eChapters

Water used for irrigation contain some salts, but quantities and kinds vary greatly depending on the source of water. Since sodic status of soils can be greatly influenced by salts in irrigation waters, successful irrigation practices require the evaluation system to judge irrigation water quality and methods employed. The actual damage done by salt to plants or soils depends on the concentration in soil solution rather than the quality of irrigation water applied. Thus, the use of some water source for irrigation might lead to severe salt problem in soils where drainage is restricted.

Criteria for evaluation of irrigation water

Various criteria considered in evaluating the quality of irrigation water are:

1. Salinity hazard

The most satisfactory method for rating the salt content of irrigation water involves measuring electrical conductivity. Various conductivity limits have been proposed to indicate the degree of salinity problems that might be anticipated with use of irrigation water on crops. There are four classes of salinity hazard such as C₁, C₂, C₃, and C₄.

Introduction
Water is one of the most vital natural resources for sustaining life on Earth. However, its availability is not uniform across the planet, and the growing demand for freshwater in the face of climate change, population growth, and industrial development has raised serious concerns about the future of water resources. In 2024, the global water landscape presents both challenges and opportunities, shaped by shifting environmental patterns, technological advances, and policy responses to water scarcity. Water resources refer to the natural sources of water that can be utilized for various purposes, including water supply. Approximately 97% of the Earth’s water is saline, found primarily in oceans, while only about 2.5% is fresh water, but only a small portion of this is accessible. The majority of freshwater is locked in glaciers, ice caps, and deep underground aquifers. Less than 1% of Earth’s freshwater are readily available in rivers, lakes, and accessible groundwater for human use. Of this small fraction, nearly two-thirds is locked in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water exists predominantly as groundwater, with only a small percentage available as surface water in rivers, lakes, and atmospheric moisture. The primary natural sources of freshwater include surface water, underflow in riverbeds, groundwater, and frozen water in glaciers. In addition to these, artificial sources such as treated wastewater (reclaimed water) and desalinated seawater are increasingly being used to supplement the global freshwater supply, particularly in regions facing water scarcity. As agriculture accounts for approximately 70% of global freshwater withdrawals, the management and quality of irrigation water are vital for sustaining food production and maintaining the health of ecosystems. Water is essential not only for basic plant functions, such as photosynthesis and nutrient absorption, but also for controlling temperature and supporting soil structure. In regions where rainfall is insufficient or irregular, irrigation provides a reliable source of water to meet the needs of crops throughout their growth cycle.

The quality of irrigation water has a direct influence on soil properties, crop growth and the long-term sustainability of irrigated agriculture. Water containing excessive salts or undesirable proportions of specific ions can create salinity, sodicity and other soil-related problems. This chapter presents the major criteria used for evaluating irrigation water quality. Salinity hazard is considered as an important indicator of the potential for salt accumulation in the soil and consequent restrictions on plant water uptake. Sodium hazard is examined because excessive sodium can adversely affect soil structure and permeability. The chapter also considers the salt index as a measure relevant to the evaluation of irrigation water. Bicarbonate hazard is discussed in relation to the chemical behaviour of irrigation water and its potential effects on soil conditions. Magnesium hazard is another important consideration in assessing the suitability of water for irrigation. By bringing these criteria together, the chapter provides a framework for evaluating irrigation water before application. Proper assessment of water quality is essential for selecting appropriate management practices and preventing long-term degradation of irrigated soils.

Seed in agriculture recognized as one of the most vital and crucial input in agriculture ever since the human kind has started tilling the land to produce the food for his existences. Seed technologist defined seed as matured fertilized ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). A quality hybrid maize seed production system ensures design of the production technology which enables to maintain the healthy embryo, endosperm and /or cotyledon with protective covering. In fact the search of quality seed had acted as a major force to evolve the science of plant breeding. Ever since the farmers understood the importance of seed, they started trading the quality seed within community and now between geographies. Self-pollinated crops possess the natural mechanisms to maintain the intactness of genetic constitution of a seed during multiplication as there is very minimal chance of natural crossings. On the contrary, cross pollinated crops like maize requires special techniques in seed multiplication to maintain the genetic constitution of a F₁ hybrid. Hybrid Maize seed production techniques are well defined and are used by public and private sectors to produce the required hybrid seed in India. In this chapter, I will be highlighting the process, potential agro-climatic zones, hybrid maize seed production capacity and its future perspective in India. In addition, it also reviews the current system and possible strategic move in order to support the maize seed production system and steps required to meet future demand.

