eChapters

Acid soils are found in India in about 93 million hectares ( Table 1) and they occur in the Himalayan region, the great Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains, peninsular plateau and uplands and the coastal plains including island eco-systems under varying environmental conditions of landscape, geology, climate and vegetation. Conditions which are conducive for the formation of acid soils, such as high rainfall coupled with high temperature encouraging intense weathering and loss of alkali and alkaline earth metals with a simultaneous accumulation of iron and aluminium hydroxy compounds or the formation of free acidic substances in the humid forest foot hill regions, exist in some region or other in almost all the states in India.  A soil with pH less than 7.0 is deemed as an acid soil (Soil Survey Staff,1951). However, for characterization and classification, acid soils may be defined as those having pH less than 5.5 in 1:1 water extract (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).

Lipids are a diverse group of chemical molecules. They are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Lipids include long-chain hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, fatty acids, and their derivatives, especially, glycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids and sulfolipids. Other compounds like sterols, fatty acid esters of sterols, vitamins A, D, E, and K, carotenoids, and other poly-isoprenoids also are part of the lipids. Oils and fats are mainly triglycerides and neutral molecules. Those in the liquid state at ambient temperatures are called oils while those in the solid state are called fats. Lipids and lipid components have varied uses in the food and non food sectors. Vegetable and animal matter contain a variety of these constituents in different proportions. It is neccessry to evaluate the composition and quality of these constituents from the point of view of their utility.

Reproduction

Since the life of an individual plant is limited in duration, it has developed certain mechanism by which it can reproduce itself inorder to continue the perpetuation of the species and also to multiply in number. Mode of reproduction determine the genetic constitution of crop plants, that is, whether the plants normally homozygous or heterozygous. A knowledge of the mode of reproduction of crop plants is also important for making artificial hybrids. The various modes of reproduction found in crop plants may be broadly grouped into the following two categories : (i) Asexual and (2) Sexual.

Asexual Reproduction

Heterosis breeding systems depend upon the reproduction system of plants, whether the plant is propagated asexually or sexually. Therefore, before development of hybrids, information regarding type of flower, flowering habits and floral biology is required in hybridization programme (emasculation and pollination). In a sexual reproduction, plants develop from vegetative parts of plants (vegetative propagation) or may develop from unfertilized gametes, ovular tissues, and modified cells (apomixes). Vegetative reproduction includes plant regeneration from underground stems such as tubers in potato, bulbs in onion and garlic, underground tubers such as sweet potato, corms in yams, and rhizomes in ginger and turmeric. In certain cases, aerial parts are used for propagation as stem cuttings in tapioca, sweet potato, watercress, and drumstick, root suckers in curry leaf and globe artichoke and turfts in chive. In apomixes, sexual reproduction or gamete fusion is replaced with other form of asexual reproduction. In this case, embryo develops without fertilization. Apomixis may be of different types: (1) Apogamy—where embryo develops from a gametic cell of embryo sac other than egg cell. Apogamy may be haploid or diploid. Diploid apogamy has been reported in onion. (2) Polyembryony—where more than one embryo develops from a seed, resulting in more than one seedling. In this case, embryos usually develop from nucellus integuments, or chalaza in addition to normal syngametic embryo. (3) Parthenogensis where embryo develops from an unfertilized egg. This may be at haploid or diploid level. Sometimes, embryo development take place from unfertilized egg of a diploid plant. This is called haploid parthenogenesis. It originates in plants due to environmental effects, especially due to effects of high or low temperature, use of foreign pollen, application of chemicals, and use of irradiated pollen. Haploids parthenogenesis produces haploids.

2.1  Write True/False

Q.1    From theoretical point of view, the most general method of estimation is the “Maximum Likelihood Estimation Method.”
Q.2    The method of “maximum Likelihood Estimation” was initially formulated by the statistician named as “C.F. Gauss.”

Leisa

Sustainable agriculture is an important element of the overall effort to make human activities compatible with the demands of the earth’s eco-system. Thus, an understanding of the different approaches to ecological agriculture is necessary if we want to utilise the planet’s resources wisely.

While sustainable agriculture is based on long-term goals but not a specific set of farming practices, it is usually accompanied by a reduction of purchased inputs in favor of managing on-farm resources. A good example is reliance on biologically-fixed nitrogen from legumes versus manufactured nitrogen fertilizers. Low-input agriculture is one of several alternative farming systems whose methods are adaptable to sustainable agriculture.

Low-input farming is based on a reduction—but not necessarily elimination—of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and herbicides. Farmers are adopting these practices primarily to reduce costs, but also because they want to minimize impact on the environment or because they perceive future pesticide regulations.

