eChapters

Abstract

The dating of fluvial landforms by archaeological, epigraphical, historical, thermo-luminescence, radiocarbon, etc. are of greater significance because it not only provides information on the date of origin of such fluvial landforms but also isostatic, eustatic, climatic histories of the Quaternary period. Hence, the Geoscientists have always been giving greater importance to the dating of the fluvial landforms. In India, the Cauvery is one such river studied for its migratory melodrama with the help of satellite data and inferred that the river Cauvery has earlier flowed along the Hogenekkal-Chennai tract (PCS-1-Palaeo Channel System-1) during 500 thousand to 3000 YBP (years Before Present), then migrated towards southerly and flowed along the present day paths of Thoppurar, Vaniyar and Ponnaiyar rivers (PCS-2) during 2700-2300 YBP and further migrated southerly and entered into Tiruchirappalli-Thanjavur plains after 2300 YBP and finally anticlockwisely migrated in different parts of the present day Cauvery delta and stabilized as river Coleroon during 2100-750 YBP. Such broad chronological history was brought out on the basis of archaeological, epigraphical, historical, literature and few radiocarbon dating. In the present study, more number of radiocarbon dating was done in various palaeochannels of river Cauvery which has over all coincided with above observations and further provided discrete information on (1) the southerly migration of river Cauvery from PCS-1 to PCS-2 after 8000 YBP, (2) tectonic arching and splitting up of channels in Chennai region during above period, (3) gradual younging nature of palaeochannels from PCS-1 of Chennai region to PCS-3 of Tiruchirappalli – Thanjavur region, etc.

In 1896, French physicist Becquerel observed that uranium compounds affected a photographic plate that was wrapped inside a black paper. He found that all uranium compounds gave off penetrating rays. He called the production of radiation by uranium compounds “radioactivity”. Madame and Pierre Curie later identified thorium, polonium, and radium as the other radioactive elements.

Radiofrequency (RF) pasteurization is an emerging thermal processing technology that uses electromagnetic energy to generate rapid and volumetric heating within food materials. This chapter introduces the principles underlying RF heating and explains how alternating electric fields interact with polar molecules and ions to produce heat. It examines RF system configuration, electrode arrangements, packaging considerations and the operational workflow from raw-material preparation to post-treatment cooling and quality evaluation. Particular attention is given to microbial inactivation, enzyme control, uniform heating, nutrient and bioactive-compound retention, colour and structural preservation. The chapter also discusses technical limitations, hotspot formation, packaging challenges, nutritional considerations and current industrial constraints associated with RF processing.

A diagnostic radiograph is defined as one showing the tissues adequately penetrated, sharply outlined, and the variations in tissue opacity sufficiently demonstrated. An ideal diagnostic radiograph should have excellent detail, correct density and proper scale of contrast. The sharpness of the image determines the detail or definition of an image. There are two factors in radiographic quality control, viz: photographic and the geometric effect.  Density, contrast and detail are photographic aspects of radiographic quality. Detail and distortion are geometric aspects of radiographic quality. Because a radiograph is a two-dimensional (2-D) image of a three-dimensional (3-D) object, the appearance of a radiographic image varies with the patient’s orientation in relation to the primary X-ray beam. 

The radiographic appearance of various tissues is influenced by a number of factors which determine the character of X-rays.  Various exposure factors control the radiographic dentsity, detail and contrast: milliamperage (mA), time (sec), kilovoltage (kV), focal spot/film distance (FFD) and object-film distance (OFD), thickness and nature of the part radiogaphed, speed and type of film and intensifying screens, temperature and time of developing, grid type, incoming line voltage, make and type of X-ray machine. Of these, first five exposure factors (milliamperage (mA), time (sec), kilovoltage (kV), focal spot/film distance (FFD) and object-film distance (OFD) are very important as radiographic technique chart may be worked out by varying one or more of the five factors.  These exposure factors are integral to image quality and should, therefore, to be adjusted appropriately in order to achieve a diagnostic radiograph of optimal quality (image contrast, brightness and clarity).

Artifacts are any unwanted radiographic densities in the form of blemishes arising from improper handling x-ray film, exposure, processing, housekeeping or setting up a technique for an examination. Artifacts will reduce the overall quality of the radiograph and in certain cases may nullify its diagnostic outcome. An idea about the possible errors is desirable in order to adopt corrective measures.

One of the most important pieces of information in the field of  X-rays is a radiographic technique chart. If one select exposure factors from a good rating chart, consistent radiographic examinations of diagnostic quality will be obtained. In addition, there will be a saving of X-ray films because waste from repeated exposures will be avoided.

There are several types of techniques chart that can be formulated, each type must be formulated with the goat of maximum potential of a particular X-ray machine. Perhaps the most popular type of technique chart used by veterinarians is a variable kilovoltage technique chart. A variable mA second chart is probably more appropriate for the most powerful X-ray machine. However, combination of variable kilovoltage and mAs technique chart is best. Such charts take into consideration the need to adopt a technique chart for different body systems, such as a thoracic and abdominal study, as well as examination involving the musculoskeletal system. The principle of how to prepare a variable kilovoltage technique chart along with an example of such a chart is given.

