eChapters

Powdery Mildew

Erysiphe polygoni

Economic Importance

• Powdery mildew can be a serious disease of peas grown in India.
• It appears in epidemic form in the plains almost every year when the pods are formed in January-February.
• Since the disease occurs more frequently and covers a large host surface, it proves much more destructive than the downy mildew disease of the same crop.
• It is worst in dry weather as against the downy mildew, which flourishes in moist weather.
• Severe infections can reduce yield by 10–20%.
• Severe pod infection can lead to poor seed quality.

Abstract

Mentheae, one of the largest tribes of subfamily Nepetoideae of family Lamiaceae is represented by five genera (Mentha, Nepeta, Origanum, Salvia and Thymus) in Jammu and Udhampur districts (Jammu division). Frequent surveys made of these districts to generate ethnobotanical data revealed the existence of Mentha arvensis L., M. longifolia (L.) L., M. piperita L., M. spicata L., Nepeta cataria L., Origanum vulgare L., Salvia splendens Sellow ex Schult and Thymus serpyllum L. While the enlisted Mentha species are represented more or less equally in the two districts, N. cataria, O. vulgare, S. splendens and T. serpyllum are mainly adapted to temperate regions of Udhampur. The frequent interactions with the locals indicated that except M. spicata whose leaves are used for seasoning dishes or preparing refreshing drinks and those of O. vulgare which find utility in making herbal tea, others are largely used for therapeutic purposes. Amongst these species, maximum use value was noted for M. longifolia (0.81) followed by that for M. arvensis (0.69). So far as agreement among the informants regarding the usage of a species for curing a particular disease is concerned, it came out to be maximum for both M. longifolia and M. arvensis for treatment of respiratory (Fic=0.93) and gastrointestinal problems (Fic=0.93). In our study, most of the informants have predisposition towards using M. longifolia for treating respiratory disorders particularly cough and cold. For this species, fidelity level was found to be maximum equal to 33.33%. This indicates that M. longifolia carries great potential for using in new herbal formulations. Finding of lesser use value for O. vulgare (0.21) and T. serpyllum (0.30), reportedly having many medicinal important components, is a matter of concern. The probable reasons underlying quite less usage of these taxa have also been discussed in this communication along with the future prospects of cultivating these.

Important Points to Remember

• Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with the data collection, examination, description, and display of numerical data masses.
• Statistics is used in various aspects of life, like in robotics, data science, business, weather forecasting, sports, and much more.
• An ambiguous term. It often denotes the arithmetic mean, but it can also denote the median, the mode, the geometric mean, and weighted means, among other things. Beware if something reports “the average” without making it clear which average.
• The geometric mean of n numbers {x1, x2, x3, …, xn} is the nth root of their product: (x1×x2×x3× … ×xn)^1/n.
• The samples are one of the sub-set of the population, whereas a population is an overall set of things or individuals of a specified group.

Essential elements for plant growth

A large number of mineral elements are present in plants, but they do not require all these for growth. Out of the 107 elements in the periodic table, 90 elements are naturally occurring in plants and out of which only 17 elements are essential for plant growth.

Although common sense goes a long way in defining the concept of an essential element, Arnon and Stout in 1939, stated that an essential element should fulfil following criteria:

1. A deficiency in absence of the elements should make it impossible for the plant to complete its lifecycle.
2. Must not be replaceable by another element.
3. Must be directly involved in plant metabolism, that is, it must be required for a specific physiological function.

   To Arnon and Stout’s three requirements for essential elements should be added a fourth:

Introduction The leek (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum L.) belongs to the Alliaceae family and is a non-bulb-forming crop. It is consumed raw by itself, combined with other foods in salads, and cooked as flavoring in soups and stews. It is a preferred vegetable in a kitchen garden but is not commercially farmed in India. Leek has chromosome 2n=4X=32, which makes it an autotetraploid in nature. It is a vigorous biennial herbaceous cultivar that has never been discovered in its wild form. For their blanched stems and leaves, leeks are grown. It is a biennial plant that is used to flavor soups and eaten as a salad. The leek was first domesticated in the Eastern Mediterranean, where it was later brought to middle Europe by the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. Leeks may have originated in Central Asia and/or Europe, according to several theories. Since the majority of the Allium species are found worldwide, their distribution within the northern hemisphere is not uniform.

