eChapters

Abstract

The increase in human population, their growing economic activities and more and more transport demands, on one side, have increased the requirement of automobile fuels more than ever before, but the political turmoil in Middle east oil producing countries, the quick declination in stock of fossil fuels, the high rise in petroleum prices and rapid increase in air pollution due to automobile emission, on the other side, have made people of both developed and developing countries to search some non-polluting renewable but commercially viable alternative automobile fuel as a national priority. Hydrogen based fuel cells and latest designed improved storage batteries are knocking the door to bring revolution in developing non-polluted electric drive vehicles for 21st century. Successful blending of bio-diesel with petro-diesel has shown promising results to give relief to the present generation for saving some petroleum for future generation, for reducing air pollution substantially and for generating employment opportunity for its rural masses.

Abstract

Development of vermicomposting technology in India was started in seventies, but except some areas of South India it has not been popularized among common masses. This technology is labour intensive and needs attention to handle the tiny earthworms in a proper manner. Sincerity and dedication bring success while casual attitude ends up in financial loss. Lack of proper knowledge on suitable technique, unawareness about nutrient and hygienic standards of vermicompost, non availability of suitable earthworms, lack of marketing and training facility are some major problems in non-flourishing this technology in rural areas. But this technology being simple and easy to follow, is gradually becoming a boon to the low educated poor unemployed youths of the society for their economic development through generating income and creating self employment. Vermicompost, vermi-T and earthworms are marketable product. Government agencies and Non Government Organizations are trying to popularize this technology which has bright prospect to maintain health and hygiene of human to environment.

Abstract

Northeast is famous for its rich bio-diversity and Himalayan scenic beauty. Society is mainly agricultural based but the crop productivity is low in comparison to all India average. Major reasons are lacking of a). Improved cultivation technology at village or at farmers level, b). Agricultural inputs like high yielding seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides due to poor infrastructural facility, c). Land tenure system, etc. The agro climatic condition is very suitable to grow different types of vegetables round the year. Hilly areas offer a scope to grow certain vegetables as off-season vegetables and earn a high price. Northeast soils need application of nutrients for improving its productivity. Century old Jhoom cultivation technique, high soil erosions in hilly areas and regular floods in plains also play a vital role in developing reluctance among farmers in using costly chemical fertilizers. Profuse growth of vegetations e.g. grasses; weeds, jungles, etc. are noticed due to regular rainfall throughout northeast. Peoples usually burn these during clearing their fields and backyards for cultivation. These can be converted to good quality compost using vermicomposting technique and added to field for cultivation of different crops substituting chemical fertilizers. Experiments on cabbage, cauliflower, French bean, okra, onion and tomato showed that yield increased considerably with the application of compost in field.

Abstract

Abundant organic wastes come from agriculture sector. Earthworms offer an opportunity for beneficial disposal of this unwanted material by converting into vermi compost, a national wealth. It is rich in nutrients, enzymes, hormones and beneficial microbes but free from harmful chemicals and pathogenic microorganisms, hence improves crop productivity. Disposal through burning creates environment pollution and loss of valuable plant nutrients. Dumping creates unhygienic situation. Vermicomposting is quicker than other conventional composting techniques. In northeast India, Eisenia foetida and Perionyx excavatus were found equally efficient in vermi composting of agricultural wastes. Among different bio mass, vegetable wastes and soft weeds were converted to compost very quickly by using Perionyx excavatus within 1 to 2 months. Composting was found moderate (3 to 4.5 months) in crop residues and hardy weeds while slow (5 to 10 months) in case of dry tree leaves. When different wastes are mixed together it takes 3.5 to 4.5 months for complete composting. Composting can be accelerated by mixing the wastes with cellulolytic fungi such as Triichoderma viride, Trichurus spiralis, Paecilomyces fusiporus and Aspergillus awamori. Vermicompost prepared from wastes is a marketable product. It can bring prosperity in the villages by means of employment generation and good income. Awareness among people can be created through training.

Abstract

Organic farming, the state - of - art technology of the present era in agricultural cultivation, is not new to India. Green revolution in last four decades of Twentieth Century made farmers more dependants on chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides for harvesting highest crop yield but side by side increased environmental pollution as well as health hazards and reduced soil productivity by increasing nutrient imbalance in soil. Indian farmers have almost forgotten their century old practice of preparation of compost from farm wastes and its use in next cultivation for getting pollution free healthy food materials. This articles deals with the problems of chemical farming in Indian context and their solution through organic farming.