Quality standards are essential in the highly competitive global textile and apparel industry, where products must satisfy increasingly demanding consumer expectations and international trade requirements. They establish consistent benchmarks for regulatory compliance, product safety, performance and ethical production. Standards also strengthen trust among manufacturers, brands, retailers and consumers while facilitating trade between countries. They are authoritative documents containing requirements, specifications, guidelines or characteristics that ensure materials, products, processes and services remain fit for their intended purposes. By providing common terminology, procedures and expectations, quality standards enable stakeholders throughout the supply chain to communicate effectively, evaluate products objectively and maintain consistent levels of performance and conformity.

Food is a major determinant of health, nutritional status and productivity of the population. It is, therefore, essential that the food we consume is wholesome and safe. Unsafe food can lead to a large number of food-borne diseases. It is necessary that the food available is safe, hygienic, wholesome and its quality must be assured. Quality of foods can be defined as the ‘composite’ of those ‘characteristics’ that differentiate individuals units of a product and have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of that unit by the buyer. In general, the quality control is the maintenance of quality at levels and tolerance acceptable to the buyer, minimizing the cost for the vender. But, from the scientific angle the overall quality refer to technical, physical, chemical, microbiological, nutritional and sensory parameters to achieve the wholesome food. These quality factors depend on the specific attributes such as sensory properties, based on flavour, colour, aroma, taste, texture, quantitative properties viz. percentage of sugar, protein, fibre etc and hidden attributes like peroxide, free fatty acids, enzymes etc. Though quality attributes are many, not all need to be considered for a particular product. It is imported to determine how far relatively the factor is in relation to the total quality of the product.

Hence, the quality attributes of a particular is based on the composition of the product, expected deteriorate reaction, packaging used, shelf required and the type of the consumer i.e., deployed in terrain conditions or in peaceful situation. With the ultimate goal of protecting the consumer, quality standardization systems have come into force for regulating the gamut of operations in food manufacture. In a broader sense, food laws and Regulation cover the related acts affecting the marketing, production, labeling, food additives used, dietary supplements, enforcement of General Manufacturing Practice (GMP), Hazard analysis and critical Control Point (HACCP), federal laws and regulations, factory inspections and important-export inspections.

The quality of medicinal plants is paramount in respect of its therapeutic value. The therapeutic value of a plant solely depends on its genuineness in respect of its identity and optimum quantity of therapeutically active phyto-constituents. The medicinal plants are resourced from wild and cultivated sources. The major sources of medicinal plants are wild sources viz. forest areas, open land, non-cultivated sources etc. The medicinal plants collected from wild sources remain questionable for their quality especially when they have been procured from trade channels owing to fair chances of adulteration, substitution and inappropriate storage condition which lead to deterioration in quality. All the medicinal plants which are available in dried form in the trade are termed as crude drugs and are always subject to quality check in a laboratory on the basis of pharmacognostical, physico-chemical, phyto-chemical, microbiological and other analytical specifications. These specifications are available in pharmacopoeial monographs under regulatory frame work.  The pharmacopoeial standards are experimentally established and are also approved standards incorporated in a pharmacopoeia. A pharmacopoeia is a book of standards applicable to drug substance and their dosage forms of common usage in a country. Pharmacopoeia is prepared by recognized authority appointed by the Government of a particular country. It is an essential requirement of a regulatory framework in the sphere of Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1940 and Rules there under (Anonymous 1940). Pharmacopoeial standards are experimentally established and approved standards.

1. Introduction
Ecosystem Services (ES) are actually the benefits human beings derive from their interaction with nature (Reyers et al., 2013; Ernstson, 2013). Around 400 BC, Plato observed how important service provided to Attica by the forests and subsequent loss of forests lead to drying spring and soil erosion (Mooney and Ehrlich, 1997). Thus, the work of Plato highlights that how the people were even then aware of the critical services provided by nature much before the industrial revolution (Rapidel et al., 2011). These ES are categorised into mainly provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural services as per the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2005). In fact, the increasing population warrants more and more set of ES (Biggs et al., 2015). A combination of factors responsible for delivery of ES like geology, climate, ecosystem, management scenarios, society, techniques, skills etc. that led to ES in an agricultural ecosystem (Kroll et al., 2012; Swinton et al., 2007). The ordinary nature largely comprised of agricultural lands (i.e., intensive crops, species poor, artificial pasture) that covers around 37.4% of total Earths’ land surface (FAOSTAT, 2016; Leff et al., 2004). Converting large tract of pristine lands into agricultural land and other competing uses considered to be one of the main reasons for biodiversity loss and land degradation (Tilman et al., 2001). Thus, meeting the challenge of working with limited arable land to feed our population in an eco-friendly manner requires our proper understanding of processes/mechanisms involved in nutrient availability/dynamics including fixation/ release pattern and refining the best management practices (Kumar et al., 2022a). The production of food has been targeted at the cost of other ES like supporting, cultural and non-marketable provisioning services (Muller et al., 2016; Foley et al., 2005; MEA, 2005). There is complex interaction between ecosystem and societal changes in an agricultural landscape. One is intermittently connected to other. Thus, it requires thorough understanding of the processes and biophysical factors that affect ES research, in particular and social-ecosystem, in general (Reed
et al., 2013; Carpenter et al., 2006; Plieninger et al., 2013). The ES that contribute to the agricultural production are mostly linked to aspect of soil fertility, biological control as well as pollination (Bommarco et al., 2013; Duru et al., 2015).

