eChapters

Artificial intelligence is a computational science concerned with smart computer machines capable of performing tasks similar to the human intelligence. The term AI is widely used for the projects involved in the developing the intellectual processes of human intelligence such as reasoning ability, meaning discovery, generalization, learning from the past. AI technology mainly analyses the huge amount of data based on the set of instructions or commands known as algorithms to do a specific function or task. The mathematician Alan Turing with a simple question “Can machines think?” revolutionised the history. His paper “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” in 1950 and Turing test has favour the development of goal and the vision of AI.

The research in AI are mainly focussed on the following intelligence components namely:

1. Learning
2. Reasoning
3. Problem solving
4. Perception
5. Language use

Aerial photography is objective of getting panoramic view of earth surface to analyze the features of earth and their interrelation at particular time period which may be changed in further events. In this concerned, the observation may play a vital role in achieving the goals of photography. Undoubtedly it is widely used in social function and so on, but still awaited for scientific or research use. Drone can measure the geometry of ground surface at lower altitude with more accuracy in the form of visual feature in natural colour. flight height of drone mainly limits the large area coverage due to lower flying and drone can work perfectly at low altitude planning with good quality feature/photography.

Need to Preserve Food

Food is vital for human existence. Conservation and preservation of food is a prerequisite for food security and it provides economic stability and self reliance to a nation. The need to preserve food has been felt by mankind since time immemorial. The seasonal nature of production, long distances between production and consumption centers and rising gap between demand and supply have made this need even more relevant today. The hot and humid climate of a country like India is quite favorable for the growth of numerous insects and microorganisms that destroy stored crops and cause spoilage of food every year. Spoilage can also occur due to chemical and physiological changes in stored foods. Sea-foods, meat and poultry may carry harmful microbes and parasitic organisms that cause illnesses associated with their consumption. As in other parts of the world, India has also practiced various methods of food preservation such as sun drying, pickling and fermentation which were supplemented with more energy consuming techniques such as refrigeration, freezing and canning. Each of these methods has its merits and limitations. Man has always been on the search for newer methods to preserve foods with least change in sensory qualities. Radiation processing of food is one of the latest methods developed for this purpose.

Introduction

The term analytics and data analytics are used inter-changeably. When referring to analytics, it means “analysis of data” or “what can be learnt from an analysis of data”. In an industry like fishing industry, the researchers have been slow to adopt the tools used to portray accurate representations of data. For example, a dashboard with historical data from the past ten or fifteen years displayed on a digital map can enable the researchers to decide the places where fishing can be good. This map can help in locating the points fished during specific seasons. This will enable the researchers to filter the data on various parameters like area, year, season etc. or on any other specific parameter which can give valuable information. Similarly, this type of dashboard can affect the decision making process while fishing, like one can find the monetary value associated with each trip during a specific season or compare the values associated with two different trips to gauge the cost-benefits.

Data Analytics helps in taking most informed decisions in the fishing industry if one of the goals is to increase income while ensuring sustainability. It helps in deciding whether to reduce overhead costs or to increase expenditure to avoid overhead costs in future.

Fisheries sector undergoes continuous changes with introduction of newer technologies evolved through research and development institutions. Statistics per se deals with generation of data, data management, data analysis and information generation from data. There are varied disciplines of fisheries viz., Aquaculture, Fisheries Resource Management, Fish Genetics, Fish Biotechnology, Aquatic Health, Nutrition, Environment, Fish Physiology, and Post-harvest Technology, wherein research on practical aspects is undertaken which affect production and sustainability.

Horticultural sector, which is contributing significantly for food and nutrition security, employment opportunity and poverty alleviation, got a real boost only in the early 1990s which coincided with liberalization of Indian economy. National area and production of horticultural crops are showing increasing trend over the years and production of horticultural crops has outpaced the production of food grain since 2012-13(Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India, Ministry of Finance, 2016). According to Economic Survey 2015-16, the share of horticultural output in agriculture is more than 33% over last decade and the sector contributes 30.4% to GDP of Agricultural sector. Horticulture sector accounts for 37% of total export of agricultural commodities at present and the exports have recorded sustained rising trend (Jha et al., 2019). The export status of APEDA (Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority) products in the recent years shows 28.18% growth in value of horticultural products over the previous year. The investment in horticultural sector with focused attention has resulted in spectacular change in the horticultural scenario and production and productivity of horticultural crops.