Abstract

Solid waste, the creation of human being, is taken today the shape of a Demon to kill its creator by polluting breathing air, drinking water and essential food materials. It spreads different infectious killer diseases if not disposed off timely. Municipal authorities are spending lakhs of rupees to collect and transport solid wastes to dump-yard. Presence of both biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes together in dustbin makes the disposal problematic and Municipal workers handling solid wastes suffer injury and disease infections. Municipal authority can clear about 50 percent of solid wastes either by dumping in low lying areas or by burning in open places causing unwanted environmental pollutions. Incinerations with electric producing facility, pyrolysis, dumping in properly built concrete landfills, Pelletization are scientific techniques for solid waste management. But recycling as resource materials is the best economical approach. Since non-biodegradable wastes can be sold to scrap dwellers for further processing it offers income opportunity. Biodegradable wastes can be converted to good quality vermicompost, which is also a marketable product and fetch good income. Different activities during recycling of solid wastes offer employment opportunities to literate & illiterate, skilled & unskilled, male & female, young & old workers. The present ‘Treatment at the end of pipe’ approach is to be changed by ‘Treatment at source’ approach.

Abstract

The toxic materials like arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, etc. present in Electronic wastes, in short e-wastes are a great threat to mankind since these contaminate soil, water and air of the surroundings. These E- wastes are mainly defective or obsolete parts of computers, audio-visual systems and electronic & electrical machineries used in the houses, offices and factories. These carcinogenic or hazardous toxic materials are root cause of damage of different parts of human body, untimely death as well as health disaster. Every year the manufacturers and assemblers produce around 1200 tons of electronic scraps in India. Collection of computer wastes from developed countries by greedy Indian business people for sorting out in India aggravates the environmental pollution. ‘Reduce, Reuse and Recycle’ are three important principles to be followed by one and all (Manufacturers, Distributors, Sellers, Buyers to Users) for proper scientific management of electronic wastes. Reverse osmosis, Electrolysis, Condensation, Electrolytic recovery, Filtration, Centrifugation, etc. are some of the important e-waste management technologies used to reclaim different toxic materials. Buyback policy should be made compulsory since Manufacturers can afford to build up infrastructure for reusing and recycling electronic wastes.  More and more use of bio-based plastics, toners, glues, inks will reduce the environmental pollution considerably and save the mankind from extinction.

Abstract

Beautiful Earth is the only planet of Solar system which supports life due to presence of water, air and favourable temperature. The surface atmosphere is warmed by absorption of solar ray due to green house effect, without which the average temperature of Earth’s atmosphere would have been –73^ºC and the ocean would have been frozen. Since the year 1850, when industrialization started in many countries, the concentration of different green house gases in the atmosphere have been increased remarkably (CO₂ – 34%, CH₄ – 145%, Fluorocarbons – 100%). Global warming, the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s near surface air and oceans, is caused mainly due to increase in air pollution, green house gas generation and deforestation. Human activities are found more responsible for rapid global warming in last 50 years. Deadly storms, unbearable heat waves, high day-night temperature, Ice sheet melting in polar regions, glaciers receding at alarming rate, frequent wild fires in forest, coastal areas inundation, drinking water shortage and desertification are the serious impacts of global warming. It is a great concern to the Policy Makers to stop human activities responsible for global warming without jeopardizing technological development of society. Global warming has triggered the complex chain reactions : Increase in surface temperature – reduction in the permafrost and tundra areas.

In most countries, extension systems have now been operating for some time and problems within them will often require a refinement of the existing system rather than design of a new system from scratch.

The purpose of this chapter is to provide extension managers with a simple approach in analysing common extension problems. In most cases, suggestions are given for possible actions to consider in investigating the causes of the problem further and ultimately in overcoming it. However the primary purpose of the chapter is not ‘to give solutions to all known problems’ but to assist the extension manager in analysing problems to find their root cause (or causes). The chapter is designed to be simple and easy to use, and thus cannot do justice to the complexity of all the problems and situations faced by extension personnel.

Many different approaches might be used to organise this process and information. The chapter has tried in all cases to begin with noticeable problems and by analysing these through an hierarchy or problem tree, help users to analyse and reach their own conclusions as to the best solution.