Seed processing efficiency (SPE) is one of the important aspects in seed processing. It will help in measuring the potential of the shop floor. It will also help in standardizing activities like screens and improving physical purity. SPE will help to improve the quality of the seed material and help in utilizing the machines at their optimum capacity. SPE may vary among the different crops and even among the varieties.
 
To quantify SPE we need to pass the test sample (bulk-pre processed) through the target machine and enter the details in a processing register. To quantify the SPE we need to follow these mathematical formulae:

Measurement of soil moisture content is one of the most routinely done soil characterization. Knowledge of soil moisture is essential to understand the behaviour of soil as a medium for plant growth. Moreover, this property of soil helps to explain other processes of the soil. There are several methods of measuring soil moisture content. The most commonly used methods are gravimetric and tensiometric. The standard gravimetric method is quite accurate and simple but is time consuming, cumbersome and destructive. Furthermore, due to relatively small soil samples that are taken, the variability between replicates is great.

Gravimetric Method

Equipment needed includes zip-loc bags or aluminium moisture boxes and soil sampling tools. Soil sampling tools can be a soil probe, auger, or even a post-hole digger. Balance and scale should have accuracy to 0.1 gram. Proper sampling of the field is important to obtain a representative sample of the field. The soil sample should be collected from the field at a minimum of three locations, and the sample locations chosen should represent the entire field. Sampling from the small areas of low spots or ridges that do not represent majority of the field should be avoided. If there are major changes in soil classification within a field, the field should be divided into sub-sites and samples are collected accordingly.

Quantification of DNA is an essential step after its extraction in conjunction with the confirmation of the quality. NanoDrop spectrophometer is a powerful instrument in determining both purity and concentration of nucleic acids on the basis of absorbance values obtained by adding small amount of sample (1-2 μl) on the measurement surface.

Principle: The instrument works on the basic principle of spectrophotometry, which takes highly sensitive fluorescent measurements of the microvolumes. It takes use of microvolume sample retention technology based on surface tension property of the liquid and fibre optic technology. Together, these features make it possible to detect sample even in microlitres, which is much more than the traditional method that need cuvette-sized sample volume. The concentration of nucleic acid sample is normally determined by measuring its absorbance at 260 nm.

Principle

The quantification of infectious virus particles is commonly achieved through the utilisation of the Median Tissue Culture Infectious Dose (TCID50) assay. The assay functions through the introduction of a serial dilution of the virus sample into cells in a 96 well plate format. The chosen cell type is specifically intended to exhibit a cytopathic effect (CPE), which refers to observable changes in morphology or cell death resulting from viral infection. Following a period of incubation, the cells are examined for cytopathic effects or cell death, and each well is categorised as either infected or uninfected. The concentration at which 50% of the wells exhibit a cytopathic effect (CPE) is employed to determine the 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50 ) of the viral sample. The end point is the dose or dilution that infects or kills or shows CPE of the cells. The calculation can be performed using various mathematical techniques, such as the Spearman-Karber method or the Reed Muench method. The virus titer is quantified as the number of tissue culture infectious dose 50 (TCID50 ) per millilitre (ml). The non-cytopathic virus can be quantified by employing the fluorescent antibody test, immune-peroxidase assay, or other appropriate methodologies.

Introduction The onion (Allium cepa) is one of the world's oldest cultivated crops, with a history dating back over 5,000 years (Gorrepati et al., 2014). At present, India is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of onions. At the time, India ranked second in onion production with a yearly production of around 23262 TMT and an average yield of 18.10 MT/ha (Prajapati and Saini, 2019; Horticulture Statistics at a Glance, 2018; Tripathi and Lawande, 2016). Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand and Telangana are the major onion producing states in India. Maharashtra alone covers 55-60% of countries total production. Solapur, Satara, Dhule, Jalgoan, Osmanabad, Beed, Latur, Aurangabad are the major onion producing districts in Maharashtra (Tripathi et al., 2005). Unfortunately, India witnessed around 40-50% post-harvest losses of onions every year (Prajapati and Saini, 2019).