Radiology has been an important diagnostic modality in exotic animals and birds (includes rodents, reptiles and fish). The radiographic equipment needed for radiography of exotic animals and birds is basically the same to that used for domestic animals. A high-milliamperage (mA) X-ray machine, having 200- or 300 mA unit is recommended to allow the use of a short exposure time (1/40 seconds) or less are preferred. Maximum kilovoltage (kVp, 40-75) is less important for avian and exotic radiography than for domestic animal radiography. As with other species, at least two radiographic views at 900 angles to each other are recommended. However, restraining and knowledge of radiographic anatomy of different species of exotic animals and birds are the prerequisite for the modality. Restrain and immobilization:

Radiographic examination of mammary tumour patients should be done prior to any treatment to detect the chances of lung metastasis. Radiographs of the thorax helped to provide information pertaining to the extent of organs involved and the presence of metastasis in the lungs. Lateral radiograph of thorax revealed absence of pulmonary metastasis in normal cases. Lung metastasis may observe in animal characterized by radioopaque soft tissue scattered in the lungs indicating pulmonary metastasis.

Sensors onboard the satellite records the intensity of emitted or reflected electromagnetic radiations in the form of digital number (DN) for each pixel. These digital numbers can be transformed to more meaningful intensity units like radiance or reflectance. This process of conversion of digital numbers to radiance or reflectance is known as radiometric calibration. Sensor specific information is required to conduct radiometric calibration.

An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The positive nuclear charge is due to the presence of protons which carry a mass of 1 and a charge of +1. Besides protons in the nucleus, there are neutrons which are heavier than protons. They carry no charge. Comparatively electrons have no mass (1836 times lesser than that of a proton) but they carry a charge of –1. Hence, the whole mass of an atom is likely to be concentrated in the nucleus.

It is a popular root crop having wide range of adaptability, grown in Japan, Koria, China, India and other European countries.

Origin and Distribution: Radish was an important food in Egypt during 2000 BC.  Fossils study reveals that, it was a food as early as 2700 BC. It spread to China during 500 BC and to Japan during AD 700. Variability of crop decreased from Europe to China and from there to Japan. Recent study indicates that East of Mediterranean, most probably China was the centre of origin of the crop. This means Europe and Asia are the probable places of origin.

Radish (Raphanus sativus, 2n = 2x = 18, family Brassicaceae or Cruciferae, cross-pollinated crop) is grown over 7 million ha where China, Japan, India, South Korea, and Europe are the main producers. As per Horticulture Statistics at a Glance-2018 (MAFW, 2018), India produced 30 lakh tons of radish from 2 lakh ha acreage with a productivity of 15 tons/ha during 2017-18. Ten top ranking states in India with acreage within the range of 6000 to 33000 ha are West Bengal, Haryana, Bihar, Assam, Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.

Today, radishes are grown throughout the world. Different local people prefer to use various parts of the radish plants including roots, leaves, sprouts, seed pods and oil from seeds as their food according to their own custom. Radishes are low in calories and high in vitamin C, folate, and potassium. Radishes contain sulfurous compounds, such as sulforaphane, which have anti-cancer properties, and are expectorant.

Radish, Raphanus sativus under the family Brassicaceae (Crucifereae) having chromosome No. 2n = 2x =18 is grown mainly for fleshy taproot roots in both tropical and temperate regions throughout the world. Radish is cultivated widely in China, Japan, Korea, India, Europe and USA. It is grown throughout India and particularly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Gujarat. Radish is mostly eaten raw as a crunchy salad or cooked as a vegetable. Leaves are sometimes eaten as cooked leafy vegetable. Immature pods of rat-tail radish, Raphanus sativus var. caudatus are also consumed as vegetable. Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Radish, one of the ancient root vegetables was domesticated in Asia prior to Roman times. Varieties of radish are now broadly distributed around the world, but almost no archeological records are available to help determine their early history and domestication. However, different research works have tentatively located the origin of Raphanus sativus in Southeast Asia, as this is the only region where truly wild forms have been discovered. This radish might be Oriental or Asiatic radish. India, Central China, and Central Asia appear to have been the secondary centers where different forms were developed. However, according to other hypothesis, eastern Mediterranean region, China and middle Asia are considered to be the origin of radish where wild radish still exists.

Successful crop production both in the rainfed and irrigated ecosystems depends on timely onset of monsoon, its distribution during the crop life cycle and collection of water in various storage structures viz; tanks, reservoirs and ground water table. It is therefore important that adequate supplies of water should be developed to sustain life. Development of water supplies should, however, be undertaken in such a way as to preserve the hydrological balance and the biological function of our ecosystems.

Consequently, the human endeavour in the development of water sources must be within the capacity of nature to replenish and to sustain. If this is not done, costly mistakes can occur with serious consequences. The application of innovative technologies and the improvement of indigenous ones should therefore include management of the water resources to ensure sustainability and to safeguard the source against pollution.

As land pressure rise, cities are growing vertical and in country side more forest area encroached and being used for agriculture. In India small farmers depends on monsoon where rainfall is from June to October and much of the precious water is soon lost as surface runoff. While irrigation may be the most obvious response to drought, it has proved costly and can only benefit a fortunate few. There is now increasing interest in the low cost alternative-generally referred to as “Rain Water Harvesting (RWH)”.

Water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater, which can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the ground water. Water harvesting is the collection of runoff for productive purposes.

Rivers, lakes and ground water are secondary source of water. In present times, we depend entirely on such secondary source of water. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that feeds all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting is to understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of rainwater at the place where it falls.