Contract Farming

Contract farming is defined as a system for the production and supply of agricultural/horticultural produce under forward contracts between producers/suppliers and buyers. The essence of such an arrangement is the commitment of the producer/ seller to provide an agricultural commodity of a certain type, at a time and a price, and in the quantity required by a known and committed buyer.

Contract Farming Ventures in India: A Few Successful Cases

The Government of India’s National Agriculture Policy envisages that “Private sector participation will be promoted through contract farming and land leasing arrangements to allow accelerated technology transfer, capital inflow and assured market for crop production, especially of oilseeds, cotton and horticultural crops”.
Farming is an age-old means of livelihood for millions of Indians. However, there have been few systems/models in which farmers are assured of a market for their 

Extension Reform Strategies Global Perspective

In an effort to respond to the new paradigm, countries worldwide have adopted a variety of institutional reforms. These reforms are either market-oriented or non-market-oriented (Smith 1997). This distinction, provides an imperfect but hopefully useful framework for considering these reforms as individual, non-overlapping constructs. Following the discussion of Figure 3, a dynamic view of extension institutional reforms is presented in Figure 4 which suggests possible interconnections among the various constructs. Inferences drawn from the two Figures will shape the discussion in the final section.

The recent adoption by FAO and the World Bank of a fundamental vision and guiding principles for developing agricultural knowledge systems forms the focus of this section. This vision and these principles are reviewed in relation to the plethora of the ongoing agricultural and rural extension reforms.

AGRI BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

Agribusiness is a generic term. It includes food production, farming, seed supply, agrichemicals, farm machinery, wholesale and distribution, processing marketing and retail sales. John. H. Davis of Harvard University first used the term Agribusiness in 1955. Prospects of agri-business India (McKinsey and Confederations of Indian Industry 1997)    
Food industry offers one of the largest opportunities in India today
By 2005 - 07, the food industry will grow three fold to reach us 70 $ billion, and increases in forthcoming year. India can be the world Largest Food Factory
   
India’s food production today is equal to that of USA, second to China
Value added foods will grow faster rates ($30 to $60) million.
Growing the food industry will raise agricultural yields, increases income and create employment and economic development.

Participatory technology development (PTD) is an approach to learning and innovation that is used in international development as part of projects and programmes relating to sustainable agriculture. The approach involves collaboration between researchers and farmers in the analysis of agricultural problems and testing of alternative farming practices.

Origins of participatory technology development

The origins of Participatory Technology Development can be found in a number of approaches, concepts and techniques that became popular in the 1970s and 1980s:

Farming systems research and extension, an approach that introduced social-ecomomic issues into organisations previously dominated by biological and chemical scientists. FSR/E also promoted the idea on ‘on-farm’ trials:

Appropriate technology, a concept that recognises the importance of matching the design of technology to the resources and culture of the user.

Introduction to Research

Research is an inseparable part of human knowledge. Its role in human life is as precious as that of salt in a vegetable. The life would lose its taste without research exactly in the same manner as a vegetable without salt. The modern academics just cannot stand and meet the aspirations of a matured society, if it does not provide for research and investigation. “The obvious function of research is to add new knowledge to the existing store. but its power for cleansing our minds of clinches and removing the rubbish of inapplicable theory is equally notable. Scientific research is a cumulative process. It is also a projective process, especially in the social sciences. Understanding can be (advanced) not only by gains in knowledge but also by discarding outworn assumptions”.

STUDIES ON HUMAN RELATIONS
Introduction

A human relation is frequently used as a general term to describe the ways in which managers’ interact with their employees. A number of things were happening in United States in the 1920s and 1930s, organizations were growing in size and in their dependence upon technology. Social groups were breaking down. The combination of all these factors with the growing dissatisfaction with paced, mechanized, highly standardized work led to changes in two major directions. Management science developed as a technical discipline, concerned with the establishment of efficiency models of managerial and organizational behaviour. The other perspective was initiated by the work of Human Relation scientists. They are discussed in detail here.

The word administration is derived from Latin word Ad + Minister means “to care for” or look after people / to manage affairs.

Why Study Management Theory
Theories are perspectives with which people make sense of their world experiences. A theory is a coherent group of assumptions put forth to explain the relationship between two or more observable facts.
    i.    Theories provide a stable focus for understanding what we experience. A theory provides criteria for determining what is relevant.
    ii.    Theories enable us to communicate efficiently and thus move into more and more complex relationships with other people.
    iii.    Theories make it possible indeed, challenge us-to keep learning about our world.