Q. 1 An ellipsoidal object has three axes measuring 40 cm, 20 cm and 20 cm respectively. The volume of the object is
(A) 4.23 liters       (B) 8.38 liters
(C) 12.63 liters     (D) 17.05 liters

The undesirable constituents includes the toxicants and other adulterants in the feed which are not suppose to be there in the feed and presence of these substances either make the nutrients of feed less utilizable or even the feed become toxic for consumption by animals. Hence it is very essential to find out the presence and also the amount of that substances on which basis decision may be made that the particular feed stuff or ingredient is safe to be consume by the livestock or that has to be rejected. The common undesirable constituents of the feeds are given below in detail:

To Estimate the DNA Using Diphenylamine

Introduction

DNA estimation is helpful to know about the total amount of DNA of prokaryotic as well as eukaryotic system. One method used for DNA estimation is Diphenylamine assay, is that of Burton who modified the original procedure of Dische. This procedure is based on treatment of nucleic acid with hot perchloric acid to hydrolyze DNA nucleotides. Diphenylamine reacts specifically with deoxyribose in DNA to form a blue-colored complex. Since diphenylamine does not react with ribose, one can assay for DNA in the presence of contaminating RNA.

Principle

The DPA method is based on the colorimetry measurement of products formed by the reaction of ù- hydroxylevulinaldehyde (from the deoxyribose released after depurination of DNA) with diphenylamine in 2.5 N perchloric acid.

When DNA is treated with diphenylamine under acidic condition (PCA) a blue complex is formed with a sharp absorption maximum at 595 nm (600 nm). In acid solution, the straight chain form of the deoxypentose is converted to highly reactive ω – hydroxylevulinaldehyde that reacts with diphenylamine to give blue complex. The reaction yields two mixture of product which together have absorbance maximum at 595 nm (600 nm). Interferences include proteins, lipids, saccharides and RNA. In DNA the only deoxyribose of the purine nucleotides reacts, so that the value obtained represents half of the total deoxyribose present.

Introduction

Biochemistry is branch of life science which deals with the study of chemical reactions occurring in the living cells and organisms. The term biochemistry was first introduced by German chemist Carl Neuberg in 1903. Since biochemistry is associated with the biological reactions and energy changes associated with these reactions or transformations within the living cell, biochemistry may thus be treated as a discipline in which biological phenomenon are analysed in terms of chemistry. The branch of biochemistry for the same reason has been variously named as “Biological Chemistry” or “Chemical Biology”. Modern biochemistry has two branches descriptive and dynamic biochemistry. Descriptive biochemistry deals with qualitative and quantitative characterization of the various chemical components of cell and the dynamic biochemistry deals with the elucidation of the nature and the mechanism of reactions involving these chemical cell components.

Qualitative analysis of biological sample deals with the examination of the organic or inorganic cell associated components in order to determine its composition. It denotes the presence of various biomolecules, elements or groups of elements that are present in the sampling population. It is possible to determine whether a particular component is present or absent in a sample by performing a qualitative analysis of the sample. Qualitative analysis is the identification of elements, species and/or compounds present in a sample.

1. Introduction

The interest in the uses of medicinal plants has grown considerably from the mid of 20^th century with the introduction of phytochemical analysis of natural products from various plants parts (Matos, 1996). Most studies survey specific local communities to examine patterns of use of plant part for treating various aliments along with the influence of economic and social variables on plant use (Albuquerque, 2006). Medicinal plants are the base for the development of new drug, which is the basic mode of survival of human and livestock from many diseases to maintain their healthcare (Uddin et al., 2014). Number of studies has been carried out globally on ethnomedicinal uses of plants among various indigenous communities (Alexiades and Sheldon, 1996; Basualdo et al., 1995; Martin, 1995). Particularly from the region Karbi Anglong, Assam (Teron and Borthakur, 2012, 2013; Terangpiet al., 2014; Teronpi et al., 2015) have also conducted many notable work on ethnomedicinal. While in all these studies qualitative approaches have not been adapted to document ethnobotanical information. The quantitative approaches on ethnobotany have grown steadily in the last two decades. Today researchers have developed and applied quantitative methods to the various ethnobotanical data to test different hypotheses about the relation between plant species and humans (Reyes-García et al., 2006). Quantitative ethnobotanical indices were applied to determine how important these plants are to ethnic and indigenous cultures whether, as food, veterinary medicine, human medicine or economic value from various non-timber forest products (Pieroni, 2001; Upadhyay et al., 2011; Reyes-García et al., 2006). Therefore, the aim of this study was to document the various uses of the medicinal plant Geophila repens (L.) I.M. Johnst by the Karbi tribe and to apply quantitative methods to determine the specific importance of these plants for treating particular ailment. G. repens is a very rare plant with high medicinal potential (Roy et al., 2011) and is global distribution is reported from India (Assam, Meghalaya, Andaman Islands and Western Peninsula); Bangladesh; Bhutan; Sri Lanka; Nepal; Malaysia; South China; Fiji; Tropical America; and Africa.