The Gujarat state is located on the north-west of India between 20^o6' N and 24^o42' N latitude and 60^o24' E to 74^o24' longitude. The climate of Gujarat is semi-arid tropical . the summers are very hot, the winter season is uncertain and irregular. The Arabian sea and Gulf of cambay have a moderating effect on the climate of the coastal areas of the state.

The state has a coastline of 1600 km (27% of the country) out of which Saurashtra and Kutch has about 1125 km long coastal line. The total coastal cropped area of the state is 8.75 lakh ha (9.11% of total cultivated area) spread over three agro-climatic regions of the state, out of which 91% comes under arid and semiarid climate type (Table 1). The important crops of the region are groundnut, bajara, sorghum, cotton, and wheat. The ground water availability is also scare. In the state recently the soil degradation through salinity has caught hold over 1.2 m ha of land, of which, about 0.3 m ha occurs in the coastal area. About 1125 km long coastal line is in Saurashtra and Kutch which comprises about 0.1079 m ha of saline land which needs to be treated for salinity reduction.
 

Introduction

Rainfall is a crucial component of the Earth’s climatic system that affects various aspects of human life. It has a direct impact on the ecosystems, water resources, agricultural production, and overall water management. Dependence on rainfall is particularly high in regions where it is the primary source of water, making it essential to have an accurate understanding of future rainfall patterns. Given its importance, rainfall forecasting is a critical concern for a wide range of stakeholders, including governments, businesses, risk management organizations, and the scientific community. However, predicting rainfall is a complex task as it is a random occurrence influenced by numerous factors (Samantaray et al., 2020). Even in similar weather conditions, the possibility of rainfall may vary. This makes historical data and predictive analytics crucial in forecasting future rainfall and taking necessary actions to manage its effects (Avinash et al., 2022). The impact of rainfall extends beyond water management to affect various human activities, including power generation, construction, tourism, and forestry, among others. Therefore, it is crucial to accurately forecast and analyze rainfall patterns to help mitigate the risks and consequences associated with it (Hernandez et al., 2016).

Natural disasters are of meteorological or hydrometeorological origin. Disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis are occasional, but rainfall-related hazards, flood or drought, are very frequent and thus call for proper monitoring of large-scale rainfall variation, and better manage- ment and planning to combat the problem(s). Variation in rainfall is very large spatially and temporally compared to any other atmospheric parameter, such as pressure or temperature. The large temporal variability in the Indian rainfall has produced frequent flood/ drought and periods of above/below normal rainfall for several centuries past. Areas of high rainfall and runoff are flooded in the summer monsoon season whereas others face water stress and drought conditions. The influence of global warming on rainfall variations over India is reported in numerous observational (Singh et al., 1991, 1992) and modelling studies (Lal, 1994). Though considerable rainwater enters the Indian territory from the Himalayan area, the major hydrological activities and water resources of the country are due to in situ rainfall occurrences, mostly summer monsoon rainfall during June–September. During a normal hydrological wet season the country receives 2911.064 bcm (billion cubic metres) rainwater of which 1856.947 bcm evaporates and 1054.117 bcm enters into surface hydrological processes (surface storage, streamflow/riverflow and deep aquifer storage) (Ranade et al., 2008). Rainfall events display large spatial variability due to variation in intensity, frequency and geographical location of the rain-producing weather systems, such as circular systems (low, depression, tropical cyclone and mid-tropospheric cyclone), linear systems (trough, meander, squall line and convergence zone) and wave disturbances (easterly and westerly waves). Rainfall in other seasons is equally important to monitor, though restricted to some parts of the country, such as winter rainfall over the extreme north, summer thunder showers over the southwest peninsula and northeast India, and post-monsoon rainfall over the south peninsula.

Introduction

Rainfed agriculture plays and will continue to play a dominant role in providing food and livestock for an increasing world population. Rainfed agriculture practiced on 80% of the world’ agriculture land area and generates about 70% of the world’s staple food including most of the food in poor communities in developing and least favoured areas. The most recent estimates have put global rainfed croplands at 1.75 billion ha (Bha) at the end of the last millennium, or about 5.5 times the irrigated area in the world. India ranks 1^st amongst the countries that practice rainfed agriculture both in terms of extent 86 (mha) and value production. Agriculture water management deals with the administration of a key input to agricultural production and offers to hope that land and water use will be intensified. Scarcity of water resources and growing of competition for water many sectors reduces its availability for irrigation. Effective management of water for crop production in water scarce area requires efficient approaches for increasing crop productivity and drought tolerance by genetic improvement and physiological regulation may be the means to achieve efficient and effective use of water. A single approaches would not be able to tackle the forthcoming challenge of producing more food and measures with engineering solutions (water saving technologies, irrigation methods, deficit irrigations, proper deficit sequencing, modernization of irrigation system) and agronomic and soil manipulation (seed priming, seedling age manipulation, direct or wet seeded rice. proper crop choice, integrating agriculture and aquaculture, increasing soil fertility and addition of organic matter, tillage and soil mulching). The term enhancing water productivity implies how we can most efficiently improve the outcome or yield of a crop with water currently in use, the answer lies in three main pathways of increasing water productivity with multiple use of water. Transpire most of the supplied water (minimization of unwanted loss), exchanged water for carbon dioxide more effectively inproducing biomass, and convert most of the biomass into grin or other farm of harvestable product. Many technologies to improve water productivity and the management of scarce water resource are available, amongst the most promising and efficient proven technique are limited supplemental application of irrigation for optimize the use of limited water and water harvesting for improved farm income in drier environment.Improving (water productivity, however requires exploiting not only water management but also other input such as improved cultivars, fertility management and cultural practice which influence crop productivity and yield.