A drainage system is a network of structures, channels, pipes, and natural features designed to manage and control the flow of water, primarily rainwater or surface runoff, away from inhabited areas, agricultural land, and infrastructure. The primary purpose of a drainage system is to prevent flooding, erosion, and water logging, thereby safeguarding public health and property, as well as ensuring the efficient use of land.

Surface Water Management: Surface water, which includes rainfall and other forms of precipitation, needs to be managed effectively to prevent damage to properties and the environment. Drainage systems collect this water and direct it away from vulnerable areas.

Catchments: A catchment or watershed is the area of land where rainwater collects and drains into a specific river, lake, or other water body. Understanding catchment areas is crucial in designing drainage systems because it helps determine how much water needs to be managed.

Introduction
Communication is fundamental to human interaction, socialization, and organizational success. However, the process of communication is often fraught with distortions—unintended alterations that can hinder the accurate exchange of information. Distortions can arise due to various factors such as noise, misinterpretations, emotional bias, technological barriers, and language differences. Addressing and mitigating these distortions is crucial in fields ranging from corporate communication to political discourse, education, and beyond.
One innovative method that has garnered attention for its ability to address communication distortions is the use of simulation games. These games, designed to replicate real-world scenarios, create controlled environments where participants can explore, identify, and respond to communication challenges in a practical and engaging way. This chapter explores the role of simulation games in understanding and mitigating communication distortions, with a focus on their application, benefits, and limitations.
What are Simulation Games?
Simulation games are immersive, interactive platforms that simulate real-world situations. These games are often used in educational, training, and organizational contexts to help participants experience and learn from complex scenarios. Simulation games allow players to assume roles, make decisions, and navigate challenges within a controlled environment that mirrors real-life situations.

Key Institutions involved in policy advocacy in Agriculture:
1. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
Objectives
• Advocate for research-driven policies that enhance agricultural productivity and sustainability.
• Support the development and adoption of innovative agricultural technologies and practices.
• Influence policies related to agricultural education and research funding.
2. National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE)
Objectives
• Promote effective agricultural extension services and advisory systems.
• Advocate for policies that improve extension management and farmer training.
• Support the development of strategies for scaling up extension services.
3. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
Objectives
• Advocate for financial policies that enhance credit access for agriculture and rural development.
• Support policies that improve rural infrastructure and promote sustainable rural livelihoods.
• Influence agricultural and rural development policies through financial support and policy recommendations

Nanotechnology is a field of study which deals with materials at nano-scale like nanometer which is one billionth of a meter (1 nm = 10-9 meter). At nano-scale, physics, chemistry and biology converge towards the same principles and tools. Nanotechnology is domain in science and technology, which is multidisciplinary in nature and any scientist, engineer, medical doctor can do research on nanotechnology. Presently, it is more of a science and less of a technology because of a lack of proper tools for studying the properties of nano-material. Nano-particles (NPs) are materials that are small enough to fall within the nanometric range, with at least one of their dimensions being less than a hundred nanometres. This reduction in size brings about significant changes in their physical properties with respect to those observed in bulk materials. The presence of naturally occurring NPs is implicated in interplanetary and interstellar space (Hochella Jr, 2002) as well as our earth in which life from the beginning has evolved in their presence (Becker and Reitmeijer, 2006). Currently it is observed that NPs can be synthesized from many biological organisms including plants.

(I)  Slaughter and Preservation of Swine

Clean meat production from animals has been a difficult task since ancient times. Now it has become easier due to the joint efforts of Veterinarians and progressive animal owners. For clean meat production, with healthy animals, it is essential that care is given to their better management, better breeds, good ration and arrangements for preventing diseases are made. Meat from diseased animals is of inferior quality and unfit for human consumption.