“Educational Technology is the application of scientific knowledge about learning and the conditions of learning to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and training. In the absence of scientifically established principles, educational technology implements techniques of empirical testing to improve learning situation”.

National Centre for Programmed Learning, UK
“Educational Technology is a complex, integrated process involving people. procedures, ideas, devices and organization for analyzing problems and devising. implementing, evaluating, and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of learning”.

Association for Educational Communications and technology (AECT), 1977
The most recent definition of the field (which uses the term, instructional technology) has been published by the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT). It defines Instructional Technology as “the theory and practice of design,

Laparoscope

The term laparoscope derived from Greek word “Laparo” meaning “flank,” which is the side of the body between the ribs and hips (abdomen) and “scope” means to look at or examine. Laparoscope can be defined as an instrument through which structures within the abdomen and pelvis can be seen or a fiber optic device that consists of a flexible tube. Fiber optic scope is used to directly visualize the internal anatomy of a hollow organ. Laparoscope is used in laparoscopy and laparoscopic surgery. It has lenses like a telescope to magnify body structures, a powerful light to illuminate them and a miniature video camera. The camera sends images of the inside of the body to a TV monitor in the operating room. Specialized surgical instruments can be inserted through the laparoscope.

5.1. Nature and role of soil enzymes
    General account
    Role in terrestrial ecosystems
    Role in aquatic ecosystems

5.2. Environmental conditions and microbial enzyme activity

4.1. Substrate quality
    Litter quality
    Soil organic matter (SOM) quality

4.2. Decomposer community
    Soil animals
    Soil microorganisms
    Terrestrial fungi
    Actinomycetes    
    Bacteria

3.1.Processes
                    
    Leaching                    
    Fragmentation/Comminution
    Catabolism                    
    Decomposition models
                
3.2. Patterns
                    
    Litter decomposition
    Root decomposition                    
    Limit values for decomposition            
    Decomposition pattern in ecosystems

2.1. The Physical environment
    Light
    Soil temperature
    Water dynamics

2.2. Chemical environment
    Production of phytotoxins

2.3. Biological environment
    Trophic dynamics
    Community structure
    Biodiversity

1.1. Characteristics and categories
                
1.2. Litter
    Patterns of accumulation
    Successional trends
    Seasonal variations
    Fluctuations in accumulation

1.3. Dissolved organic matter
    Sources of DOM
    Fluxes of DOM

1.4. Woody detritus

1.5. Soil organic matter

Appendix-'K'    :    Supreme Court Directions on School Safety
    
Case Study    :    Kumbakonam School Fire Tragedy

Appendix-'I'    :    Mock Drill Reporting Format
    
Appendix-'J'    :    Suggested Roles and Responsibilities of Stakeholders

Appendix-'H'    :    Do's & Don'ts During Commercial Nuclear Disasters

Appendix-'F'    :    Chemical and Industrial Disaster Mitigation
    
Appendix-'G'    :    Emergency Procedure for Handling Chemical Disasters
    
Case Study    :    Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984

Appendix-'E'    :    How can Cummunity Reduce Carbon 
            Footprints

Case Study    :    Indian Ocean Tsunami - 2004

Introduction

Forests face many hazards but most common is forest fire. They pose threat to not only forest wealth but also to entire region of fauna and flora seriously disturbing the bio-diversity, ecology and environment of a region. During summer, forests are littered with dry senescent leaves and twigs which could burst into flames ignited by the slightest spark. Forest cover in India is 675,538 km and constitute 20-25% of geographical area.

Introduction

Road traffic in cold snowy regions during winter season faces problems, like icing of road, snow compaction and snow storms that obstruct visibility. In snowy region there is also danger of damage due to snow avalanches. Avalanches often severely damage road service facilities or road structures. Quick response and corrective actions are required to cope with the damages, if any avalanche occurs.

Case Study    :    Orissa Super Cyclone 1999

Introduction

Landslides are simply defined as mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope and have come to include broad range of motions whereby falling, sliding and flowing under the influence of gravity dislodges earth material. They often take place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. At times, prolonged rainfall cause heavy landslides, that block the flow of river for quite sometime.