Rainfed Agriculture - A historic view

Historically, famines and scarcities have been recorded from the earliest times in India. They were mentioned in the epic Mahabharata, and there is Jain legend of a 12-year famine in the fourth century A.D. During the reign of the Moghul Emperor Shah Jehan in 1630-32, The official historian recorded in ‘Badsha Namah’ that soup Kitchens were opened, a lakh and half coins were given in charity and one eleventh of land revenue was remitted in the drought effected area.

In the remote past, these famines were tided over by saving grains and fodder from years of bumper harvest and by migration of people and cattle to greener pastures. With the rise of population pressure on arable land, the effects of scarcity and famine became progressively severe because the traditional methods of tiding over were no longer adequate. The successive famines in the closing decades of the 19th century closing decades of the 19th century led to the setting up of three Famine commissions.

The Commissions made several suggestions which formed the basis of the Famine Code promulgated in 1883 onwards and adopted by the then provincial governments. Apart from the relief works to be taken up during famine, the Commission recommended protective irrigation projects in dry and scarcity area and establishment of department of agriculture at the center and in the province. Later, the Royal commission on Agriculture (1928) reiterated in its report the problem of dryland agriculture and recommended a close attention by departments of agriculture to these problems.

The first systematic approach was made in 1923 by setting up small plots at Manjri, near Poona. This was followed by a more comprehensive research scheme on dry farming sanctioned by the Imperial (then Indian) Council of Agricultural Research during 1933-35. Under the scheme, research was conducted in low rainfall areas at Rohtak, Solapur, Bijapur, Raichur and Agra. Based on the results of this scheme, a series of dry farming practices were evolved which were known as ‘ the Bombay Dry farming ‘, ‘ the Madras Dry farming ‘ and ‘ the Hyderabad Dry farming ‘ practices. These practices emphasized soil and water conservation as basic to dryland production programs. The Scheme was terminated in 1943, since it was felt that the immediate objectives had been achieved.

Rainfed agriculture constitutes 80% of global agriculture and plays a critical role in achieving global food security. However, growing world population, water scarcity, and climate change threaten rainfed farming through increased vulnerability to 1 droughts and other extreme weather events. Out of the total population of 7.3 billion, about 1 billion are food insecure and 60% of these live in South Asia and Sub Saharan Africa.

Out of 143 million hectares of net cropped area, about 75% is rainfed which contribute about 45% of food grains. These areas produce 55% rice, 25% wheat, 91% coarse cereals, 75% of pulses, 81% oilseeds and 69% cotton. More than 90% of sorghum, millet, groundnut and pulses is contributed from arid and semi-arid. The term rainfed farming (Dry farming) and dry land farming may be defined as conditions where rainwater is the only source of moisture for survival and growth of crops.

Importance of Rainfed Farming

In India, rain dependent areas are vast and they have a great contribution to make in agricultural production, with just 1/40th of the world land. Of the 141 M ha of net sown area in the country, 80 M ha is rainfed. Rainfed agriculture contributes 40% of food grain production and supports 2/3rds of the livestock population. Despite considerable progress in irrigation development over the five year plans, 85% of coarse cereals, 83% in pulses, 42% in rice, 70% in oilseeds and 65% in cotton are still cultivated as rainfed. A large portion of industrially important crops such as cotton, groundnut and castor are cultivated under dry land conditions and has a great contribution to make to the production of food, fibre, fuel and furniture timber etc. Though, impressive gains were noted in some of the rainfed crops in recent times, the gap between attainable and farmers’ yields still remain high which is a major cause of concern. Small and marginal farmers who are the backbone of rainfed farming are resource poor and risk averse. Moreover, both public and private investments in technology adoption and infrastructure have been quite low in rainfed agriculture resulting in a vicious circle of low yields-low net returns-low investments in improved technologies.

With several resource management problems emerging in irrigated regions, rainfed agriculture offers scope to contribute to the growing food needs of future particularly of pulses and edible oils. The high yield gaps between attainable yields realized by progressive farmers using improved technologies and those actually realized by the farmers at large in any given region offer scope for enhancing overall productivity of rainfed crops anywhere between 50 to 70% in the near term with the adoption of the available technologies, provided resource and institutional constraints in delivering the technology and inputs are addressed timely and adequately. With the promised break-through in yields through genetic manipulation and large scale adoption of water saving technologies through conservation agriculture, the yield gains can be further enhanced in the medium to long term.

The 80 million hectares of rainfed farming area is not uniform for resource base, opportunities and constraints. There are areas receiving high rainfall and fertile deep soils where crop yields can be enhanced significantly by double cropping combined with supplemental irrigation with water harvesting. For the relatively lower rainfall regions, the overall system productivity needs to be enhanced by integrating crops, trees and livestock. This agro-eco region based differential approach is the key for realizing the full potential of rainfed agriculture besides addressing the dimension of regional equity.

