eChapters

1.1 The relation between man and the earth’s resources

The balance between the demand which a community of plants or animals makes on its environment and the ability to satisfy those demands is not the static equilibrium of a laboratory balance with equal weights on either side. It is more like the unstable balancing of a circus acrobat - a series of swings and overcorrections, resulting in an oscillation on either side of the true balance point. Thus a species of wild life increases in number according to the availability of its food supplies, but then goes beyond the optimum number. The natural correcting factors of starvation or migration reduce the population, but there is an overcorrection, and soon the cycle starts again with increasing numbers.

1.1.1 The Malthusian Thesis

In primitive societies the human population also oscillates about a mean as the limiting factors of starvation, disease, and war, maintain an uneasy balance against the natural tendency to increase. A serious imbalance arises when man learns how to modify the limiting factors, but allows the natural increase to go unchecked. The essence of the Malthusian Thesis is that the resulting instability is the inevitable order for mankind. The thesis is named after the English political economist Thomas Malthus who first gave it formal expression in MALTHUS (1966). In an age when significant improvements in health, hygiene, and the standard of living were just becoming possible, Malthus aroused great argument when he pointed out that these very improvements could lead to mi sery through overpopulation. The key point of Malthus’s argument is that population increases in what he called geometric ratio, what today we would call an exponential curve, because whenever there is an increase in population there are more people to produce the next generation, so the rate of population growth accelerates - in modelling terms a positive feedback loop. On the other hand, when we increase food production there is no feed-back loop, the best we can hope for is for a constant linear increase. The natural sequence is therefore for food demand to increase faster than food supply, leading at some point to food shortage.

14.1 Changes in policy and strategy

14.1.1 Policy changes

In the discussion on land use planning we suggested that the ideal pattern of development is to establish a long-term national or regional policy, which leads to medium-term strategies, and short-term tactical operations. In the real world a curious situation is arising in that the adoption of the new land husbandry approach is growing so fast that the practitioners have moved ahead of the politicians and opinion formers, with the result that the implementation of strategies by Non-Government Organisations, aid agencies, and senior field officers, is helping to shape new policies.

There is always the problem that national policies ought to be long term, but are created by politicians usually working within a short time frame to the next election. Fortunately, the land husbandry approach allows planners at all levels from farmers to governments to appreciate the long-term issues.

The new approach was mentioned in section 9.2.1 in connection with land use planning. It is summed up in the slogan From soil conservation to land husbandry, and two reviews using that title list the main points as the need for:

Introduction

COVID-19, a worldwide pandemic, addresses a deflationary stun for the worldwide economy. The outbreak of coronavirus has had a significant impact on public health worldwide and all stages of various industries’ supply chain and value chain. The 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) or the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is rapidly spreading from its origin in Wuhan City of Hubei Province of China to the rest of the world. The infection began in bats and was communicated to people by inhalation or contact with infected droplets, and its infection time frame goes from 2 to 14 days. Primary manifestations in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 include fever (98%), cough/hack (76%), and myalgia or weakness (44%). Severe complications include acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), RNAemia, acute cardiac injury, and multiple organ failure. However, exaggerated immune responses may lead to Cytokine Storm. Cytokine storm syndrome includes ARDS, shock, and multi-organ failure (Zheng et al., 2020). Many people are asymptomatic also, and the severity of this disease varies from person to person. The fatality rate is estimated to range from 2 to 3%. Typical/low white cell checks can analyze it with raised C-responsive protein (CRP), periodic modernized tomographic chest examination. The infection spreads quicker than its two predecessors, the SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory disorder Covid (MERS-CoV); however, it has lower casualty. The worldwide effect of this new scourge is yet questionable (Singhal, T. (2020).

10.1 Introduction

• In case of integrated nutrient management, all types of nutrients are supplied in the form of organic or inorganic manures and fertilizers to maintain uniform soil fertility.
• Continuous use of fertilizers spoils the soil structure and soil becomes unproductive in due course.
• Fertilizers applied along with sufficient quantities of organic manures will improve the efficiency of the fertilizers. Green manuring should be done every year or once in two years during the rainy season.
• Suitable bio-fertilizers should also be applied from time to time.
• Plants need adequate supply of sixteen essential nutrients for their normal growth and production, out of which carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) are needed in larger quantities and are referred as macro-nutrients, whereas, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl) are required in smaller quantities and thus called as micro-nutrients.
• An essential element is distinguished from a non-essential one on the basis of following criteria:
  1. The plant is unable to grow normally and complete its life cycle in the absence of the element.
  2. The function of the element is specific and cannot be replaced by any other element.
  3. The element plays a direct role in the metabolism of the plant.

General evidence of deficiency include either nutrient deficiency in diet or abnormal absorption, utilization or requirement of nutrient under consideration.
Special evidence may be obtained by chemical or biochemical examination of diet.

1. Introduction

Spices are a high-value, low-volume commodity traded around the world. Spices have played a significant part in civilisation, exploration, and commerce throughout history. Since ancient times, India has been known as the spice capital of the world, with over a hundred different types of spices grown. India has long been a traditional producer, consumer, and exporter of spices, with nearly every state producing one or more of them. India has a total area under spice production of 39,27,430 ha, which produced 95,99,900 MT in 2017-18. (Spices Board, 2020a). Due to their rich aroma, texture, and flavour, Indian spices are in high demand around the world.