Introduction

Watershed management has emerged as an important research area in recent years. Understanding the morphology of the catchment is one of the widely used methods for watershed management. Morphometry is the measurement and mathematical analysis of the configuration of the earth’s surface, shape, and dimension of its landforms (Agarwal 1998; Obi Reddy et al., 2002). The study of watershed is very useful in drainage basin evaluation, silt erosion control, flood frequency analysis, watershed prioritization, natural resources management, and conservation (Waikar and Nilawar, 2014). The significance of morphometric analysis is highlighted in the basins that are either un-gauged or difficult to access. The morphometry is usually analyzed through measurement of linear, aerial, relief, gradient of channel network, and contributing ground slope of the basin (Magesh et al., 2012). The hydrological behavior of a basin can be easily determined through the areal parameters (Mahala, 2020.) The evolutionary history of any basin can be best understood through the implication of different relief morphometric measures of drainage basin (Sharma and Sarma, 2013).

GIS and RS techniques are proven convenient methods for morphometric characterization of sub-watersheds and prioritization of watersheds. As the satellite images provide a synoptic view of a large area, the RS and GIS methods become very useful in the analysis of drainage basin morphometry (Rai et al., 2017). Thus, the morphometric analysis using spatial techniques has emerged to be the fast and efficient method as compared to most of the conventional methods (Rao et al., 2010) such as manual extraction of drainage network and assigning the stream order from a published Survey of India topographic map. The present study aims at using remote sensing and GIS technology to compute various parameters of morphometric characteristics of the Chaliyar River basin.

Introduction

Both beneficiary and deleterious microorganisms are present in food. Beneficiary microbes are used for the preparation of a number of dairy and meat products and are called Probiotics, whereas deleterious microbes can cause food poisoning. The quantitative analysis of food products is necessary to find out the presence of types of microorganisms.

Requirements

1. Food sample
2. Mechanical blender
3. Sterilised distilled water
4. Steilised distilled water blanks (9 ml)
5. Petri plates
6. Sterile Pipettes (1 ml)
7. Eiosin Methylene Blue agar medium
8. Incubator
9. Colony counter
10. Marker

Procedure

1. Weigh 1 g of well blended

Quantitative genetics is the study of continuous or quantitative traits and their underlying mechanisms. The main principals of quantitative genetics developed in the 20th century was largely in response to the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics. Mendelian genetics in 1900 centered attention on the inheritance of discrete characters, e.g., smooth vs. wrinkled peas, purple vs. white flowers. This focus was in stark contrast to the branch of genetic analysis by Sir Francis Galton in the 1870’s and 1880’s who focused on characteristics that were continuously variable and thus, not clearly separable into discrete classes. A contentious debate ensued between Mendelians and Biometricians regarding whether discrete characteristics have the same hereditary and evolutionary properties as continuously varying characteristics. I The Mendelians (led by William Bateson) believed that variation in discrete characters drove evolution through mutations with large effects I The Biometricians (led by Karl Pearson and W.F.R. Weldon) viewed evolution to be the result of natural selection acting on continuously distributed characteristics. This eventually led to a fusion of genetics and Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection: main principals of quantitative genetics, developed independently by Ronald Fisher (1918) and Sewall Wright (1921), arguable the two most prominent evolutionary biologists.
Interestingly, Galton’s methodological approaches to continuously distributed traits marked the founding of the Biometrical school, which is what many consider to be the birth of modern statistics. Karl Pearson was inspired greatly by Galton, and he went on to develop a number of methods for the analysis of quantitative traits. We will talk more about Galton and Pearson later on in this course. One of the central goals of quantitative genetics is the quantification of the correspondence between phenotypic and genotypic values. It is well accepted that variation in quantitative traits can be attributable to many, possibly interacting, genes whose expression may be sensitive to the environment

Quantitative Traits

• Quantitative traits exhibit a continuum of phenotypic variation that may follow a normal distribution
• Statistical methods are used to evaluate a frequency distribution quantitatively
• Some statistical methods compare two variables with each other

Polygenic Inheritance

Polygenic inheritance and environmental factors create overlaps between genotypes and phenotypes

Polygenic inheritance explains DDT-resistance in Drosophila

Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) are now mapped by linkage to molecular markers

Introduction

Quantification of costs and revenues is necessary to evaluate farm performance in aquaculture at experimental station level. Such calculations aided by economic engineering methods can help in determining the most appropriate package of technologies for different categories of farmers in different geographical locations. The method described below is based on the works of T.V.R. Pillay (Aquaculture: Principles and Practices). The computation of capital cost (initial cost), annual operating cost (variable cost plus fixed cost), and gross revenue (income) shows the performance of aquaculture farms. In this chapter an attempt has been made to illustrate the above mentioned useful fundamental economic indicators along with the computational procedure of assessment of economic feasibility of aquacultural projects which is very important for any entrepreneur.