Introduction

Aquaculture is one of the rapidly growing industries worldwide with more than 300 different species being cultured. However, majority of aquaculture species are still wild and undomesticated, and the adaption of relevant technologies in the aquaculture sector has been slow. Given that genetically modified stock only accounts for less than 10% of the current global aquaculture production, the aquaculture sector has significant potential to increase production efficiency through selective breeding programmes. Selective breeding is acknowledged as a crucial element in the generation of resource-efficient, sustainable, and profitable aquaculture operations (FAO, 1995; World bank, 2006).

During the last thirty years, there has been a growing appreciation of the impor tance of VAM fungi in improving the plant growth and yield. They have been extensively studied also in India. Considering the potential importance of these organisms in the recovery of disturbed sites and their possible use in land reclamation, researches regarding their relationship to ecosystem recovery have now been initiated also in India.

Large areas of land in the country called wastelands are degraded and lying unutilized due to various constraints. Part of it called culturable, has the potential for the development of vegetation cover. On the other hand, part of it called unculturable, has no potential for the development of vegetation cover. In addition to these natural wastelands, there are large tracts of wastelands created due to human activities such as mining, deforestation etc. Such wastelands are also culturable and a vegetation cover can be developed on them after removing the constraints with some efforts.

Introduction

Rain fed agroecosystem occupies 68% of India’s cultivated area and supports 40% of the human beings and 65% of the livestock population. It produces 44% of food requirements, thus has and will continue to play a critical role in India’s agriculture (Singh et al. 2004). Besides their well established role in agriculture, livestock have crucial role in food security and as risk aversion mechanism for sustaining family, whenever there is crop failure. Indian hot arid zone which is about 12% of total geographical area of the landmass of 0.32 million km2 has maximum covering in western Rajasthan i.e. 61% of the total area whereas the other areas in arid region are available in the states of Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka accounting for 20, 5, 4, 7 and 3% of hot arid area whereas the cold arid area of 8.4 million ha lies in the state of Jammu & Kashmir covering the Leh and Ladakh region.

Abstract

Genus Chlorophytum is represented by approximately 300 species of rhizomatous plants, distributed predominantly in tropical and sub tropical forests of the world. Most of these are medicinally important. Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & R.R. Fern among these is highly valued because of high saponin content mainly concentrated in its tuberous roots. These steroidal saponins are important bioactive components responsible for aphrodisiac attributes of this species in addition to several other benefits. Present communication reviews the data available on medicinal properties and phytochemical constitution of the species.

2.1. Soil structure

Important physical properties of soils

Soil texture

Soil structure

Surface area

Soil density

Buffalo farming offers a sustainable and economically viable solution to meet the growing demand for safe food production, particularly in regions with rising food insecurity. Buffaloes contribute around 45% of India’s total milk production and are more efficient in converting low-quality feed into high quality milk and meat, making them ideal for marginal farming environments. Buffalo milk, which has higher fat, protein, and mineral content than cow milk, is in demand for value-added dairy products, such as cheese, and fetches higher market prices. This enhances farmers’ incomes, especially small-scale dairy farmers, by ensuring higher returns on investment. Additionally, buffalo husbandry mitigates risks in crop failure due to climate change and provides sustainable employment opportunities. Furthermore, buffaloes produce less greenhouse gas emissions per unit of meat compared to cattle, making them more environmentally sustainable and climate smart. By advancing breeding practices and adopting scientific management, buffalo farming has the potential to drive the future of safe and sustainable food production, contributing significantly to food security and rural development.