1.1 Introduction Millets are one of the world’s earliest food grains, arguably the first cereal grain utilized for household uses. It has been a cherished crop in India for ages and constitutes a staple food for over one-third of the world’s population. Recently ICAR has designated millets as “Shree Anna”. Several types of small-seeded cereals are grouped together as small millets. These crops offer a reliable and affordable harvest from the regions where the primary cereals fail to produce a sustainable yield. Small millets are insignificant in terms of food production, but they are vital as staple foods in their particular ecosystems. Small millets are more than just finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and include kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) and barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentaceae). The rest of the two small millets namely, fonio millet (Digitaria exilis) and teff (Eragrostis tef) are of local significance in Africa. Small millets have a high nutritional value, but also their demand has deteriorated due to a lack of standard processing techniques to compete with fine cereals. Small millets have a huge potential to satisfy our nutritional needs, therefore we must push ourselves and make efforts to enhance its utilization by incorporating them into our daily diet.

39.1 Introduction

Like all other animals, fish are also subjected to certain diseases. This is one of the most important problems confronting a fish culturist. Diseases at times may take the form of epidemics. The occurrence and magnitude of infections and diseases are closely related to the sanitary conditions prevalent in the water and also the general health of the fish.

B cell: It is one of the lymphocytes that have antigen-binding antibody molecules on the surface, that comprise the antibody-secreting plasma cells when mature, and that in mammals differentiate in the bone marrow. It is also called B lymphocyte.

B.T.U.: It stands for British thermal unit. The heat required to raise the temperature of one pond of the water through 1oF is called BTU.

Baby back ribs: Meaty pork ribs cut from the lower back rib section.

Bacillary dysentery: It is a food borne illness characterized by very diarrhea and electrolyte loss alongwith intense abdominal pain, high fever and even death.

Bacillus spp: The genus Bacillus is generally aerobic, spore forming. Bacillus cereus also produces 2 types of toxins; a very fast aching emitting toxin which cause vomiting and a diarrhoeal toxin. Bacillus is a genus (Bacillus) of straight rod-shaped gram-positive usually aerobic bacteria producing endospores and including many saprophytes and some parasites produces disease (B. anthracis of anthrax).

Bacitracin: A polypeptide antibiotic isolated from a bacillus (Bacillus subtilis or B. licheniformis) and usually used against gram-positive bacteria.

Back Bacon / Canadianbacon: Bacon cut from the loin that has little fat and is cut into round or oblong slices.

Backward feed evaporator: In this evaporator, fresh feed enters the last and the coldest effect and continues on until the concentrated product leaves the first effect (Plate 54).

Bacon: Bacon is the meat cut from belly portion of hog carcass (a domestic swine esp. when weighing more than 120 pounds or 54 kilograms) and has high percentage of fat. It is cured and smoked.

Introduction Adaptations in animals and birds are countless and extensive, which permit the species better suited in its environment and thus improve chances of survival and propagative success. There are three major categories of adaptations namely anatomical/structural, physiological and behavioural adaptations. Depending on the animal habitats, adaptations can be classified into terrestrial, aquatic and volant (flying). Terrestrial adaptations are exhibited by the organisms inhabiting in land habitats and are again grouped into cursorial, fossorial, arboreal and desert adaptations.

Terrestrial Adaptations

1. Cursorial Adaptations

Cursorial animals are those adapted for running over long distances, often characterized by adaptations that enhance speed and endurance. These adaptations include various skeletal features that optimize their locomotion and overall efficiency while running. These animals have streamlined and spindle-shaped body to minimize resistance in attaining the speed. Here are the key skeletal adaptations in cursorial mammals:

1. Long and Slender Limbs: Cursorial mammals typically have long and slender limbs, which reduce the amount of energy required per stride and increase stride length, thereby enhancing running speed. Lengthening of the limbs in these animals leads to the head placed away from the ground. Hence, as an adaptation to feeding and drinking, the neck and the skull become elongated.

2. Reduced Number of Toes: Many cursorial mammals have reduced the number of toes to streamline the foot and reduce weight. For example, horses typically have a single functional toe (hoof), while cheetahs have reduced and non-retractable claws.

1.1 Learning Objectives
After going through this chapter, you will be able to:
i) Understand the meaning, scope, functions, and limitations of statistics;
ii) Know the various types of statistics and their importance;
iii) Comprehend the various types of variables;
iv) Appreciate the role of the various statistical organizations.

1.2 Introduction

Statistics is a powerful and essential field of study with substantial importance in various aspects of life, science, business, and society. Its significance lies in its ability to provide a systematic framework for collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data. Statistics is a universal language of data that empowers individuals, organizations, and societies to make informed decisions, solve problems, and gain deeper insights into the world around us.

Natural farming in India is steadily gaining traction across different crop categories like tubers, oilseeds, and spices, thanks to its environmentally sustainable approach. In tuber cultivation—covering crops like potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams, and colocasia—the method promotes organic inputs, crop rotation, and soil health preservation without the use of synthetic chemicals. Natural composts, green manures, and biofertilizers nourish the soil, while homemade biopesticides and pest deterrents help manage common pests and diseases. Techniques such as mulching and moisture conservation further support ideal soil conditions,
improving both the quality and yield of tubers.
For oilseeds such as groundnut, sesame, mustard, and sunflower, natural farming enhances soil fertility using organic manures, decomposed crop residues, and locally made biofertilizers. Treating seeds with cow urine or herbal solutions enhances germination and protects against diseases. Practices like intercropping and crop diversification help disrupt pest life cycles and improve soil texture. Pest control relies on natural, plant-based sprays like neem and garlic, reducing dependency on chemical pesticides while preserving beneficial insect populations.
In the case of spices such as turmeric, cardamom, coriander, and black pepper, natural farming methods offer considerable benefits. The use of vermicompost and green manuring boosts micronutrient availability essential for healthy growth. Mulching helps retain soil moisture, especially in hilly areas. Pests and diseases are controlled using herbal preparations like Panchagavya and Agniastra, which enhance plant resistance and reduce infection rates. These eco-friendly methods lead to the production of high-quality, chemical-free spices and support biodiversity and sustainability.