Introduction

Information Technology (IT) is a relatively-recent gift of Science and Technology for the mankind, revolutionising even the basic perception of people. It is a boon to the ever-growing complexities of life in each sphere. Be it simple household chores to the complex and humanly impossible task of advanced space research, Bioinformatics is the application of Information Technology in the field of bio- or life-sciences. The advantages from this fusion of two sciences are many. Bioinformatics in particular, and information technology revolution in general have been a grace to today’s biological researchers, particularly the groups involved in experiments at micro level, be it microorganisms (such as bacteria) of microbiologists or macromolecules (of micro/nano size, such as DNA/RNA) of geneticists/molecular biologists or the nanotechnologists. For example, computer software package IMPAC (Interactive Modeling Package for Carbohydrates) has its applications in the modeling of 3-D structure of carbohydrates. MYCIN is another package popular amongst medical doctors for diagnosis of bacteriological diseases and to prescribe treatments.

Abstract

Fertilizer inputs are increasing the cost of production in inputintensive crops, so nutrient efficientcultivar is need oftoday. More demands for food by increasing world populations further enhance the importance of nutrient efficient crop cultivars that are higher producers. Breedingtechniques havebeenimplemented significantlyto breed highnutrientefficient crop cultivars to achieve the targets. However, molecular mechanism of nutrient metabolism has been understood to some extent in many crops through quantitative genetic approaches. This minireview outlines an update on recent progress on the genetic approaches of QTL/candidate genes controlling nutrient metabolism pathways in the crop plants.

15.1. Cereals

15.1.1. Oat (Avena sativa)

Queen rearing and colony multiplication are central to sustainable and independent beekeeping, especially within the principles of natural farming. The queen bee serves as the core of the colony—ensuring reproduction and maintaining social cohesion through pheromonal signals that influence the behavior and unity of worker bees. A robust and fertile queen guarantees a consistent brood cycle, appropriate worker-to-drone ratios, and overall colony health. In natural systems, queens are raised without artificial grafting or chemical interference, allowing bees to follow their innate biological instincts.

Queen rearing occurs naturally through swarming or supersedure. During swarming, the old queen departs with a group of workers to establish a new colony, while the original hive nurtures a replacement queen. Supersedure takes place when bees sense the current queen is aging or weakening and raise a successor. Natural beekeepers can work in harmony with these processes—observing and supporting the development of queen cells, transferring brood or queen cells to new hives, and letting the colony follow its own cycle of renewal. This method enhances genetic strength and colony resilience.

Queen rearing and colony multiplication are central to sustainable and independent beekeeping, especially within the principles of natural farming. The queen bee serves as the core of the colony—ensuring reproduction and maintaining social cohesion through pheromonal signals that influence the behavior and unity of worker bees. A robust and fertile queen guarantees a consistent brood cycle, appropriate worker-to-drone ratios, and overall colony health. In natural systems, queens are raised without artificial grafting or chemical interference, allowing bees to follow their innate biological instincts. Queen rearing occurs naturally through swarming or supersedure. During swarming, the old queen departs with a group of workers to establish a new colony, while the original hive nurtures a replacement queen. Supersedure takes place when bees sense the current queen is aging or weakening and raise a successor. Natural beekeepers can work in harmony with these processes—observing and supporting the development of queen cells, transferring brood or queen cells to new hives, and letting the colony follow its own cycle of renewal. This method enhances genetic strength and colony resilience. Colony multiplication, or splitting, enables beekeepers to create new hives from existing strong colonies. This practice helps manage population growth, prevent overcrowding, and scale up apiary operations. In natural systems, splits are performed during the peak flowering season when food is plentiful. The process involves dividing a thriving colony into parts—each with brood, food stores, and sufficient workers. One portion retains the existing queen, while others rely on queen cells or larvae to develop new queens. This gentle method minimizes disturbance and aligns with the bees’ natural rhythms. Success in queen rearing and colony expansion depends on careful observation and practical knowledge. Beekeepers must learn to recognize queen cells, evaluate hive strength, and ensure conditions are suitable for natural mating and queen acceptance. Refraining from selective breeding and artificial techniques helps

‘Prunes’ is prepared from peach.

Arrak” liquor is prepared from date palm.