            Meat is a very useful edible material, which is used for its high nutritive value with a good taste. Due to these nutritive elements, many microorganisms come in contact with the meat and they may contaminate it and change its natural structure and composition. As a result it produces many types of toxic and bad odour substances.

            Meat has an important place amongst human foods. Meat has many pecularities for which it is used in many parts of the world and by people of different religions. Many people prefer meat because of its better taste and/or odour. Often, it is observed that people consuming meat do not prefer vegetarian foods. The active consumer always gives more importance to the nutritive elements in meat. And at the time of bying meat, they prefer taking complete meat.  Allmost in all countries of the world, few selected and common animal species are slaughtered for meat production.

1. INTRODUCTION

Indian population is estimated to increase to about 1400 million by 2025. Consequently, India’s requirements for food grains and other food products to feed the increasing population will continue to rise. The food grain requirements are estimated at 350 to 370 million tonnes by 2025. The demand pattern for agricultural commodities for the domestic market will also shift as a result of increasing incomes and faster urbanization. Compared to 26% increase in 1991, the urban population is projected to increase by 42% in 2020. For competing in the global market, the product pattern will shift to high value commodities like fruits, vegetables, floriculture, dairy products, meat and marine products. In such a future scenario, it is necessary to increase agricultural production through improved cropping system, judicious use of agro-inputs and wide use of modern agricultural technology. It is also important to augment and streamline the existing marketing system including handling, transportation, storage, processing and distribution.

Pathogenesis: Role of enzymes

The chain of metabolic events that bring about the disease is pathogenesis. It involves the virulence of the pathogen, susceptibility of the plant and impact of the environment. It is called disease triangle. Penetration infection, invasion, colonization and reproduction are the events that occur during pathogenesis, and lead to development of disease.

The establishment of pathogen in the host and consequent development of disease involves a chemical interaction between the host and the pathogen. The pathogen employs offensive chemical weapons to break host barriers, which the host resists with all its might. Parasitism and disease resistance run parallel and are inseparable, A biochemical ‘tug of war’ ensures between the host and the pathogen, in which one tries to outwit the other. Enzyme, toxins and growth regulators are the important chemical weapons of the pathogen. Viruses, however, because of their basic nature, do not produce any of these chemicals.

Pathogens produce these substances either in normal course of their activities (constitutively) or when, they grow on certain substrates such as their host plants (Inducible). Plant pathogenic enzymes disintegrate the structural components of host cells, breakdown inert food materials in the cell, or affect components of the protoplast directly and interfare with its functioning system. Toxins seem to act directly on protoplast component and interfare with the permeability of its membrane and with its function. Growth regulators exert a hormonal effect on the cells and either increase or decrease their ability to divide and enlarge. Polysaccharides seem to play a role only in the vascular diseases, in which they passively interfere with the translocation of water in the plants or they may also be toxic.

Most of ultrasound machines are designed for imaging with a particular resolution linear and convex transducers. These machines can be used for general purpose for abdominal, obstetrics, gynecological, small parts, urology and cardiac applications. Most of the machines have standard measurement software viz. distance, area, volume, circumference, and obstetrical gestational age measurement for BPD, HC, AC, FL, GS, CRL, AD and FW.

Assessment of probes: One should examine the probe whether it is linear array or curved (convex) array. The probe should also be checked for its frequency. These days multi-frequency probes are supplied with the ultrasound-machine. These multiple frequencies could be 2.0 to 5.0 MHz with centrally fixed frequency of 3.5 MHz. The frequencies could be 4.0 to 7.0 (5.0 MHz setting), 5.0 to 9.0 MHz (7.5 MHz setting). The area and depth covered by various frequencies should be known.