Protected cultivation, encompassing systems like greenhouses, polyhouses, and shade nets, has revolutionized modern agriculture by creating controlled environments that shield crops from adverse climatic conditions. This method not only extends the growing period but also enhances the quantity and quality of yields.
A key element of success in protected cultivation is the efficient management of water and nutrients, made possible through advanced irrigation and fertigation techniques.
IRRIGATION IN PROTECTED CULTIVATION
Irrigation is essential for delivering adequate moisture to crops, which is crucial for their healthy development. In protected cultivation settings—where rainfall is either insufficient or unpredictable—reliable irrigation systems become even more important. Traditional methods like surface or furrow irrigation are less effective, often leading to water loss and irregular distribution. In contrast, modern systems such as drip and micro-sprinkler irrigation provide precise delivery of water directly to the plant’s root zone, significantly reducing evaporation and runoff. Among these, drip irrigation has become particularly popular due to its high efficiency. By applying water directly at the soil surface near the roots, it minimizes wastage and ensures consistent moisture levels. This technique not only saves water but also supports healthy root growth and reduces the incidence of soil-borne diseases. Research shows that drip irrigation can decrease water consumption by 30–70% while improving crop productivity by 20–90% compared to conventional irrigation methods.

The drones are configured to traverse the field and acquire photos and sensor data in alignment with the predetermined flight plan. High-resolution cameras get visual data, whereas multispectral sensors gather information on light wavelengths beyond the visible spectrum, thereby offering insights into plant health and stress levels.
During drone flights, essential techniques for data acquisition encompass photogrammetry utilizing overlapping high-resolution images, GPS tracking for accurate location data, IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) sensors for monitoring attitude and movement, ground control points (GCPs) for precise georeferencing, multispectral or hyperspectral imaging for comprehensive spectral analysis, LiDAR scanning for the generation of 3D point clouds, and data logging systems to document sensor readings throughout the flight, all while meticulously planning flight paths and accounting for variables such as lighting and weather conditions.
Drones have emerged as a vital competitive advantage in the inspection of various asset types, optimizing time, reducing costs, and mitigating risk. Historically, an inspection necessitated an inspector to ascend the structure, capturing images and doing measurements manually from considerable heights.
This procedure is intricate; it necessitates extended hours and the presence of numerous experts on site for safety. The data generated by inspectors through manual pictures and measurements is limited: manual inspections may necessitate many trips to collect adequate information for necessary maintenance.
Manually operating a drone to obtain the data necessitates training, expertise, and extensive experience. A pilot collecting data for a tower inspection must comprehend the requirements of the inspectors. The pilot must comprehend how to maneuver an aircraft accurately around an asset to obtain precise aerial photos, regardless of barriers, wind conditions, or the necessity to replace batteries during the trip. The data must be examined and converted into a digital format that is

Cleaning, drying, and aeration are essential processes in the management of stored agricultural products to maintain their quality and reduce the risk of spoilage. These practices are particularly important in preventing the growth of molds, the infestation of pests, and the deterioration of the product during storage.
Cleaning is the first step in the storage process. It involves removing any debris, dust, dirt, and residues from both the stored products and storage facilities. Proper cleaning eliminates potential sources of contamination, such as pests, molds, and bacteria, which can thrive in the presence of organic matter. It also ensures that the grain or other stored product is free from contaminants that could affect its quality and marketability.
Drying is equally crucial to prevent moisture-related issues. Excess moisture can lead to mold growth, fungal infections, and insect infestations. Drying reduces the moisture content of the grain or product to safe levels, typically below 14% for grains, which helps preserve their quality during storage.
The drying process can be carried out using natural sunlight or mechanical dryers, depending on the volume of the product and available resources. Properly dried products are less prone to spoilage and can be stored for longer periods. Aeration involves the circulation of air through stored products to maintain optimal temperature and humidity levels. By controlling the environment, aeration helps prevent the buildup of heat and moisture, both of which can lead to product deterioration.
It also reduces the risk of insect infestations by keeping the grain cool and dry. Aeration systems typically use fans or ventilation channels to ensure continuous airflow, especially in large-scale storage facilities. Together, these processes form a comprehensive approach to maintaining the quality and safety of stored agricultural products.

Droughts are intricate and multifaceted phenomena that can have far-reaching impacts on the environment, economy, and society. The complexity of droughts arises from the interplay of various factors, including climate variability, water availability, land use, and human activities. Given the varying characteristics and consequences of droughts, classification becomes a crucial step in understanding and managing these events. By categorizing droughts based on their severity, duration, and impact, researchers and policymakers can better grasp the intricacies of drought dynamics and develop targeted strategies for mitigation and adaptation. The classification of droughts is necessary for several reasons

Biological conversion methods involve using microorganisms or biological systems to transform organic materials—like biomass and organic waste—into valuable products such as biofuels, biogas, compost, and chemicals. These ecofriendly and sustainable processes contribute significantly to the circular economy by turning waste into useful energy or raw materials. Unlike thermal or chemical methods, biological conversions occur under milder conditions (usually ambient temperature and pressure), which lowers energy consumption and environmental impact. They harness the natural metabolic processes of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms to break down the complex organic compounds in biomass
Physicochemical Conversion Of Biomass
Physicochemical methods modify biomass through combined physical and chemical processes. Key techniques include

1. Torrefaction
• Biomass is heated without oxygen at 200°C to 300°C.
• Removes moisture and volatiles, producing biochar or bio-coal.
• Used as fuel for power generation or co-firing with coal.
2. Hydrothermal Conversion
• Utilizes water, high temperature, and pressure to break down biomass.
• Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL): Converts biomass into bio-oil, water, and solid residue at 250°C–400°C; bio-oil can be refined into fuels and chemicals.
• Hydrothermal Gasification (HTG): Produces syngas (hydrogen and carbon monoxide) used for power generation or chemical synthesis.
3. Supercritical Fluid Extraction
• Biomass treated with supercritical fluids (e.g., CO?) that behave as both gas and liquid under specific conditions.
• Extracts valuable compounds like essential oils and bioactives.
• Environmentally friendly, with recyclable CO?.
4. Hydrothermal Carbonization (HTC)
• Biomass treated at 180°C to 250°C under high pressure with water, producing hydrochar.