In a search for information on how to farm with fewer chemicals, it is helpful to examine alternative farming systems in existence that largely exclude chemicals in favor of biological farming practices. Experiences of producers who have successfully practiced these methods are valuable to farmers considering a transition to low-input sustainable agriculture.

Omics technologies based on genes and proteins involved in the nematode activities and the plant resistance responses are key factors to novel nematode management. Techniques such as next-generation sequencing of genomes and transcriptomes, RNAi, PIs, MAS, chemo-disruptive peptides and genetic transformation systems with reproducible results must be available within phytonematodes management strategies to enhance crop yields (Abd-Elgawad, 2022). Linking long-read sequencing to the use of high density genetic mapping can also support the detection and characterization of nematode-virulent genes. Progress in computational biology, bioinformatics, and analyzing the omics large-scale data can efficiently boost these techniques to offer accurate recognition of components and pathways engaged in nematode parasitism and plant response. Updated genome-editing devices will serve classical plant breeding and precisely translate how gene actions are linked to phenotypic performances. Yet, these methods must be cautiously used to avoid unwanted effects such as nematode virulence and pleiotropic impacts on qualitative and quantitative crop yields. Definite issues such as those related to the transfer of multiple disease resistance traits, gene original construct, and specificity of the virulent nematodes to the R-gene may arise in particular cases.

Microscope

A microscope can be defined as an optical instrument consisting of a lens or a combination of lenses for getting magnified images of minute objects. A simple microscope is essentially an ordinary magnifying lens held on an adjustable stand. It can give magnification up to 20 times the size of the object.

A compound microscope consists of two separate lens system, the objective and eye piece (ocular) mounted on a holder known as body tube and with adjustment for illuminating the objects. It gives much greater magnification (100 to 1500 times) when compared to a simple microscope.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. National Agriculture Scenario

Agriculture is the most important sector of Indian Economy, contributes 23 per cent of national GDP, accounts for 11 per cent of exports, and 50 per cent of billion depends on it. Interestingly India feeds 16 per cent of population with 2.4 per cent of global land.

In the last five decades, there has been a steady and spectacular transformation of Indian agriculture from the food deficit to food sufficient status. Diffusion and adoption of modern technologies, high yielding varieties, dedicated efforts of farmers, extension personnel and scientists and also programmatic support of central and state governments have all contributed significantly from 50 million tonnes in 1950-51 to land mark achievement of 230.67 million tonnes of food production in 2008-09.

Soil Classification

Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use.

Soil classification is grouping of objects in orderly and logical manner into classes based on the properties of soils (differentiating characters) for the purpose of studying and identifying them. The soil individuals are grouped into classes of the lower category (soil series) which are grouped into classes of higher categories (soil orders). The lower categories are defined by large number of differentiating characters and higher category by a few differentiating characteristics.

For soil resources, experience has shown that a natural system approach to classification, i.e. grouping soils by their intrinsic property (soil morphology), behaviour, or genesis, results in classes that can be interpreted for many diverse uses. Differing concepts of pedogenesis and differences in the significance of morphological features to various land uses can affect the classification approach. Despite these differences, in a well-constructed system, classification criteria group similar concepts so that interpretations do not vary widely. This is in contrast to a technical system approach to soil classification, where soils are grouped according to their fitness for a specific use and their edaphic characteristics.

Abstract: Gladiolus, commonly known as ‘sword lily’ is native to South Africa. Most members of genus are heteroploids. It has pivotal place as cut flower with novel phenotypes (Grandifloras, Primulinus, Butterfly, Miniature, Face Ups, Orchideola), cultivars available on world market. Modern types are evolved through conventional breeding and very few through mutation breeding. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of fragrant, winter hardy and disease resistant cultivars. Breeders have reported close linkages in variety of traits. Cross pollinating nature coupled with high heterozygosity makes heredity transmission unpredictable. Future crop idiotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this important crop during the next millennium.

Ice cream over the years has come to acquire an easy acceptance as a healthy, nutritious and hygienic food for the aged, sick, growing children and adults. Its popularity, as demonstrated on all types of occasions is growing fast and its potential appears to be unlimited.

Gone are the days when the word “Ice Cream” was synonymous with strawberry and vanilla flavours or the innocuous orange. Ice cream is available in many forms, flavours and packages. Today, there are exotic variations to titilate the palate, such as Jingle Bells, Goody goody Gum Drops, Champagne Snowballs, Mr. Frost, Tutty Fruity, Butter Scotch, etc, waiting to launch customers on a gastronomical voyage.

It is uncertain how long ice cream has been produced, however, the International Association of Ice cream Manufacturers (1966) traces the beginnings of ice cream and frozen desserts to iced drinks enjoyed by Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. down through the years Nero in the first century A. D., Marco Polo in the 13^th century through Italy and France to England in 1643-1649, and to America around 1700. From a very old writings it has been learnt that the Chinese liked a frozen product made by mixing fruit juices with snow, what we now call water ice. It is believed that ice cream evolved from iced beverages and water ices that were popular in the medieval period. This technique later spread to ancient Greece and Rome, where the wealthy, were partial to frozen desserts.