Before setting the ultrasound machine, one should make sure of all the auxiliary devices for the machines. These are Thermal video printer, Ultrasound gel, Biopsy needle, image saving devices (USB device or internal saving mechanism), wire, Uninterrupted Power Supply etc.

Identifying and knowing the main system: One should note down the name and model of ultrasound machine as these are quoted in all the documents published with the ultrascan images generated on that particular machine. It is written on one side of front panel. On the front panel, there are various knobs for proper setting. One should locate the auxiliary power switch of the machine to begin with. Generally, there is power indicator on the machine that shows light on when power button is pushed to on position. The auxiliary power switch may also have indications of its ON and OFF positions, may be marked with 0 and 1 or other symbols. As shown in the figure below, there are various operating buttons on the operating panel. These might vary from Machine to Machine.

Introduction

Soil health and fertility are pivotal to the success and sustainability of agricultural systems. The condition of soil directly influences plant growth, crop yield, and overall farm productivity. A focus on soil health encompasses not just the physical and chemical properties of soil but also its biological vitality, which includes the diverse community of microorganisms, fungi, and fauna that interact within the soil ecosystem. Biodynamic farming, founded by Rudolf Steiner in the early 20th century, offers a distinctive approach to soil health and fertility, integrating organic principles with a holistic view of agriculture that encompasses cosmic and spiritual dimensions. Biodynamic farming is an agricultural philosophy that extends beyond conventional organic practices. It views the farm as a living organism, where soil, plants, animals, and cosmic forces are interconnected and interdependent. This perspective emphasizes that the health of the soil is intrinsically linked to the broader ecological and cosmic environment. According to biodynamic principles, soil fertility is not merely a function of nutrient inputs but a reflection of the overall balance and vitality of the farm ecosystem.

Collection and conservation of genetic resources in horticultural crops is very much essential in regions where local seed sources are still used in genetic enhancement and cultivar production. Domesticated crops grow well adapted to both tropical and temperate regions. In particular, if the crop is domesticated over centuries to be grown in different latitudes, the genetic diversity estimates are essential for a breeder to develop location specific cultivars. Genetic ulnerability, erosion and extinction of some wild progenitors and species has been altered, warranting the need for ex situ conservation measures. The material is conserved in various forms, ranging from botanical gardens, clonal and seed populations, vegetative methods, in vitro active repositories, pollen cryobanks and DNA banks. The objective, in genetic resource context, is to conserve for prolonged duration with minimal loss of viability and genetic diversity. Most ex situ conservation methods are technology dependent. Seed and pollen banks are dependent in refrigeration technology and cryogenic technology.
The conservation of plant genetic resources in ornamental species is generally driven by demand, focusing on preserving a wide range of genetic diversity. This diversity can include individual genes and coadapted gene complexes at the micro level, as well as entire genotypes, elite clones, and plant populationsat the macro level. The distribution of genetic diversity (GD) in plant species  is predominantly dependent on the reproductive mechanisms they adopt and the mode of inheritance of the characters targeted for collection. The main reasons for collection and conservation genetic resources of an ornamental species gene pool in a given ecosystem are:

Cosmos is a flowering plant belongs to family Asteraceae. Cosmos bipinnatus is ornamentally important species grown for garden display. The word cosmos is derived from the Greek word “kosmos”, which means a balanced universe or order, harmony and often referred to as Mexican Aster. The species name is from the Latin “bipinnatus” meaning “twice-pinnate” The botanical epithet is from the Latin “pinnatus” meaning “with leaflets arranged in opposite pairs”. Cosmos flowers are produced in a capitulum. Modern varieties come with single or double flowers, picotee edges, and even furled petals in the variety Seashells. Ornamental uses of cosmos include cut flowers and as border annual in the gardens. It is a very popular flower for summer bedding. Cosmos has a pleasant aroma and attracts butterflies to the garden. Essential oil extracted from leaves of cosmos. The major constituent of C. bipinnatus contained 15-17% beta-elemene, 15-17% beta-caryophyllene, 10-21% germacrene D and 12-15% bicyclogermacrene (Menut et al., 2000).