Global onion research connects crop domestication, genetic diversity, nutrition, therapeutics, production, breeding and post-harvest technology. Onion contains organosulphur compounds, quercetin derivatives and other phytochemicals associated with antimicrobial, antioxidant, cardioprotective and anticancer effects. Despite high global production, productivity differs substantially among countries, and storage losses remain a major economic concern. This chapter reviews global production trends, germplasm resources, breeding strategies, phytochemistry, therapeutic potential and emerging storage technologies. Landraces, cultivars and wild relatives provide valuable traits for yield, storability and stress resilience. Advanced treatments such as ozonation, cold plasma and irradiation demonstrate promise, although wider commercial adoption, economic validation and regulatory development remain necessary.

Plant physiological processes determine growth, development, productivity and adaptation to changing environmental conditions. This chapter examines how artificial intelligence can improve understanding of plant physiology and stress responses. It considers physiological processes including photosynthesis, transpiration, nutrient dynamics and hormonal regulation and explores how AI can analyze complex biological, environmental and phenotypic datasets. Machine learning, deep learning, computer vision and predictive analytics support interpretation of information obtained through sensors, imaging, remote sensing and omics technologies. The chapter emphasizes early detection and prediction of stresses such as drought, salinity, temperature extremes, nutrient imbalance and pathogen pressure. It also discusses explainable AI, digital twins and federated learning as emerging approaches for plant stress research.

Food processing techniques range from traditional household practices to sophisticated industrial operations designed to improve safety, quality, nutritional value and shelf life. This chapter presents traditional methods such as blanching, fermentation, soaking, germination and malting, highlighting their effects on nutrient bioavailability and food characteristics. It then introduces industrial processing and distinguishes between thermal and non-thermal technologies. Thermal methods such as pasteurization and dehydration are discussed alongside innovative approaches including pulsed electric fields, high-pressure processing and irradiation. The chapter emphasizes the principles, applications, benefits and limitations of these techniques and demonstrates how processing conditions influence microbial safety, nutritional quality and sensory attributes.

11.1 Introduction
In the preceding chapter 10, we have discussed in detail, the test procedures for which it has been assumed that the sample size n is large, (i.e n >,30). Those tests are also known as approximate tests or z tests. But in case when sample size n is small i.e. n<30, the approximate test fails to deal with such problem and we apply the theory of exact sample, for small sample tests. The exact sample tests however can be applied to large samples also though the converse is not plausible. In all the exact sample tests, the basic assumption is that the parent population is normally distributed.
In this part we will discusse in details the exact sample tests (based on exact sampling distributions namely snedekor’s F, student’s t and chi square (χ2) distributions. These distributions will be simply introduced in short because main emphasis has to be given only on the test procedures based on them.

Modern garden designs are classified on the basis of utility, need, location and materials used. Nowadays, garden types are focused on issues contributing towards ecological balance, biodiversity, environmental moderation and sustainability as well as personal preference and taste. This has given new perspectives to roof gardening, rock gardening, home gardening, kitchen gardening, green belt development, traffic islands, avenue plantation etc. Further there is incorporation of alternative energy sources like solar systems, water harvesting, etc. A garden could be for entertainment or a place to relax for some people and for others, a productive kitchen or herbal garden is more important. Some common garden types are given below, where in it is also possible to combine elements of two or three different types to create something entirely different.

INTRODUCTION
Over the past two decades climate change has evolved from a debate about whether the planet is really warming to an increased focus on how to mitigate and adapt to its impacts. After an extensive review of the available literature on evidence of climate change, the Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, 2007 concluded that “the warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average temperature”. “The scientific evidence is now overwhelming; climate change presents very serious global risks, and it demands an urgent global response” (Stern 2007).