Importance of Rainfed Farming

In India, rain dependent areas are vast and they have a great contribution to make in agricultural production, with just 1/40^th of the world land. India supports over half of its buffaloes and over one seventh of its cattle and goats that also share land utilization with humans and add to the national wealth. The second largest number (after Africa) of drought victims of the world live in India, out of 143 m ha cultivated land about 43 m ha are under irrigation and the rest of the area (about 70%) is rainfed but all is not too dry. About 90% of it located in the north-west part, out of which 60% is located in Rajasthan and sustains a human population of 20 million and a total livestock population of 23 million. The dry land areas contribute about 42% of food grains, almost all the coarse grains and about 75% of pulses and oil seeds of the total production of the country. About 2/3 of rice and rapeseed mustard and 1/3 of wheat are grown in rainfed areas. A large portion of industrially important crops such as cotton, groundnut and castor are cultivated under dry land conditions and has a great contribution to make to the production of food, fibre, fuel and furniture timber etc. Dry land agriculture may be classified into three groups on the basis of annual rainfall.

a) Dry farming : Cultivation of crops in areas where annual rainfall is less then 750 mm and crop failures due to prolonged dry spells during crop period are most common. Dry farming is practiced in arid regions with the help of moisture conservation practices. Alternate land use system is suggested in this region.

b) Dryland farming: Cultivation of crops in areas where annual rainfall is more than 750 mm but less than 1150 mm is called dryland farming. Dry spells may occur, but crop failures are less frequent. Higher evapotranspiration (ET) than the total precipitation is the main reason for moisture deficit in these areas. The soil and moisture conservation measures are the key for dryland farming practice in semi-arid regions. Drainage facility may be required especially in black soils.

Introduction

India is the largest producer, importer and consumer of pulses in the world, accounting for 25 percent of the global production, 15 per cent trade and 27 per cent consumption, being an inseparable ingredient in the diet of the vast majority of population. Since time immemorial, pulses have been cultivated on marginal and sub-marginal lands, which are characterized by poor soil fertility and moisture stress, and consequently their yield potentials have not been realized. Further, more than 90 per cent areas under pulses are rainfed.

9.1 Introduction

Water is essential for all life and used in many different ways. It is an important part of the ecosystem in which the reproduction of the bio diversity also depends. Fresh water scarcity for agriculture, industry and household purpose is not only limited to the arid climatic regions, but also in areas having high rainfall. Water scarcity is caused by low water storage capacity, low infiltration rate, high evaporation demand and larger inter annual and annual fluctuations of precipitation.

1. Monsoon: Types and Behavior in India

The monsoon is a dynamic and vital climatic phenomenon in India, playing a pivotal role in shaping the country’s weather patterns, agricultural practices, and overall water resource management. This seasonal shift in wind patterns brings about distinct wet and dry periods, impacting various regions differently. Understanding the types and behavior of the monsoon is essential for effective planning and adaptation to this critical aspect of India’s climate (fig 1).

Types of Monsoon in India

1. Southwest Monsoon (June to September)

The southwest monsoon is the lifeline of India’s agriculture, bringing the much needed rainfall that supports a majority of the country’s crops.

Raising healthy and productive animals is a cornerstone of successful livestock farming. Whether the goal is milk production, meat, draught power or breeding, the foundation of a thriving animal enterprise lies in appropriate general management and feeding practices that consider the animal’s stage of growth, reproductive status and work requirements. Each class of animal—calves, heifers, pregnant and lactating females, dry animals, bulls and working animals—has unique physiological needs that must be addressed through specialized care and nutrition. Modern animal husbandry aims not just at higher productivity but also at ensuring animal welfare, sustainability and profitability. Scientific and stage-specific practices improve the animals' lifetime performance and reduce mortality, disease incidence and reproductive failure. In this context, proper rearing practices are not merely a routine, but a strategic necessity. The calf represents the future of the herd. Ensuring its survival, growth and development is crucial for long-term productivity

Introduction

The term ‘multipurpose trees’ covers all woody perennials used in agroforestry. Many authors have given many definitions of MPTs and MPTS. Burley and von Carlowitz (1984) reviewed many definitions and gave a synthesised definition which states that “multipurpose trees and shrubs (MPTS) are those which are deliberately grown and kept and managed for preferably more than one intended use, usually economically and/or ecologically motivated major products and / or services in any multipurpose land use systems, especially agroforestry systems”. The Forestry /Fuelwood Research Development Project (1992) precisely defined ‘multipurpose trees’ (MPTs) to mean tree species that are grown to provide more than one significant crop or function on the farm.

Introduction

In India, about half of the geographical area is classified as degraded and as such, these areas are not able to produce services of any value (Khan, 1988). So, there is growing concern about the serious degradation in the quality of forests, besides the significant reduction in the tree cover in the country. To answer the prevailing conditions in the current era, one needs better nursery management to produce quality planting stock.

Forest nurseries are an essential part of forestry programmes, which cover traditional or intensively managed commercial forestry with introduced species. Field plantations should do with more productive species, but of improved quality and vigour. In order to encourage the forest tree culture, the use of quality planting stock and its subsequent management is very important.

The average productivity of pulses (Table 1) is only 460 kg/ha but it ranges from 199 kg/ha (Moth bean) to 1719 kg/ha (Field pea). Year to year fluctuation in productivity of different pulses was also observed. The highest productivity i.e. 1067 kg/ha was observed during the year 2006-07 & the lowest productivity i.e. 497 kg/ha was recorded during the year 2008-09. The trend of area under pulse crop during the last ten years has also shown a wide fluctuation. Year to year and crop to crop variations are most pronounced.  The crop wise major pulse growing districts in Rajasthan are as follows.