Hayane” variety of date palm suitable for juice making.

Kanji” is made from black carrot.

Kirschwascer” a wine prepared from cherry.

Shahi” variety of Litchi suitable for canning.

Q1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate answers.

1. India ranks …first…. position in cattle population in the world.

2. India ranks … first …. position in buffalo population in the world.

3. India ranks … first ……. position in total milk production in the world.

4. …Buffalo…….. species produce the highest amount of milk in India.

5. Frieswal cattle is a cross of …Holstein Friesian….and ……Sahiwal…

6. Mehsana buffalo is a cross of …Murrah….and ……Surti……

7. India ranks … first …. position in goat population in the world.

This chapter introduces a comprehensive self-assessment resource covering the major concepts presented throughout the book. It includes multiple-choice questions, fill-in-the-blanks, true/false questions, short-answer questions, essay questions, viva questions, numerical problems and questions on emerging technologies. The question bank is designed for university examinations and competitive examinations such as ARS and ICAR-NET. It supports systematic revision of wool biology, properties, testing, processing, marketing, standards and modern technologies.

Q.1 Fill in the blanks

1. _______and_______are pulse crops.
2. Rice is a_______pollinated crop.
3. Different breeds of cattle are_______and_______
4. _______and_______are sugar crops.
5. _______Important cereals are_______and_______
6. _______and_______are examples of fibre crops.
7. _______Dapog method is originated from_______
8. The origin of rice is_______region.
9. Best temperature range for germination of wheat is_______oC.
10. Adsali sugarcane is of_______months duration.
11. _______portion is taken in cane for propagation

A. Write True or False
    1.    Bulk density is the true density of the soil.
    2.    Igneous rocks are acidic in nature.
    3.    Adhesion is the attraction of like molecules.
    4.    pH is the negative logarithm of Hydrogen ion concentration.
    5.    Limestone is a sedimentary rocks.
    6.    Size of the gravel is more than 2mm.
    7.    Black and dark colour of soil is due to organic matter and iron.
    8.    Soil moisture tension at Permanent wilting point corresponds to 15 atm. 
    9.    Micropores are the large pores present in the soil.
    10.    Oxidation is the removal of oxygen from the minerals.
    11.    Straight fertilizer contains only one nutrient.

A. Multiple Choice Questions

1. While studying the history of domestication of various cultivated plants were recognized earlier:
   1. Centers of origin
   2. Centers of domestication
   3. Centres of hybrid
   4. Centres of variation
2. The quickest method of plant breeding is:
   1. Mutation breeding
   2. Hybridization
   3. Selection
   4. Introduction

1. The botanical name of West Indian birch is
   1. Bursera simaruba
   2. Bursera serratea
   3. Bursera gumifera
   4. Bursera javanica
2. The following genus is commonly known as khus
   1. Cymbopogan
   2. Chrysopogan
   3. Ocimum
   4. Apium
3. Ceylon citronella indigenous to
   1. India
   2. China
   3. Central Africa
   4. Ceylon

1. Atropa belladonna contains which alkaloids is
   1. 1-hyoscyamine
   2. N-methyl-puridine
   3. Atropine
   4. Pyridine
2. Withania somnifera is commonly known in english
   1. Belladonna
   2. Liquorice
   3. Blue cherry
   4. Winter cherry
3. Botanical name of black nightshade is
   1. Solanum tarvum
   2. Solanum xanthocarpum
   3. Solanum nigrum
   4. Solanum viarum

1. Mostly cultivated arecanut species is
   1. Areca catechu
   2. Areca triandra
   3. Both a and b
   4. None of these
2. Wonder nut is commonly known as
   1. Cashew nut
   2. Cocoa
   3. Coconut
   4. Arecanut
3. The following inflorescence type of cashew is
   1. Racemose
   2. Auxiliary
   3. Cymose
   4. Terminal panicle

1. Which one of the following is the botanical name of dill
   1. Cuminum cyminum
   2. Trychospremum ammi
   3. Apium graveolens
   4. Anethum graveolens
2. The normally in cardamom could be seen in
   1. Throughout year
   2. 4 month
   3. 6 month
   4. 2 month
3. The hortus malabaricus is written by
   1. Ravindran
   2. Subramniyan
   3. Hendrick Van Rheede
   4. Venugopaln Nambiyar

1. Which round of plucking done in tea plantation
   1. 10 – 15
   2. 20 – 25
   3. 45 – 50
   4. 30 – 40
2. The method of oil extraction from fresh coconut was developed by
   1. CFTRI
   2. IARI
   3. IIHR
   4. CPCRI
3. The fresh arecanut fruits are preserved in thick layer of made and this product referred to as
   1. Bura tamul
   2. Chali
   3. Clay preserving
   4. Mud preservation