INTRODUCTION

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) play a critical role in the healthcare provision of much of the world’s population, whether they are used to make a decoction in rural Africa, to extract an alkaloid in Switzerland or as a health food supplement in the United States. MAPs are important from several perspectives like preventive and curative treatments and are source of income to underprivileged or aboriginal people who collect these herbal plants from forests or cultivate on their field. The importance and value of traditional and indigenous herbal medicine was the subject of WHO’s campaign during the 70’s, which led to an appeal to all member countries to do their utmost to preserve their national heritage in the form of ethno-medicine and ethno-pharmacology and to re-include the use of known and tested medicinal plants and derivatives into their primary health care in rural areas, as well as an alternative when modern medicine is not available.  Out of more than 400 plants species used for production of medicine by the Indian herbal industry, fewer than 20 species are currently under cultivation in different parts of the country (Uniyal et al. 2000). According to the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoepathy (AYUSH), India has 5,662 varieties of medicinal plants and of these trading takes place in 460, while 178 are exported in huge quantities (over 100 metric tonnes per year) and about 70 per cent of India’s population use traditional medicines derived from numerous plant species (Niraj et al. 2002; Saigal et al. 2002). It is estimated that in developing countries, about 90 per cent of medicinal and aromatic plants are harvested from wild while cultivated lands account only for 10 per cent of the total medicinal plants in active trade (Karki 2002). The increasing demand calls for cultivation of these valuable healers on commercial basis. However, the available land cannot be brought directly under MAPs cultivation. There is need to identify the landuse systems, already in practice, which may provide condition congenial for better growth and development of medicinal and aromatic plants as they are naturally getting in the wild. Tree plantations, fruit orchards and home gardens seems to be the viable option for commercial cultivation. Out of these fruit orchards could be more potential land use. Fruit trees have long gestation period of 8-10 years and till canopy development, the interspaces can be conveniently used for cultivation of medicinal and aromatic crops to get additional income. Even at later stages of orchard development trees have minimal adverse affect on the growth and yields of a number of medicinal plants grown as intercrops compared to the yields in the open (Nair et al. 1989), in some instances there may be reduction of yield of MAPs and fruit component, but the combined returns from both the components are greater than from sole cultivation. This temporal scale is even more in case of shade loving medicinal and aromatic plants. Peasants prefer fruit trees on their farms (Raintree 1992; Franzel et al. 1996) with perspective of contribution to consumption (Salam et al. 2000) and income generation (Ayuk et al. 1999; Delobel et al. 1991). Thus, these components are well thought-out to be beneficial due to low labour input and comparatively high returns round the year. This chapter presents a brief review of growth, yield and economic viability of such tree-crop combinations and further explore their potential under fruit tree based horti-medicinal agroforestry systems.

INTRODUCTION

The interactions of plant communities – natural or man-made, with their pests are invariably complex, and the complexity further increases with the diversity of the system. When a farmer adopts agroforestry instead of monocultures, the opportunities of relatively easy monitoring of the pest and their frequent disturbance through crop rotation, tillage and burning are traded against a greater stability of the system with an increased potential for self-regulation, which is however complex and more difficult to control. For this trade to be successful in reducing pest risks, agroforesters should not merely rely on increased diversity, but should attempt to integrate into their decisions the full range of traditional and scientific knowledge on the interactions between plant species, planting designs and management practices on one hand, and pests and their natural enemies on the other hand. This obviously requires collecting knowledge and organizing in more systematic way than up to now.

INTRODUCTION

Indigenous agroforestry systems exhibit a great intricacy with respect to their components where trees, shrubs, climbers and grasses are common. In the north-western Himalaya, farmers maintain naturally regenerating tree/shrub species, particularly on edges of terraced agriculture fields without any significant input of manpower. These systems are called as indigenous agroforestry system (Ram and Singh 1996; Vishvakarma et al. 1998, Thakur et al. 2004 and 2005). Shrubs have been meeting the fuel wood requirement of the local peasants from forest as well as village wasteland and field boundaries. Shrub dominated ecosystems extend from arctic to tropical region and occur over the entire moisture gradient from desert to wetland (Specth 1979; DI Castro 1981; West 1983). 

Abstract

Support Vector Machine (SVM) is a classification and regression prediction tool, widely employed in different fields of science and engineering. A review on some recent plant bioinformatics applications using SVM is made. Different soft wares for SVM are also explained. There is a growing amount of plant genomes data currently available from different sources. Recent advances made using SVM and Feature selection in plant bioinformatics are reviewed

Introduction

Recent developments in genomic and post-genomic research have generated a vast amount of biological data. This data is growing exponentially with the advancement of research technologies. Several plant genomes have been sequenced recently. For instance, the complete sequence of Arabidopsis thaliana and the draft sequence of rice are now available^[1]. Also, sequencing of several other plants including maize, tomato, sorghum, etc is in progress. Considering the amount and complexity of this data, it is impossible for an expert to analyze and compare the data manually. Thus, there is an increasing need for computational methods that can efficiently store, organize and interpret this large amount of data.

7.1 Introduction

For maximization of yield of crops, it is essential to provide irrigation to crops. When either the natural sources like rainfall, dew, snowfall and other forms of precipitation or when the capillary rise of groundwater is not sufficient to meet the crop water demand, then there is need to supply irrigation. This irrigation water is a precious resource and need to be used cautiously. There are three important things need to be understood for optimum utilization of irrigation water with basic purpose to maximize the yield and returns. These three things are:

(i) When to irrigate?

(ii) How much to irrigate? and

(iii) How to irrigate?

In fact these three things form the core concept of irrigation scheduling.

Introduction

During the intensive system of poultry production birds are exposed to several types of stresses. The birds can tolerate mild stress but when the stress is severe, there is imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants which lead to oxidative stress and lipid peroxidative damage of tissues, ultimately results in poor performance. Nutrition has a strong impact on oxidative stress. Insufficient intake of antioxidants, a high intake of prooxidants, or both may lead to oxidative stress. The detrimental effects of oxidation process can be prevented by addition of antioxidant compounds in the feed. Vitamin E, carotenoids and selenium (Se) are among important antioxidant components of poultry diets. It is important to understand the role of antioxidants in poultry nutrition in general and in production and reproduction in particular. The chapter, here in will discuss the stressors in poultry production, oxidative stress and possible alleviation through dietary antioxidant supplementation.

Introduction

With the perception that antibiotics should no longer be used as animal growth promoters, there has been widespread interest in natural methods of inhibiting detrimental bacteria. Their removal from the poultry diets is therefore brings with it consequences. This has lead to somewhat of a renaissance in research activity on the discovery and application of non antibiotic chemical compounds capable of either killing microorganisms outright or at the very least retarding growth sufficiently to limit their dissemination. Organic acids have a long history of being utilized as food additives and preservatives for preventing food deterioration and extending the shelf life of perishable food ingredients. In recent past organic acids have been used to control microbial contamination and replace antibiotic growth promoters in poultry (Ricke, 2003; Hassan et al.,2010; Adil et al., 2011).