The average productivity of pulses (Table 1) is only 460 kg/ha but it ranges from 199 kg/ha (Moth bean) to 1719 kg/ha (Field pea). Year to year fluctuation in productivity of different pulses was also observed. The highest productivity i.e. 1067 kg/ha was observed during the year 2006-07 & the lowest productivity i.e. 497 kg/ha was recorded during the year 2008-09. The trend of area under pulse crop during the last ten years has also shown a wide fluctuation. Year to year and crop to crop variations are most pronounced.  The crop wise major pulse growing districts in Rajasthan are as follows.

Endometritis is one of the leading causes of reproductive inefficiency, infertility and decreased milk yield in high yielding dairy cows and buffaloes as well as in other species of animals and are associate with severe economic loss. Indiscriminate use of antimicrobial agents has resulted in development of resistance to the synthetic antimicrobials. Plant-derived active principles have promising potential to act as an alternative to conventional antimicrobial agents. In the present study, an attempt was made to investigate the mechanism of action of Prosopis juliflora leaves (PJ) extract against clinical isolates of E. coli.. Out of 42 clinical samples of uterine discharges and 23 isolates from cattle and buffaloes having history of uterine infection, we identified two isolates as virulent E. coli based on the cultural, biochemical and genotypic characterization. Ethanolic PJ extract showed presence of large quantity of total phenolic acid and flavonoid contents as well as promising in vitro antioxidant and radical scavenging activity. PJ extract exhibited a marked in vitro antibacterial effect against S4 isolate and reference strain (ATCC 25922) as evidenced by agar well diffusion test with MIC value of 0.39 mg/ml. This antibacterial action of PJ extract was shown to initiate at 6 h post-exposure while the complete bactericidal action was achieved at 12 h post-exposure.

Endometritis is one of the leading causes of reproductive inefficiency, infertility and decreased milk yield in high yielding dairy cows and buffaloes as well as in other species of animals and are associate with severe economic loss. Indiscriminate use of antimicrobial agents has resulted in development of resistance to the available antimicrobials. Plant-derived active principles have promising potential to act as an alternative to conventional antimicrobial agents. In the present study, an attempt was made to investigate the mechanism of action of Eucalyptus robusta leaves (ER) extract against resistant bacterial isolates. Out of 70 clinical samples of uterine discharges from cattle and buffaloes having history of uterine infection, we have identified one isolate as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus. As per the CLSI guideline, this isolate (S4) was found to be catalase +ve, oxidase –ve and possess mecA and coaA genes along with shown resistance to cefoxitin and MIC breakpoint for oxacillin was >4 µg/ml. Methanolic extract of ER reconstituted in water showed presence of eucalyptol (marker compound) along with other major bioactive phytoconstituents following GC-MS analysis. ER extract exhibited marked in vitro antibacterial effect against S4 isolate and MRSA (ATCC 33591) as evidenced by agar well diffusion test with MIC value of 0.3125 mg/ml.

The Ramayana written by sage Valmiki is one of the great epics of the Sanskrit language. It is most religiously regarded and popular book in Hinduism. The book is believed to be complied between 300 B.C.E. – 200 AD. However, the original story could be as old 500 B.C.E. (Goldman, 1984). There are many other versions of the epic in various regional languages found in India and South Asia (Raghunathan, 1981; Arya,1998; Dutt, 2004; Mukherjee, 2015; Sharma and Arya, 2022).

As per literature references, the name ‘Ramanaya’ is composed of two words, ‘Rama’ and ‘Aya?a’. Rama, the name of the main character of the Epic, has two contextual meanings. In the Atharvaveda, it means 'dark’, dark-coloured, ‘black' and is related to the word ‘ratri’ (night) which means 'darkness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in the Mahabharata, is 'pleasing’, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful. The word ‘Ayana’ means travel or journey. Thus, Ramaya?a means ‘Rama's Journey’ from his kingdom to various places, forests during his life time (Anonymous, 1960; Tulsidas, 1966; Murthy, 2003; Kishore, 2007; Rajagopalachari, 2013).

Ramayana contains over 24,000 couplet verses, in its full form, which are divided into following seven ‘Ka??as’ (booklets) - Balaka??a, Ayodhyaka??a, Ara?yaka??a, Ki?kindhaka??a, Sundaraka??a, Yuddhaka??a, Uttaraka??a and about 500 sargas (chapters). It is regarded as one of the longest epic poems written in history (Keshavadas, 1988; Debroy, 2017; Gupta, 2021).

morally right man in the world? Narada replied that such a man is Rama, son of King Dasharatha of Ayodhya. Valmiki wanted to know more about Rama and proceeded to take bath when he saw two birds in playful mood and was happy. Suddenly, a hunter hiding in the bush shot one of the two birds. Valmiki became painful and chanted some dialogues in curse which ultimately created a new form of sloka. This was the beginning of the main narrative (Goldman, 1984; Sachithanantham, 2004).

The rambutan is native to Malaysia and commonly cultivated throughout the archipelago and southeast Asia. Though a close relative of the lychee and an equally desirable fruit, this member of the Sapindaceae is not nearly as well-known. Botanically, it is Nephelium lappaceum L. (syns. Euphoria nephelium DC.; Dimocarpus crinita Lour.). In the vernacular, it is generally called rambutan (in French, ramboutan or ramboutanier; in Dutch, ramboetan); occasionally in India, ramboostan.

