogen per cent varies with amino acid composition of proteins. For more refined expression of protein percentage, different factors are used for different samples. Some of the conversion factors for cereal and oilseed are given below:

Objective: To separate protein fragments by using SDS-PAGE method.

Background information

Electrophoresis is the motion of dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the effect of limited uniform field of electricity (Dukhin, and Derjaguin, 1974). Ferdin and Frederic Reuss (Reuss, 1809) first time observed such phenomena of electrokinetic nature in 1807. They found that the clay particles move in the water by giving constant supply of current. It happened due to interface of charged particles surface and the surrounding media. The technique is used widely in chemistry, biochemistry and molecular biology to separate different molecules based on difference in charge, binding affinity and size. Electrophoresis may be of two types viz., Anaphoresis and Cataphoresis. Anaphoresis is the electrophoresis of anions (-ve charged ions) while, Cataphoresis is electrophoresis of cations (+ve charged ions). Electrophoresis is a major analytical technique in biochemistry that is used for separation of macromolecules like protein, enzymes and nucleic acids. Electrophoresis is a technique used in laboratories in order to separate macromolecules based on size.

PAGE is abbreviated for Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis that describes a technique widely used in biochemistry, forensics, genetics, molecular biology and biotechnology to separate biological macromolecules, usually proteins or nucleic acids, according to their electrophoretic mobility. Mobility is a function of the length, conformation and charge of the molecule.

• All green leafy materials in nature have Mg, because it is the structural component of chlorophyll. Wherever such green colour is there, carotenes would be associated. The colour of carotenes is red, but this
red colour is masked by green colour of chlorophyll. Wherever above green colour is there, vitamin K would also be invariably associated. Therefore Mg, vitamin A and vitamin K would be available by – default or what!! {α, β, ϒ, δ – carotene (s)}. Hence, grazing animals generally would be receiving these nutrients. [we humans may also eat fresh green leafy vegetables {spinach (palak), bathua, methi, coriander (dhania), cabbage, knol – khol, capsicum (bell pepper, Shimla mirch) to get above nutrients]
• Vitamins help regulate body functions, keeping the body healthy and promoting resistance to dis – eases.
• Supplementation of micro – nutrients (vitamins and minerals) as pre – mix, have + ve effects on maintenance, growth, and milk production.
• Biotin, niacin, choline improves milk production in dairy cattle.
• Multivitamin tablet = A to Z0NS may be given (preferably natural sources would always be suggested).
• Vitamin ‘B’ complex, vitamins C, K are very much synthesized by rumen microbes.
Importance of vitamins and their requirements in animal health and production:
Tables 2 & 3

Crude protein of feeds contain true protein and non – protein nitrogen. True protein is made up of amino acids and for maximum efficiency, feed must have essential acids in correct proportion, correct balance as well as non – essential amino acids should also be in sufficient amounts. About digestion in simple stomached animals, the true protein is degraded to oligopeptides (less than 10 peptides) in the stomach, subsequently to mono peptide amino acids in the small intestine. Thereafter amino acids are assimilated in the small intestine.
But in ruminants, the situation is complex in the sense that feed proteins get digested in the rumen, but even amino acids are also broken down by the microbes, and thereafter, amino and carboxylic groups are released. Secondly, synthesis of new amino acids or proteins takes place for formation of their own microbial body coat. Because of these reasons, the approach for protein evaluation or expression is different in ruminant animal. Further, non-protein portion of the feed cannot be utilized effectively by non – ruminants like swine and poultry. These animals are usually fed with oil cakes, cereals and
cereal by products, which are poor in non-protein compounds, however, young succulent fodders, clover etcetera are rich in such compounds. In the laboratory, crude protein may be estimated by kjeldahl’s method and true protein may be precipitated from non – protein nitrogen fraction by treating with cupric hydroxide or trichloro acetic acid. The precipitate is filtered off and subjected to kjeldahl’s process. For experimental evaluation of non – ruminants: albino or wistar rats, rabbits, guinea pigs or poultry birds are taken. Casein (milk protein) or albumen (egg protein) are fed to these animals for a period of 4
weeks and any of the following methods are undertaken to look for the protein quality based on response of animals.

A. Answer the following Question

1.    Why availabilityof bacterial protein is low?

Ans: Because, bacterial protein is protected by cell wall (mucopeptide polymer) which are resistant to enzymatic action.

2.    What is isoelectric pH?

Ans: The pH at which an amino acid exists in solution as a zwitter ion is called isoelectric pH that is the pH at which the amino acid is electrically neutral and has no tendency to migrate towards either electrode.

3.    What is ketogenic amino acid?

Ans: Ketogenic amino acid refers to those amino acids which give rise to acetyl CoA and consequently the potential fatty acids producers. e.g. leucine

4.    Why chicks require higher level of arginine?

Ans: Since they do not have urea cycle and feathers are very high inarginine.

5.    Why chicks require high level of glycine?