Introduction

Public concern over use of antibiotics in livestock production has increased in recent years because of their possible contribution to emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria, and their transmission from livestock to humans. Accordingly, ruminant microbiologists and nutritionists have been exploring alternative methods of favorably altering ruminal metabolism to improve feed efficiency and animal productivity. Plant extracts contain secondary metabolites, such as essential oils (EO) that have antimicrobial properties that make them potential alternatives to antibiotics to manipulate microbial activity in the rumen. Essential oils are naturally occurring volatile components responsible for giving plants and spices their characteristic essence and color. Over the last few years, a number of studies have examined effects of EO, and their active components, on rumen microbial fermentation. However, many of these studies are laboratory based (i.e., in vitro) and of a short-term nature. Nevertheless, results from in vitro batch culture studies provide evidence that EO and their components have the potential to improve N and/or energy utilization in ruminants. Effects of EO on ruminal N metabolism is more likely mediated by their impact on hyper-ammonia producing (HAP) bacteria resulting in reduced deamination of amino acids (AA) and production of ammonia N.

Introduction

Taxonomy, which includes identification and classification has transformed into systematics and biosystematics in the recent times and is integrating itself into the biodiversity, which is now a global phenomenon occupying the main thrust of human life. The magnitude and cause of this biodiversity is the central problem of taxonomy and one of the key problems of science as a whole, not to speak of pest management. The science of taxonomy started in the late eighteenth century by a Swedish biologist, Carl Linnaeus who with a small number of similar minded scientists pioneered a standard system of using two Latin names for an organism, denoting “genus” and “species” that is still in use. This led to referring of biological organisms by an universally agreed name and identity, and further providing means for their realistic classifications. When these identifications and classifications got strengthened further with accumulated biological knowledge, it allowed the development of modern biology on a sustainable and stable base. In addition, in the recent times taxonomy has become more demanding subject for areas in science and technology, which are dependant on access to accumulated experience and knowledge for their survival and development. Insect pest management is one such area where taxonomy provides the essential scientific basis, without having any claims of its own and integrating itself in such a manner that its role is difficult to delineate precisely.

Introduction

The development of insecticide resistant populations of insect-pests, evidence of resistance, resurgence and environmental concerns have led to increased research for the alternative strategies to pesticides for control of damaging pest populations. Classical biological control and the success in that area are important and provide background and encouragement for increased efforts in the manipulation of natural enemies. Methods for manipulation of natural enemies for the purpose of reducing herbivore populations and alleviating plant stress include conservation and augmentation, habitat management and genetic manipulation.

Virtually all pest populations are affected by natural enemies to some extent. In many cases, natural enemies are the primary regulating force of the pest populations. Natural controls include effects of natural enemies (predators, parasites, pathogens), other biotic (living) factors such as food availability and competition, and abiotic (non-living) factors such as weather and soil. In pest management, biological control usually refers to the action of parasites, predators or pathogens on a pest population which reduces its numbers below a level causing economic injury. Herbivorous insects and pathogens that attack pest weeds are also considered biocontrol agents. Biological control is a part of natural control and can apply to any type of organism, pest or not, and regardless of whether the biocontrol agent occurs naturally, is introduced by humans, or manipulated in any way. Biological control differs from chemical, cultural, and mechanical controls in that it requires maintenance of some level of food supply (e.g., pest) in order for the bio-control agent to survive and flourish. Therefore, biological control alone is not a means by which to obtain pest eradication.

Introduction

Horticulture is an intensive but profitable venture with higher output in terms of yield and income per unit area and time. In order to maximize the output, there has been liberal use of inorganic products like fertilizers, pesticides (insectides, fungicides, nematicides, weedicides) and other chemicals. With the continuous application of these chemicals since the last green revolution, the soil and its fertility is showing the sign of fatigue and plants developing resistance to insects, pests and diseases is breaking down and causing overall pollution to soil and water. There is growing evidence of sterility in humans and various other animals, particularly in males, related to the presence of various chemicals and pesticides in the environment. Hence the demand of the hour is looking for some alternative arrangements which are eco-friendly and moreover safe guarding the quality of the produce, which is essential so far as ornamentals are concerned. This is especially true for cut flowers and potted plants. Visible symptoms of insects, pests and diseases, have a major impact on quality. Direct and indirect effects of infections include reduction in growth, reduction in vigor, costs of attempting to maintain crop health, reduction in quality and/or market value (Hadidi et al., 1998). This may cause serious economic losses. In addition, infected plant material may not be acceptable for export.

The global importance of cereal crops to the human diet and moreover to the written history of man and agriculture cannot be overstated. Cereal grains are the fruit of plants belonging to the grass family (Gramineae) most important group of food crops produced in the world. Nutritionally, they are important sources of dietary protein, carbohydrates, complex vitamin B, vitamin E, iron, trace of minerals, and fiber. It has been estimated that global cereal consumption directly provides about 50 per cent of protein and energy necessary for the human diet. Some cereals, notably wheat, contain proteins that form gluten, which is essential for making bread. Major cereal crops produced worldwide include wheat, rice and maize. Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, and millet are produced in large quantities in India.

Integrated Disease Management

Disease control is, managing the plant disease severity below the economic threshold following economically viable, eco-friendly and easily operational procedures. The position of IDM in the overall agricultural system indicates clearly that it is an important sub-system and interacts with other such systems that fall under the cropping system.