Genus : Nephelium 
Species : lappaceum L.
Family : Sapindaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 22

Rambutan is one fruit from the Malay Archipelago which has become very popular in its place of origin and is well distributed here. Besides, rambutan a number of other valuable tropical fruits are present which are yet to be cultivated extensively in other tropical and subtropical parts of the world. In Singapore and Penang the fruit grows in abundance. Though very popular in Malay Archipelago, Sri Lanka, however it is unknown in India, Madagascar, Mauritius etc. The fruits common name has been derived from Malayan word rambut referring to hairs by which the fruit surface is covered with. The fruit is also known by other names like Rambustan, rambotang, ramboetan etc. The crop is strictly tropical in climate requirements and is very sensitive to frost. For best performance it likes a hot and moist climate and is a major factor why the crop has not succeeded in most other places.

A. Diseases

1. Alternaria leaf spot

Occurrence & severity status

In the years 2012 and 2013, black leaf spot disease was observed on ramie plants in Hunan and Hubei Provinces, China (Yu et al., 2016). Yu et al. (2016) claimed that their report was the first report of Alternaria leaf spot of ramie in China.

Symptoms

In the field, the symptoms of this disease included dark green to black big spots on leaves (Fig. 20A), often resulting in upwardly curled leaf margins (Yu et al., 2016).

Ramsar sites, designated under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, play a crucial role in global biodiversity conservation by providing vital habitats for numerous species and maintaining ecological processes. These sites are often located within biodiversity hotspots, regions characterized by high levels of endemic species and significant habitat loss. The intersection of Ramsar sites and biodiversity hotspots highlights the importance of conserving wetlands, which serve as critical ecosystems for both terrestrial and aquatic life. This paper explores the ecological significance of Ramsar sites, their contributions to sustaining biodiversity, and the challenges they face due to climate change, pollution, and urbanization. Through effective management and conservation strategies, Ramsar sites can enhance global efforts to preserve biodiversity and mitigate the impacts of environmental degradation, ensuring a sustainable future for both wildlife and human communities.

RAPD stands for Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA. It is a type of PCR reaction, but the segments of DNA that are amplified are random. The scientist performing RAPD creates several arbitrary, short primers (8-12 nucleotides), then proceeds with the PCR using a large template of genomic DNA, hoping that fragments will amplify. By resolving the resulting patterns, a semi-unique profile can be gleaned from a RAPD reaction.

No knowledge of the DNA sequence for the targeted gene is required, as the primers will bind somewhere in the sequence, but it is not certain exactly where. This makes the method popular for comparing the DNA of biological systems that have not had the attention of the scientific community, or in a system in which relatively few DNA sequences are compared (it is not suitable for forming a DNA databank). Because it relies on a large, intact DNA template sequence, it has some limitations in the use of degraded DNA samples. Its resolving power is much lower than targeted, species specific DNA comparison methods, such as short tandem repeats. In recent years, RAPD is used to characterize, and trace, the phylogeny of diverse plant and animal species.

RAPD stands for Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA. It is a type of PCR reaction, but the segments of DNA that are amplified are random. The scientist performing RAPD creates several arbitrary, short primers (8-12 nucleotides), then proceeds with the PCR using a large template of genomic DNA, hoping that fragments will amplify. By resolving the resulting patterns, a semi-unique profile can be gleaned from a RAPD reaction.

No knowledge of the DNA sequence for the targeted gene is required, as the primers will bind somewhere in the sequence, but it is not certain exactly where. This makes the method popular for comparing the DNA of biological systems that have not had the attention of the scientific community, or in a system in which relatively few DNA sequences are compared (it is not suitable for forming a DNA databank). Because it relies on a large, intact DNA template sequence, it has some limitations in the use of degraded DNA samples. Its resolving power is much lower than targeted, species specific DNA comparison methods, such as short tandem repeats. In recent years, RAPD is used to characterize, and trace, the phylogeny of diverse plant and animal species.

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 A random variable (r.v) is a real number x connected with the outcomes of a random experiment.

Q.2 In tossing of a balanced die at one time, the number coming on the upper most face of the die is a random variable x which takes any one out of 6 values taken as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

Q.3 Let s be the sample space associated with a given random experiment. A real valued function defned on s and taking values in R (-∞,∞) is called one dimensional random variable.

Q.4 In general a n dimensional random variable is simply a function whose domain is S and whose range is a collection of n-tuples of real members (vectors in n-space).

Introduction

In any experiment, for instance, a varietal trial or a treatment trial, the main purpose of the experimental design would be to detect the differences among the varieties or treatments. This assumes, as an obvious prerequisite that the experimental units, such as plots or animals, be as alike as possible so that differences observed in responses, such as yield in varietal trial, could be attributable to the varietal or treatment differences. But more often than not, this condition is not realized to a satisfactory degree in practice due to heterogeneity present in experimental units. In a field experiment, for instance, a big piece of land might be quite heterogeneous regarding soil fertility, moisture content, salinity, etc; so that experimental plots marked on this land would differ widely among themselves, though plots nearer to each other would be more alike or homogeneous than the plots scattered distant apart; also in the case of animal experiments, animals forming the experimental units might be heterogeneous regarding their ages , weights, genetic composition, etc. With such experimental units in the experiment, the variability produced in the observations will be comparatively high so that only large treatment differences are detectable, since small differences are obsecured by large error variability.