ABSTRACT

Tamarind, an economically important multipurpose tropical tree, is a species of choice for sustainable development of wasteland due to its hardy nature and adaptability to various agroclimatic conditions. However, there are very few reports on in vitro regeneration of tamarind. In an attempt to induce caulogenic response, effect of different cytokinins on nodal explants from mature trees was tested. The study extended to seedling explants, revealed that 6-Benzylaminopurine (0.08 - 44.39μM) and Zeatin (0.09 - 9.12μM) induced multiple shoots with callusing at the base of explant. Kinetin (0.09 - 9.29μM) and 6-γ,γ- dimethylallylaminopurine (2iP) (0.09-9.84μM) remained ineffective for multiplication of shoots and callusing was noted at the cut end of explant in contact of medium. Thidiazuron (TDZ) (0.09- 9.08μM) failed to induce morphogenic response and triggered dedifferentiation in the basal cut end. This led to profuse callusing in the explant and restricted morphogenesis. To avoid wound in the explant, tamarind seeds were cultured in medium containing TDZ.

Seedlings were germinated in medium with or without Thidiazuron (4.54, 9.08, 13.12, 18.16μM). Differentiation of the apical meristem to shoot was restricted and proliferation of the cotyledonary node meristem was triggered. Large number of meristematic buds appeared in a radial pattern around the node. The meristematic activity subsequently spread towards the cotyledonary bridge and also in the proximal part of the hypocotyl. These buds differentiated to form shoot primordia and subsequently to shoots in medium devoid of growth regulator. Plants developed by micrografting of these shoots on seedling derived rootstocks, survived in soil.

Chi-Square

The Chi-square test (c₂) proposed by Karl Pearson in 1899 is used to measure goodness of fit of observed and theoretical or expected data and is a continuous distribution.

Formula for Chi-Square

1. General Formula

The general formula for Chi-square is as follows

In soil culture, also known as in-ground culture, crops are raised on level ground as well as in raised beds. Soil culture is more often used in growing vegetables (e.g., tomatoes, lettuce, cucumbers, and peppers) rather than ornamental crops such as herbs, roses, freesia, and foliage plants as well as popular with smaller commercial and organic growers. The soil should be well drained, fertile, have a medium to light texture and be high in organic matter. The soil in a greenhouse should be worked as deeply as possible to break any existing hardpans or those that may have developed because of repeated traffic over the area. Fumigation or pasteurization of the soil is a must before each crop or at least once a year. This will help to destroy disease, nematodes and weeds. If soil is steamed, hold it at 180 degrees F (82°C) for 4 hours. Production techniques used in soil culture are similar to intensive crop production methods used in the field. Although soil is readily available at most places where a greenhouse is located most commercial growers, no longer rely on soil culture in the greenhouse as they did ealier. Some of the reasons include insect and disease pressures and costly fumigation.

Sweet potato Ipomea batatas(L). Lam. is an asexually propagated vegetable. It is grown in most of the tropical and subtropical region of the earth. In USA production extended to temperate regions. Vines as well as roots are eaten or fed to live stock. It is the source of industrial starch and potential source of the alcohol. Among the major tuber crops cultivated in India sweet potato rank third after potato and cassava in area and production.

Origin: Available evidence suggests South Mexico through Central America and Northern South America as the probable center of origin. It is perennial but handled as annual. Its hardiness and drought tolerance are well recognized.

Family: Convolvulaceae, Chromosome number: 2n=90

It is the only known natural hexaploid morning glory. Most of the wild species are diploid (2n=30). Hybridization is restricted with in species because of its hexaploidy nature. Extensive variability with in species is observed. Tuber is the fleshy subterranean stem or shoot but in sweet potato tuber is a root, and hence it cannot be a tuber (common error). It is a perennial, and the storage root is capable of continued enlargement and does not mature in the sense of reaching some final size or stage of development. From the stand point of function, the root system consists of absorbing roots and fleshy storage roots.