Appendix-'C'    :    Damage Prevention and Rehabilitation by Retrofitting
    
Appendix-'D'    :    Dos and Don'ts While Constructing Buildings
    
Case Study    :    Bhuj Earthquake 26th January, 2001
            Eyjafjallajoekull (Iceland) Volcano - 2010

Introduction

Drought is temporary reduction in water or moisture availability significantly below the normal or expected amount for a specific period. This condition occurs either due to inadequacy of rainfall or lack of irrigation facilities, unexploitation or deficient availability for meeting the normal crop requirement in the context of the agro-climatic conditions prevailing in any particular area. This has been scientifically computed as Moisture Index (MI). Drought in this context can be defined as adverse MI or adverse water balance which may be attributable not only to a prolonged dry spell due to lack or sufficient rainfall but also due to such other factors as excessive evapo-transpiration losses, high temperature, low soil holding etc.

Appendix-'A'    :    Standard Operating Procedure for Administration
    
Appendix-'B'    :    Standard Operating Procedure for Individuals
    
Case Study    :    Assam Floods 2004
        :    Peerchu Lake - A Disaster

The United Nations had declared the decade of 90s (1990-1999) as the International Decade for National Disaster Risk Reduction to enable developing countries to build up their capacity to cope up with disasters. The Government of India also set up a High Powered Committee (HPC), in August 1999, to review the preparedness and mitigation of natural and manmade disasters and recommend measures for strengthening the organisational structures and a comprehensive model plan for management of disasters at national, state and district level. The HPC after due deliberatons submitted the report in Feb. 2001. The HPC identified the disasters under the following types (categories) :

The aim of this book is to further strengthen the knowledge of readers on management of disasters so that they are better prepared to cope with more frequently occurring natural and manmade disasters.

The process that helps us to face disasters effectively is commonly known as disaster preparedness.  When a disaster strikes, it affects us directly and immediately. While as the government, international agencies such as United Nations, Red Cross Society, non government organizations, like Ramakrishna Mission, OXFAM, CARE, resident welfare associations in urban areas and panchayats in rural areas assist us when faced with disasters the community, invariably remains the first responders. Hence, the individuals as a part of community should prepare adequately to prevent, face and respond to disasters effectively. History has  shown that where communities have prepared adequately to confront disasters, losses to life and property have been less and environment could be protected. People living in an area may be prone to more than one type of disaster. For example Kutch District of Gujarat is vulnerable to floods, drought, cyclones and to earthquakes. Such an area is called ‘multiple hazard’ zone.

8.1    History of Sprinkler Irrigation
    
8.2    Advantage and Limitations of Sprinkler Irrigation
    
8.3    Scope of Sprinkler Irrigation in India
    
8.4    Type of Sprinkler System and Components
    
8.5    Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System
        
Questions and Problems
        
References

7.1    Drip Network
    
7.2    Performance of the Drip System
        
Questions and Problems
        
References

6.1    Introduction
    
6.2    Fertilizers in Drip Fertigation
    
6.3    Drip Fertigation Systems
    
6.4    Rate of Fertilizer Application
    Questions and Problems
        
References

5.1    Introduction
       5.1.1  Types of Distributors
    Questions and Problems
    
References

4.1    Hydraulic Formulae/Head Losses in Pipes
    
4.2    Lateral Design
    
4.3    Sub-main Design
    
4.4    Design Charts
    
4.5    Main Line Design
    
4.6    Farm Drip System Design Examples
    Questions & Problems
        
References

3.1    Crop Water Requirements
    
3.2    Water Distribution in Soils and Wetting Pattern
    
3.3    Selection of Number of Distributors per Plant
    
3.4    System Capacity
    Questions & Problems
        
References

2.1    Reynolds Number
    
2.2    Darcy-Weisbach Equation
    
2.3    Hazen-William Formula
    
2.4    Hydraulic Characteristics of Distributors
    
2.5    Manufacturing Variation of Distributors
    
2.6    Irrigation Uniformity and Efficiency
        
Questions and Problems
        
References

1.1    Introduction

1.2    Histories and Development
    
1.3    Components of Drip Irrigation System
    
1.4    Types of Drip System
    
1.5     Advantages and Disadvantages
    
1.6    Evaluation and Futuristic Approach of Drip Irrigation in India Questions & Problems
        
References

1.    Wilt
        
2.    Stem rot
        
3.    Alternaria leaf spot

1.    Rust
        
2.    Cercospora leaf spot
        
3.    Collar rot and Root rot
        
4.    Phyllody

1.    Wilt
        
2.    Rust
        
3.    Septoria leaf spot
        
4.    Powdery mildew
        
5.    Chrysanthemum stunt