The randomized complete block design (RCBD), is perhaps the most widely used design of all experimental designs, mainly for its simplicity, flexibility and validity. The main objective of the design is either to control, remove or reduce the variability due to heterogeneity in experimental material, which is quite irrelevant for treatment comparisons. In CRD, the error variability as estimated from the residual sum of squares will be considerably high. The RCBD is a device introduced in this design for separating out the variability due to heterogeneity among experimental units from the variability due to all extraneous sources, thus purifying in one sense. The design is especially suitable for field experiments where the number of treatments is not large and the experimental area has a predictable productivity gradient.The primary distinguishing feature of the RCBD is the presence of blocks of equal size, each of which contains all the treatments.

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the randomized block design (RBD), detailing its theoretical concept, layout, and a detailed segment on pooled ANOVA concepts. It explains the mathematical models for RBD and how to interpret the results from ANOVA tables in this context. The chapter also offers step-by-step guidance for analyzing RBD, Factorial RBD, and pooled RBD ANOVA using R.

Randomized Block Design

The RBD is a widely used experimental design in statistics and research, particularly when dealing with certain specific conditions:

• Homogeneity within blocks: RBD is ideal when there is inherent variability in the experimental units, but this variability can be grouped into homogenous blocks. Each block contains a complete set of treatments, and the blocks themselves account for the variability.

• Principles of experimental design: RBD adheres to the core principles of experimental design, namely randomization, replication, and local control. Randomization is used within blocks to assign treatments, ensuring that the comparison of treatments is fair.

• Replication across blocks: In RBD, each treatment is replicated across different blocks. This replication enhances the reliability and robustness of the experimental results.

• Managing uncontrolled variability: RBD is particularly effective in field experiments or situations where external variability (e.g., soil type, light conditions) cannot be completely controlled. By grouping similar units into blocks, RBD effectively reduces the impact of this uncontrolled variability on the treatment effects.

• Improvement in experimental accuracy: The use of blocks to organize the experimental units usually leads to a reduction in the error variance compared to CRD. This enhances the accuracy and precision of the experiment.

Objective: To amplify DNA using RAPD primers and study on agarose gel.

Background information:

RAPD markers are decamer (10 nucleotide length) DNA fragments from PCR amplification of random segments of genomic DNA with single primer of arbitrary nucleotide sequence and which are able to differentiate between genetically distinct individuals. RAPD is applied to analyze the genetic diversity by random primers. Unlike traditional PCR analysis, RAPD does not require any prior DNA sequence information of the target organism: the identical 10-mer primers will or will not amplify a segment of DNA, depending on positions complementary with primers' sequence. For example, no fragment is produced if primers annealed too far apart or 3' ends of the primers are not facing each other. Therefore, if a mutation has occurred in the templ that was earlier complementary with primer, a PCR product will not be produced, resulting in a different pattern of amplified DNA segments on the gel. RAPD is a dominant marker means it cannot distinguish between heterozygous; single copy and homozygous; two copies. Rarely RAPD markers may be Co-dominant where different fragment length of DNA is amplified from the single locus. PCR is a molecular technique used for amplification of DNA, a complete enzyme based chemical reaction, therefore, the concentration and quality of template DNA, concentrations of PCR components, and the PCR cycling conditions may greatly influence the outcome. Thus, the RAPD technique is notoriously laboratory dependent and needs carefully developed laboratory protocols to be reproducible. Mismatches between the primer and the template may result in the total absence of PCR product or decreased amplified product. Thus, the RAPD results can be difficult to interpret.

1. ‘Agrostoogical’ refers to cultivation of_____________. (Grasses)
2. Land on which the potential plant community is composed periodically of native grass, forbs and shrubs valuable for forage and in sufficient quantity to justifying grazing use is called as_____________. (Rangeland)
3. The basic object of range management is to_____________ and_____________ the rangeland for higher production of fodder, rich in nutritive value and palatability. (Improve & maintain)
4. ICAR had carried a grassland survey of India in 1954 by Wnyte, Venkatramanan and Dabadghao had found_____________ types of grass land in different environment. (8)
5. The main reason for the enormous increase in livestock population is_____________. (Social attitude of the people)
6. All the vegetation consumed by grazing animals including fruits and twigs of trees and shrubs is called_____________. (Pasturage & forage)
7. The practice by which the gap can be bridged between the requirement and availability of animal feeds and fodder is known as_____________. (Grass land techniques)
8. The scientists_____________ have recognised five type of grass covers in India. (Dabadghao & Shankar Narayan, 1979)
9. The maximum area of about 2.8 milloin square kilometre is covered under_____________ type of grassland in India. (Phragmites Saccharum type)

14.1 Introduction

The theory of simple correlation (r_xy), regression coefficients (b_yx & b_xy) and their test of significance have been discucsed in chapter 13. The test of significance of observed partial correlation coefficient p₁₂₃(k+2) and multiple correlation coefficient R₁₂₃, have also been discussed in sections 13.4 and 13.5 respectively. Now in this chapter mainly the process of how to calculate spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, partial correlation and regression coefficients and multiple correlation coefficient using their fundamental definitions as well as appropriate statistical formule in terms of pairwise simple correlation coefficient r_ij (i = j = 1, 2, 3) in trivariate populations have been provided to make the students and its users to be familiar with basic and crystal clear concepts of the subject matter with the help of an empirical studies based on some original data on (X₁, X₂, X₃). Here X₁ has been considered as study variate and (X₂, X₃) as covariates.