Introduction

Walnut is the oldest cultivated fruit in the world (Ozkan and Koyuncu, 2005). Juglans regia L., the Persian walnut, is probably native to a wide region extending from the Carpathian Mountains across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanisan and southern Russia to northern India. Species of walnuts, genus Juglans, are found in the forests of the eastern and southern parts of the USA, in Mexico and Central America, the Andean parts of Southern America from Columbia to Argentina, the West Indies, Japan, China, southern Asia from India to Turkey and southern Europe to the Carpathian Mountains of Poland (McGranahan and Leslie,1990). The trees are large and tall with round headed canopy. The rather smooth, light coloured, large nuts are free of the hull at maturity. Shell thickness varies from paper–thin to very thick and hard. The Greeks probably obtained J. regia from Persia from where, the seeds were transported to Rome, where they were known as Jovis Glans, or Jupiter’s acorn, from which comes Juglans. From Italy, it spreaded to what is now France, Spain, Portugal and southern Germany. Trees of the species were in England by 1562, and were bought to America by the earlier settelers. The American colonists are said to have called the species English walnut to distinguish it from the eastern black walnut, J. nigra. It is generally prefer to call it Persian walnut as it is associated with the place of origin bit commercially, it is called as English walnut. The term Carpathian walnut is sometimes used to refer to cold hardy Persian walnuts (Forde and McGranahan,1996). The other important species are J. ailantifolia Carr. syn. J. sieboldiana Maxim. (Japanese walnut), J. nigra L. (American black walnut), J. cinerea L. (butternut), J. microcarpa Berlander (Texus Black walnut), J. major Heller (Arizona black walnut), J. californica S. Wats (Southern California black walnut) and J. hindsii Jeps. (Northern California black walnut).

Introduction

Impact of WTO or Globalization of Indian agrarian sector claims to extend benefit of trade even to widely spread villages. In India, a sizeable number of rural masses are self-employed and able to produce what is needed just for their livelihood. They cannot be brought into market exchange relationship. So, there is every possibility of their being deprived of expected benefits. Globalization, rather, will widen the disparity between who are associated with market and who are not. Developed countries seem to have held globalization as a powerful weapon in their hands. They are stressing on opening up of national boundaries for movement of their goods and capital to developing countries but they are putting lot of restrictions on technology and labour movement, which can be far more beneficial to developing countries.

In this era of molecular markers in genetic studies, genome analysis encompasses several stages of increasing resolution and sophistication, leading to the generation of high resolution chromosome maps. Since the entire plant kingdom cannot be covered under sequencing projects, molecular markers and their correlation to phenotypes provide us with requisite landmarks for elucidation of genetic variation.

A molecular marker is a site of heterozygosity for some type of DNA variation. Such a DNA marker in mapping analysis is analogous to a conventional heterozygous allelic pair. When they are used for mapping the genome, the identity of this DNA fragment is not important, but is simply used as a reference point to arrange and order the genetic information along the length of a chromosome. The molecular markers provide landmarks along the length of chromosome that facilitate the manipulation of chromosome segments in breeding and chromosome engineering programs.

The harmony between human beings and plants is one of the evergreen reasons that maintains and supports life on earth. This fact clearly explains why any hazard to the life of plants prominently affects man. One important feature distinguishing plants from other complex multicellular organisms is that plants are sessile and thus have to endure environmental challenges (Zhu, 2001).

Crop productivity is limited by stress factors. The stresses which pose major threats to survival of plants belong to two categories- abiotic and biotic stress. Drought, salinity, high or low temperatures, light, deficient or excess nutrients, heavy metals, pollutants etc., either individually or in combination causes abiotic stresses. Biotic stress refers to any stress provided by living organisms, be it unicellular or multicellular. Plants facing a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses are able to protect themselves by means of tolerance mechanisms which result from changes at the molecular level. They are often confronted by a multitude of stresses in their natural environment. To overcome this, plants have evolved various defence strategies, which involve comprehensive reprogramming of the cellular metabolism.

Soil  and its Components
Soil
Soil is a three dimensional, transferable natural material which is found on the earth crust and provides natural medium to plant growth. OR
Soil is the upper most loose layer of the earth, suitable for plant growth. 
Different scientists defined ‘SOIL’ in different ways:
Buckman and  Brady defined soil as  “A dynamic natural body on the surface of the earth in which plants grow, composed of mineral and organic materials and living forms”.

Abstract

Quality of water is affected by natural and man induced contamination to groundwater system. Area chosen for study has gained its own importance due to the location of two lignite mines and a Thermal power plant in operation. Extensive large scale pumping of water is done for lignite mining. The mine drainage and drainage from thermal power plant along with agricultural return flow from lignite charged waters increases the severity of problem. In order to achieve a panacea for the above-mentioned situation, the study has incorporated and integrated in all related factors to get a meaningful interpretation for groundwater quality and quantity management in and around Neyveli area. The frequent failure of monsoon has added to the existing problem of over exploitation. To attain a panacea for water chemistry groundwater samples were collected for four different seasons. Higher EC and TDS values are observed in Southeast and Southwest part of the study area. In Southwest monsoon and Summer seasons HCO₃Cl dominates the anions, with few representations for SO₄. In Northeast monsoon and Post monsoon season Na + K – Ca + Mg is the dominant. Thermodynamic, studies reveal that groundwater of the region are stable with Kaolinite stability field in all the silicate systems. Bicarbonates derived from silicate mineral weathering are noted in the NW, Northern and in the mining region. These regions are located in the NW and NE part of the study area. Comparison of water quality to standards shows that the water can be used for drinking and for irrigation purposes except in few locations.