Introduction
In cattle, the digestive system consists of four primary compartments: the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum, followed by the small and large intestines. The rumen plays a crucial role as a fermentation chamber, maintaining anaerobic conditions and ensuring thorough mixing, as well as regulating temperature and pH levels. Food, which is frequently re-chewed, enters the rumen through the esophagus, where fermentation occurs.
The byproducts of fermentation are either absorbed within the rumen or moved on for further digestion and absorption in other parts of the digestive system. Simple indigestion in ruminants is a temporary disruption in gastrointestinal function, usually caused by a sudden change in the quality or quantity of their diet. Consuming large amounts of indigestible feed can impair rumen function for 24 to 48 hours after ingestion, as the accumulation of this feed can physically disrupt ruminal activity. Additionally, the breakdown of proteins in the rumen can produce toxic substances such as amides and amines, including histamine. This condition can lead to a significant drop in milk production due to a marked reduction in the production of volatile fatty acids in a hypotonic reticulorumen. Ruminal impaction is a condition seen in ruminants like cows, sheep,and goats, where the  rumen’s contents become compacted, obstructing their movement through the digestive tract. This condition can arise from various causes, including the ingestion of plastic waste, grazing habits, mineral deficiencies, negative energy balance, urbanization, inadequate water intake, low-fiber or high-grain diets, changes in feed or grazing patterns, and stress. The accumulation of foreign material can block fermentation, interfere with the mixing of rumen contents, and disrupt the rumen’s microflora, leading to indigestion. Acute ruminal acidosis is often caused by the sudden intake of large amounts of carbohydrate-rich feed, particularly grains. Subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) occurs in dairy cattle and is characterized by disrupted ruminal fermentation. It typically results from feeding large amounts of concentrates with insufficient fiber, a practice often used to boost milk production during early lactation. This imbalance in diet can disturb rumen pH and microbial populations, leading to various metabolic and digestive problems. Chronic ruminal acidosis can lead to complications such as rumenitis, which is inflammation of the rumen, and laminitis, a painful condition affecting the hooves. Alkaline indigestion, also known as ruminal alkalosis, occurs when the pH of ruminal fluid rises above 7.5.
 

Abstract

Indian Himalaya supports wide range of native and introduced temperate horticultural crops and important among them are Malus, Prunus, Pyrus, Juglans, Actinidia, Rubus, Hippophae in fruits; Allium, Amaranthus, Chenopodium, Fagopyrum, Phaseolus in vegetables, Aconitum, Gentiana, Picrorrhiza, Artemisia, Ephedra, Polygonatum, Podophyllum, Taxus, in medicinal and aromatic plants and number of orchids, rhododendrons, Rosa, Begonia, Primula, Delphinium and Tulipa in ornamental plants. Effective utilization of this vast range of horticultural genetic resources thus require their proper deployment which may include (i) use as a breeding material and/ or rootstocks, (ii) directly as variety through introduction or after selection, and (iii) as new crop though domestication. Except few successful examples in crops like Pisum, Phaseolus, Capsicum, Allium, and some ornamental crops, the picture of using genes from wild relatives is not very rosy.

P680: Reaction center chlorophyll in Photosystem II (PSII) which absorbs maximum light of 680 nm in its neutral state.

P700: Reaction center chlorophyll in Photosystem I (PSI) which absorbs maximum light of 700 nm in its neutral state.

P870: Form of bacteriochlorophyll in reaction center of pigment system in photosynthetic purple bacteria that absorbs light maximally at 870 nm in its neutral state.

Paclobutrazol: It is a chemical compound which inhibits Gibberellin biosynthesis. It is also a growth retardant commercially used in overcoming alternate bearing of mango.

Palindrome: Inverted repeats of DNA such that the sequence is the same when read forward or backward; e.g., CAGTTGAC, or in the English language, “Madam, I’m Adam.”

Palisade Parenchyma : Palisade parenchyma cells are seen beneath the upper epidermis. It consists of vertically elongated cylindrical cells in one or more layers. These cells are compactly arranged without intercellular spaces. Palisade parenchyma cells contain more chloroplasts than the spongy parenchyma cells. The function of palisade parenchyma is photosynthesis.

Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B₅): An important constituent of coenzyme A which is involved in transacylation reactions.

Silage fermentation is a dynamic process that is affected by variety of factors. The primary goal of making silage is to maximize the preservation of original nutrients in the forage crop for feeding at a later date. Unfortunately, fermentation in the silo is a much uncontrolled process usually leading to less than optimal preservation of nutrients. In order to assist in the fermentation process, various silage additives have been used to improve the nutrient and energy recovery in silage, often with subsequent improvements in animal performance (Henderson, 1993; Bolsen et al., 1996; Muck and Kung, 1997; Kung and Muck, 1997; Muhlbach, 2000). Their main functions are to either increase nutritional value of silage or improve fermentation so that storage losses are reduced. The benefits obtained from silage additives depend upon their influence on the silage fermentation process. These benefits are usually measured by the reduction in fermentation losses and/or improvement in silage quality and feeding value.