1. The average dry yield of gymnema is
   1. 2 – 3 kg/plant
   2. 5 – 6 kg/plant
   3. 20 – 25 kg/plant
   4. 10 – 12 kg/plant
2. Isabgol will be ready for harvest in
   1. 80 – 90 days
   2. 60 – 70days
   3. 140 – 150 days
   4. 110 – 130 days
3. The liquorice uprooting in the month of
   1. November – December
   2. February – March
   3. August – September
   4. June – July

1. Ginger rhizomes peeled and soaked in lime water is called as
   1. Garbled
   2. Bleached ginger
   3. Non garbled
   4. Unbleached ginger
2. Harvesting period of cardamom is
   1. October to November
   2. June to July
   3. December to January
   4. March to April
3. Which of following month is flowering period in black pepper
   1. July – August
   2. May – June
   3. November – December
   4. January – February

1. The economic part of bursera is
   1. Root
   2. Leaves
   3. Stem and root
   4. Berries
2. Oil yield of thyme is
   1. 62 kg /ha
   2. 21 kg /ha
   3. 35 kg /ha
   4. 11 kg /ha
3. The oil yield of anise is
   1. 15 kg/ha
   2. 5 kg/ha
   3. 25 kg/ha
   4. 50 kg/ha

1. The leaf roller is an important pest of
   1. Lemongrass
   2. Citronella
   3. Mint
   4. Bursera
2. The following aromatic plants is susceptible to powdery mildew
   1. Sacred basil
   2. Thyme
   3. Geranium
   4. Rosemary
3. Meloidogyne hapla is reported to affect
   1. Thyme
   2. Geranium
   3. Sage
   4. Lavender

1. The major disease of isabgol is
   1. Powdery mildew
   2. Leaf spot
   3. leaf blight
   4. Downey mildew
2. The damping off is a series disease in
   1. Ipecac
   2. Aloe
   3. Indian penny wart
   4. Glory lilly
3. The following medicinal plants is affected by termites causes a lot of damage to young plants
   1. Gymnema
   2. Glory lilly
   3. Henbane
   4. Liquorice

1. The Following disease of cocoa is characterized by formation of water soaked lesions on pod either at tip or stalk
   1. Collectotrichum pod rot
   2. Withches broom
   3. Charcoal pod rot
   4. Blight
2. The following species of coffee is affected by white stem borer grown under inadequate shade
   1. Robusta
   2. Arabica
   3. Tree coffee
   4. both a and B
3. The following disease is major in arecanut
   1. Koleroga
   2. Fruit rot
   3. Mohali
   4. All of these

1. Mostly cultivated arecanut species is
   1. Areca catechu
   2. Areca triandra
   3. Both a and b
   4. None of these
2. Wonder nut is commonly known as
   1. Cashew nut
   2. Cocoa
   3. Coconut
   4. Arecanut
3. The following inflorescence type of cashew is
   1. Racemose
   2. Auxiliary
   3. Cymose
   4. Terminal panicle

1. Seed rate of celery is
   1. 0.5 kg/ha
   2. 2.5 kg/ha
   3. 0.25 kg/ha
   4. 1.5 kg/ha
2. Davana seedlings will be ready for transplanting
   1. 10 – 12 weeks after sowing
   2. 6 – 8 weeks after sowing
   3. 4 – 5 weeks after sowing
   4. 2 – 3 weeks after sowing
3. Bursera planting is done at a spacing of
   1. 2 m x 2 m
   2. 4 m x 4 m
   3. 6 m x 6 m
   4. 8 m x 8 m

1. Liquorice is propagated by
   1. Seeds and stem cuttings
   2. Root cuttings and stem cuttings
   3. Seeds, root cuttings and stem cuttings
   4. Seeds alone
2. Belladonna plants will be ready for planting in main field when they attain a height of
   1. 15 – 20 cm after 8 – 12 weeks
   2. 15 – 20 cm after 2 – 4 weeks
   3. 4 – 8 cm after 8 – 12 weeks
   4. 40 – 45 cm after 8 – 12 weeks
3. The cinchona seeds germinate in ___ days after sowing
   1. 60 – 65
   2. 5 – 10
   3. 20 – 40
   4. 10 – 15

1. The following in meters for High Density Planting (HDP) which enhances the productivity of cashew
   1. 4 x 4
   2. 8 x 8
   3. 3 x 2
   4. 2 x2
2. Which of the following month for seed sowing of cocoa
   1. May – June
   2. December – January
   3. July – August
   4. February – March
3. The following week for seed germination in tea
   1. 2 – 3
   2. 8 – 10
   3. 4 – 6
   4. 1 – 2