Abstract

Coastal aquifers are the sources of freshwater which are being over extracted due to increase in population, agriculture and industrial activities. This over exploitation has resulted in decline in groundwater level and intrusion of sea water into the coastal aquifers making it unfit for human utilities. An attempt has been made in the coastal tracts of Pondicherry region using Electrical resistivity imaging. The survey has been attempted in six locations spread thought the study area and the interpretation has been attempted by RES2DINV software. The profile length attempted was between 150 to 300 m with electrode spacings between 5 to 10 m. The apparent resistivity ranges between 0.1 to 1183 & ohm. Sea water intrusion was prominent along the northern parts of the study area and lower resistivity isolated in kirumambakkam has been interpreted as salinity due to the presence of clay minerals. In nallavadu saline intrusion has been identified at shallow depth.

Abstract

The development and management of fresh groundwater resources in coastal aquifers are seriously constrained by the impact of seawater intrusion. The coastal aquifers are fragile and this situation becomes more intense like that of the coastal Cuddalore region. The geochemical signature of groundwater of Cuddalore coast was studied for Pre Monsoon, Southwest, North east and Post Monsoon seasons by collecting total of 64 groundwater samples in each season. The collected samples from were analysed for physical parameters, such as electrical conductivity (EC), pH and major ion concentrations, such as Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, HCO₃, PO₄ and SO₄. Interpretation of analytical data shows the predominance of  Na–Cl type   in PRM and Ca- Mg-Cl type  is the dominant facies during POM. The Chaddas evaluation diagram shows that the hydrogeochemical evaluation plot for PRM samples fall in  Na-Cl type. The ratios of Na/Cl and Cl/HCO₃ is also enumerated the fact that the most of the samples from PRM and few samples from other seasons also indicates dominance of salt water intrusion.

14.1 Introduction

The fast growing field of nanotechnology presents great potential to influence various sectors in the areas of energy, environment, agriculture, health care and consumer goods. To overcome the demanding need of nano-based applications, various strategies to synthesize nanoparticles have been attempted. The major focus is to synthesize nanoparticles of desirable properties such as shape, size and compositions. Various strategies have been employed to synthesize nanoparticles. Foremost among these are physical and chemical methods which include sol-gel technique, solvothermal synthesis, chemical reduction, laser ablation and inert gas condensation. But altogether they suffer from process limitations like difficulty in controlling experimental conditions, feeble reproducibility, polydispersity, costly instrumentation and recovery as well as energy intensive and eco-hazardous processes. However, various factors like cost, speed, efficiency, biocompatibility etc. are still not concerned. Thus, finding a balance between scalability, price and applicability is still a true challenge. These limitations can be potentially overcome by using biological methods for nanoparticle synthesis.

18.1 Introduction

Nano – Science & Technology is design, fabrication and application of nanostructures or nanomaterials, and the fundamental understanding of the relationships between physical properties or phenomena and material dimensions at nano meter scales.

Definition : Soil microbiology is the study of microorganisms living in soil which complete whole or some part of their life cycle in soil. They include both beneficial as well as deleterious microorganisms but as a specialized branch main thrust is laid on their metabolic activities and the role they play in energy flow, cycling of nutrients associated with the primary productivity and soil ecosystem development. Besides, it focuses on environmental impact, whether favourable or unfavourable, on soil microorganisms and the various soil biochemical processes mediated by various microbes. A clear understanding of the interactions between soil microbial communities and elemental soil components is imperative to comprehend total ecosystem function. Atlas and Bartha have defined the soil microbiology as ‘the study of organisms that live in soil; their metabolic activity; their roles in energy flow; their roles in nutrient cycling’. As per Tate soil microbiology involves ‘the study of soil ecosystem which is the product of intricate interactions between physical and chemical matrix of highly variable composition and living communities of all form’.

The study of soil microorganisms involves various complicacies when compared with those of plants or animals aboveground. The complicated heterogeneous environment existing in soil and the varied growth behaviour of microbial populations in soil have necessitated the development of special techniques to study the microbes and their metabolic diversity, individually and holistically without disturbing their natural habitat. With the gradual improvement in microscopy since its discovery in 1667 and also with the greater understanding of the nature of soil microbes and their properties in relation to total ecosystem function, the concept of studying microbes in isolation has enormously changed. Microscopes have helped in magnifying these, otherwise invisible, minute creatures within the limits of naked eyes.

Soil microorganisms immobilize and mineralize various elements to satisfy their growth requirements. The subsequent turnover of microbial biomass also releases several mineral elements. The elements may be released as a result of organic matter decomposition (e.g. during the process of mineralization, ammonification, etc.) or through biological weathering. Other transformations may involve oxidation and reduction of various inorganic ions and compounds which are mostly catalyzed by chemoautotrophic bacteria during oxidation of ammonium, nitrite, sulphur, iron, etc. Such oxidations may also release energy for microbial growth.

Theory
The Constitution of India related to women:
    ·    Guarantees to all Indian women equality: Article 14
    ·    No discrimination by the State: Article 15(1)
    ·    Equality of opportunity: Article 16
    ·    Equal pay for equal work: Article 39(d)
    ·    Securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief: Article 42
    ·    The All India Women’s Education Conference was held in Pune in 1927. 
    ·    The National Policy For the Empowerment of Women came was passed in 2001
    ·    In 2010 March 9, Rajya Sabha passed the Women’s Reservation Bill requiring that 33% of seats in India’s Parliament and state legislative bodies be reserved for women

Theory

Communication word comes from Latin ‘Communis’- Common
Communication: The communication is the process of human interaction in which one person communicates a message/idea to another person. 
Diffusion: It is the process by which an innovation/new idea/new technique spreads. 
According to Rogers (1983) ‘Communication is the process by which the message is transmitted from the source to the receiver’.