A wound is defined as a breach or disruption in the normal continuity of tissue in any body part. The wounds are mainly caused by physical, chemical or biological insult.

Abstract

India with plethora of flora and fauna is a rich repository of cultural and ethnic diversity. Bestowed with varied biogeographically distributed ecosystems and biodiversity hotspots, the country has always been the torch bearer as far as ethnobotanical knowledge is concerned. Jammu and Kashmir in the North-Western part of India has a rich biological and cultural diversity. Owing to the distinct geographical location and varied climatic conditions, district Poonch represents a rich repository of biodiversity including the wealth of medicinal plants. This study aimed at documenting and examining the use of plants in various medicinal herbal preparations. A total of 223 plant species belonging to 77 families and 173 genera were documented to be used as ethnomedicine by people residing in the study area. The portion of plant parts used were leaves (28.14%), followed by root (16.33%), fruit (11.55%), whole plant (10.3%), stem (09.79%), flower (7.53%), seed (5.27% each), rhizome (4.77%), tuber (3.76%), bulb (1%) and bark and latex (0.75% each). These parts are utilized as herbal remedies for curing 109 human ailments such as abscess, acidity, asthma, back pain, body pain, boils, cancer, cholera, cold, cough, dandruff, erectile dysfunction, eye pain, fever, gastroenteritis, haemorrhoid, high blood pressure, menstrual disorders, sexual disorders, stomach pain, diabetes, diarrhoea, dysentery and weakness. The dominant disease was fever (52), followed by abdominal pain (30), cough (29), headache (22), constipation (20), diabetes (18), wounds (17), weakness (16) and others. There is need for proper documentation and an attempt has been made to highlight high value medicinal plants so that proper strategies could be made for their conservation.

Introduction Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) is a very popular herbaceous biennial root vegetable mainly grown for its edible roots and leaves, it is commonly known as Chukander in Hindi, but also has different local names depending on the area, for instance, it is called Bita gacha in Bengali, Bita in Marathi, Beet in Punjab, Salada in Gujarati, Dumpamokka in Telugu, and Bit in Malayalam etc (Kumar, 2015). It belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae (now Amaranthaceae). The chromosome number of beetroot is 2n = 18. It is used as a cooked vegetable, salad, and for pickling and canning. Origin and distribution The origin of beetroot (Beta vulgaris) can be traced back to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East.

ABSTRACT

Mushrooms are in use for centuries in traditional system of medicines, and have importance in greater Chinese and western pharmacopeia. Morchella species are well known across the globe as a popular and prized edible fungi and unique culinary saprophytes. They have a long history of usage in the formulation of different traditional medicine for centuries due to their anti- oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancerous and immuno-stimulatory properties. Inspite of high demand and day-by-day increasing importance, cultivation of M. esculenta Dill.ex Pers and other morels are limited, however, there is a report that some species of Morchella are successfully cultivated in China. Phytochemical studies reveals that polysaccharide groups, phenolic compounds, tocopherols, ascorbic acid and vitamin D are the most active molecules present in morels. In addition to these compounds, morels are also rich in carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids, organic acids and several kinds of macro-and micronutrients. Literature revealed that no data on reproductive biology of M. esculenta are available till date. Future investigation is required to study the life cycle and the ecological association of different morels to high altitude regions, and causes of their association with coniferous and broad leaved trees such as Cedrus deodara, Pinus gerardiana, Picea smithiana, Quercus and Castanopsis species. There is an urgent need to explore all traditional knowledge associated with morels, phytochemistrys and associated pharmological studies of major compounds, reproductive cycle and their basic biology for future conservation of this precious mushrooms for man-kind.

Abstract

Pomegranate, Punica granatum L., is an ancient fruit tree native to the Middle East. All plant parts are rich source of the various secondary metabolites that accounts for its antioxidant and health-promoting activity. A strong genetic control on anthocyanin production is responsible for variability in the color of peel and arils of pomegranate. Characterization, cloning and expression of the genes related with anthocyanin and tannin production provides routes for engineering of these complex pathways. Recent studies on pomegranate genome sequencing have elucidated several biochemical pathways and candidate genes that could assist to increase production of potent bioactive compounds in near future. This will further facilitate our understanding to some exclusive biological processes that plays a significant role in pomegranate breeding.