After disappearing for several centuries, ice creams in various forms reappeared in Italy in the Middle Ages, most probably as a result of Marco Polo returning to Italy in 1295 after a 16-17 year stay in China, where he had learnt to appreciate a frozen dessert based on milk. There is no gainsaying the fact that the true origin of ice cream cannot be proclaimed with a fair measure of certainty but, all the same, the Italians claim that Benaroo Bountalenti, a resident of Tuscany, invented ice cream in the early 1300s. From Italy ice cream spread over Europe during the 17^th century, and for long remained a luxury product for the royal courts. Italian ice cream was very popular in London around 1870.

Technology Assessment and Refinement
What is Technology Assessment?
Technology assessment serves as a method or tool for forecasting future technological needs. It helps in envisioning or predicting potential technological developments required by users and in identifying areas where existing technologies can be improved. In agriculture, evaluating a technology means understanding its worth or effectiveness. This evaluation can be done by researchers, farmers, or other relevant stakeholders. The knowledge obtained from such evaluations is essential for creating new technologies, improving existing ones, and ensuring their successful adoption by end users.
The approach to technology assessment varies depending on who is conducting the evaluation, the purpose behind it, and the specific characteristics of the technology being assessed. It is commonly defined as the organized and intentional use of knowledge, skills, and experience to carry out a task or deliver a service that contributes to the well-being of society.
Technology Assessment: Definition and Objectives
According to Strasser (1972), technology assessment is a structured approach to planning and forecasting that identifies various options and associated costs. It considers not only economic factors but also environmental and social impacts, both internal and external to the technology being evaluated. The assessment places emphasis on analyzing both the positive and negative consequences of technologies. As such, institutions involved in the development, refinement, and dissemination of agricultural technologies have a significant stake in conducting technology assessments.

Vegetable refers to the edible parts of plant such as leaf, root, stem, fruit, rhizome, corm or seeds consumed directly or after cooking. Vegetables are an important constituent of balanced diet taken for good health. Vegetables are good source of dietary fibre, protein, essential vitamins, minerals and antioxidants. Hence, vegetables play a vital role for human health. In urban areas, vegetables can be grown in the backyard, rooftop and terrace. Harvesting vegetables from own garden has a separate satisfaction. The vegetables produced in home gardens are of superior quality as those do not contain any harmful toxic substance. Growing vegetables in the home premises will reduce the daily expenditure of a family. In urban areas, vegetable can be taken in small patches in the backyard to fulfil the family requirement. In absence of surplus land area, it can be grown in pots, containers or polythene bags placed on the rooftop or terrace. Some vegetables can also be grown on the rooftop in a specially prepared bed with shallow depth of soil. In this chapter, discussion is made for cultivation of vegetables in small patches.

Introduction

Mustard and rapeseed crops were grown since 3000 BC in the Indus valley and their use has been mentioned in the Ayurveda Simhata. Use of mustard oil is recorded in the last few centuries of the pre Christian era.

The global production of rapeseed-mustard is at 72 million tons (USDA), while that of the oil is 24 million tons. Currently China is the largest producer of mustard in the world. China, India and Pakistan grow about 90% of the world production of mustard. Rapeseed and mustard form the third important group of oilseed crops in the world after soybean (Glycine max) and palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq).

The word ‘rape’ and ‘mustard’ have been derived from the word rapum meaning turnip and European practice of mixing the sweet ‘must’ of old wine with crushed seeds of black mustard (Brassica nigra L. Koch) to form a hot paste, respectively (Hemingway 1976). Among the seven edible oilseeds cultivated in India, rapeseed-mustard (Brassica spp.) contributes 26.2% in the total production of oilseeds. In India, the rapeseed-mustard group is the third most important edible oilseed after soybean and groundnut, sharing 27.8% in the India’s oilseed economy. In India rapeseed and mustard are grown during the post-rainy winter season over an area of 7.49 million ha. Around 20% of the total area under rapeseed-mustard in India is totally under dryland cultivation subject to vagaries associated with dryland agriculture.

Introduction

Cultivated sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), has originated in India (Bedigian,1984; Bedigian et al., 1985; Bedigian and Harlan,1986) and is considered to be the oldest oilseed crop known to man (Ram et al 1990). Archaeological records indicate that it was known and used in India for more than 5,000 years and is recorded as a crop in Babylon and Assyria some 4,000 years ago (Borchani et al., 2010). Sesame crop is being grown in many parts of the world. Sesame seed is an important source of edible oil and is also widely used as a spice and condiment. The seed contains 50-60% oil which has excellent stability due to the presence of natural antioxidants such as sesamolin, sesamin and sesamol (Brar and Ahuja 1979).

Sesamum indicum L., belongs to the family Pedaliaceae, which contains sixteen genera and sixty species under the generic name Sesamum. The other species related to sesame viz., Sesamum angustifolium, Sesamum radiatum and Certotheca sesamoides (false sesame) are cultivated in Africa. The fact that the crop is cultivated in India from times immemorial is testified by the excavations of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro of undivided India (Watt,1966). The crop was introduced into Brazil by the Portuguese (Weiss, 2000).

World production of sesame seed didn’t show any marked increase for the past three decades, although sesame oil is used largely in Asia and Africa. The current world production of sesame stands at 6.1 million tons as in the year 2016. The sesame production declined world over since the crop had to face a tough competition against other oilseed crops (Weiss, 2000). Most of the world trade on sesame revolves around the seed. The shipments of seed cake and oil are negligible.

Introduction

Safflower belongs to the family Asteraceae, which is also called Compositae, the aster, daisy, or composite family of the flowering-plant order Asterales.tribe Cardueae (thistles) and subtribe Centaureinae . With more than 1,911 genera and 32,913 accepted species of herbs, shrubs, and trees distributed throughout the world, Asteraceae is one of the largest plant families. The species of the family are annuals and perennials of worldwide distribution, consisting of ornamentals, vegetables and spice or medicinal plants.

The genus Carthamus L., contains about 25 valid species distributed from Spain, North America and West Asia to India. Many are indigenous to the Mediterranean region, but only one viz., Carthamus tinctorius L. (safflower) is cultivated for oil. Safflower is a diploid species (2n=24). The probable origin of cultivated safflower is the area bounded by the Eastern Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf.

Safflower is grown as edible oil crop in pots, as strip crop, on field borders or around home-steads in the tropical Asia, Africa, Russia and China. Safflower is more drought resistant than other oilseed crops and can yield well on drylands, exploiting sub-soil moisture. (Lovelli et al., 2007). Safflower is also salt tolerant and can be grown on soils affected by some degree of salinity (Bassil and Kaffka, 2002).

The safflower plant has a history of long domestication, initially for orange red dye obtained from florets of the plant. The plant was identified as growing in Egypt in 2000 BC, introduced from Euphrates (Weiss, 2000). Safflower oil has unique variation in fatty acid composition (Knowels, 1969). In general, linoleic acid is the dominant fatty acid ranging from 70 to 78% in local types. In improved types oleic acid ranges from 70 to 75%.

Abstract

Solid waste, the creation of human being, is taken today the shape of a Demon to kill its creator by polluting breathing air, drinking water and essential food materials. It spreads different infectious killer diseases if not disposed off timely. Municipal authorities are spending lakhs of rupees to collect and transport solid wastes to dump-yard. Presence of both biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes together in dustbin makes the disposal problematic and Municipal workers handling solid wastes suffer injury and disease infections. Municipal authority can clear about 50 percent of solid wastes either by dumping in low lying areas or by burning in open places causing unwanted environmental pollutions. Incinerations with electric producing facility, pyrolysis, dumping in properly built concrete landfills, Pelletization are scientific techniques for solid waste management. But recycling as resource materials is the best economical approach. Since non-biodegradable wastes can be sold to scrap dwellers for further processing it offers income opportunity. Biodegradable wastes can be converted to good quality vermicompost, which is also a marketable product and fetch good income. Different activities during recycling of solid wastes offer employment opportunities to literate & illiterate, skilled & unskilled, male & female, young & old workers. The present ‘Treatment at the end of pipe’ approach is to be changed by ‘Treatment at source’ approach.

1.1 Introduction
Irrigation is the artificial application of water needed to the crop field. It is the process of uniformly wetting the root zone depth. The wetting may be done over the land surface or below of it. The application of water in excess to the requirement or accumulation of water in crop field due to rain or unplanned seepage is not considered as irrigation. However, irrigation is supplemental to rainfall. Irrigation water is considered as single most important input for crop production.

Agriculture has been very successful in addressing the food and fiber needs of today’s world population. However, there are increasing concerns about the economic, environmental and social costs of this success. Integrated agricultural systems may provide a means to address these concerns while increasing sustainability. Integrated agricultural systems have multiple enterprises that interact in space and time, resulting in a synergistic resource transfer among enterprises. In an integrated agricultural system, management decisions, such as type and amount of commodities to produce, are predetermined. Full integration of agricultural systems at the producer or community scale may help in slowing or reversing some of the detrimental environmental and economic problems associated with specialized industrial agriculture. Modern agriculture requires intensive inputs.