eChapters

This family is represented by about 62 genera and 2,252 species, chiefly distributed in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Eastern Asia and eastern North America are the regions of their most common occurrence. The common genera, of which over 150 or more species have so far been reported, include Ranunculus (400), Aconitum (300), Delphinium (250), Clematis (250), Anemone (150) and Thalictrum (150). Some species occur in Arctic and Alpine zones. However, they are rare in tropics. Twenty genera and over 165 species of this family have so far been reported from India. Plants of this family flower mainly during winter in our country. Selected Indian Genera and Species
• Ornamentals: Many Ranunculaceae have showy flowers and are grown as ornamentals in gardens. Some of such ornamentals are Aconitum napellus (aconite), Anemone parviflora (wind flower), Aquilegia coerulea (columbine), Caltha palustris (Marsh marigold), Clematis virginiana (traveller’s joy), Delphinium ajacis (larkspur), Helleborus (Christmas rose), Nigella damascena (love-in-a-mist), Paeonia emodi (Peony), Ranunculus aquatilis, R. seleratus (cedery peaved crow foot).

ABSTRACT

Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers were used for characterizing eleven banana (Musa AAB Plantain Subgroup) clones using 40 decamer primers. Eight primers, which produced reproducible banding patterns, yielded 42 scorable bands with an average of 5.25 bands per primer. The amplification products ranged in size from 400 to 1500 bp. A genetic similarity matrix was constructed using the Jaccard’s coeffecient method. The pair wise similarity coefficient values varied between 0.3333 and 0.9355. Based on the coefficients, distances between the clones were computed using SYSTAT software package. In the dendrogram constructed by the nearest neighbour (single- link) method (Krzanowski, 1988), all the eleven clones were found grouped under five clusters. Attu Nendran, Changanasseri Nendran, Changazhikodan, Kaliethan, Koonoor Ethan and Quintal Banana formed the largest cluster. Manjeri Nendran and Myndoli formed the second cluster. Padalamurian, Mysore Ethan and Zanzibar formed three separate clusters. Zanzibar, belonging to the Horn Plantain group was different from the rest of the clones.

ABSTRACT

There is a wide variability in the contents of the commercially important chemical compounds of Centella asiatica depending on the source / ecotypes of the plants. The glycosides found in Indian plants include brahmoside, brahminoside and minor amounts of asiaticosides, which vary in their relative contents depending on the ecotypes. An RAPD marker assisted study of ten accessions, collected from different geographical locations of Kerala, viz., Parumala (Kottayam District), Kottayam, Nagercoil (Tamil Nadu), Mananthala (Trivandrum District), Vlathankara (Trivandrum District), Ponmudi (High range, Trivandrum District), Angamaly (Ernakulam District), Punalur (Kollam district), Pattambi (Palakkad district) and Calicut, was conducted. DNA amplification of the accessions was studied using forty decamer primers, involving 43 cycles. Based on the number of bands four primers were selected. The least similarity coefficient of 0.71 was shown by the Pattambi accession, which formed a separate cluster with all other accessions. Nagercoil and Ponmudi accessions showed the highest similarity coefficient of 0.88 with each other.

ABSTRACT

Hevea brasiliensis, the main source of natural rubber (NR) is commercially propagated through bud grafting. Since Hevea brasiliensis is a cross-pollinated tree crop, seeds obtained are highly heterozygous. Earlier, plantations were grown from unselected seeds. But due to poor yield and large tree - to - tree variations in growth and yield in such plantations bud grafting with desirable scions is now being adopted for commercial planting. Genetically divergent seedlings grown from open pollinated seeds are used as rootstocks to graft the selected scion. This can lead to stock - scion interactions. Large intraclonal variations observed in growth and yield of bud-grafted clones of Hevea are attributed to the genetic heterogeneity of the rootstocks. Monoclonal and polyclonal seed gardens have been established in Kanya Kumari District of Tamil Nadu for producing good quality seeds. Monoclonal seeds are collected from monoclonal seed gardens where only one clone is planted in a vast area without any interference from pollen grains from other clones. Polyclonal seeds are collected from polyclonal seed gardens where different clones are planted in an area and the seeds are fertilized by pollen grains from all the clones. It is a general assumption that seedlings grown from polyclonal seeds may be highly heterogeneous than seedlings grown from monoclonal seeds. The objective of the present study was to find out the reliability of this assumption by studying the genetic variations existing among the polyclonal and monoclonal seedlings. RAPD analysis of leaf samples from polyclonal and monoclonal viz, RRIM 600, PB 86 and GT1 seedlings was carried out using ten Operon arbitrary decamer primers that gave informative amplification. The results showed that there was no significant difference in the genetic variations among the polyclonal and monoclonal seedlings.

Rapeseed and mustard are termed in different names in different places. Sarson and toria (lahi) are generally termed as rape seeds. Rai, raya or laha are termed as mustard. Rape seed and mustard belongs to the species Brassica of the family Cruciferae. It is an annual plant or biennial herbs. Rape seed and mustard are the major rabi oilseed crops of India.

Oilseed Brassicas also referred to as rapeseed-mustard, an important group of oilseed crops in the world, comprise eight cultivated crops of tribe Brassiceae within the family Cruciferae (Brassicaceae). The word ‘rape’ and ‘mustard’ have been derived from the word rapum meaning turnip and European practice of mixing the sweet ‘must’ of old wine with crushed seeds of black mustard [Brassica nigra (L.) Koch] to form a hot paste (Hemingway, 1976).

Rapeseed
Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.), a member of the Brassicaceae family, is one of the primary oilseed crops cultivated for biodiesel production, particularly in Europe and Canada (Hoekman et al., 2012; Demirbas, 2009). Its seeds contain 40-45% oil, making it one of the most efficient oil crops for biofuel production (Ramos et al., 2009). The extracted oil is known as canola oil, which is preferred for both food and fuel applications due to its low erucic acid and glucosinolate content (Atabani et al., 2012). Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.), is one of the biofuel species that has achieved global attention, primarily due to its high yield, climatic versatility as well as its low environmental impact than fossil fuels (Singh et al., 2010). The crop is being grown all over the temperate region because its ability to resist cold temperatures and pests is a major advantage for the practice of sustainable agriculture. Moreover, the rapeseed has been positively affected by the development of biotechnology and the utilization of hybrid breeding that has been significantly increasing the oil yield and disease resistance of rapeseed, thus, facilitating the biodiesel production from this plant (Zanetti et al., 2013). Biodiesel from rapeseed has ecological advantages, significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions by up to 50% compared to regular diesel (Hill et al., 2006). It also supports rural economic development through the diversification of farmer income and diminishing reliance on imported petroleum (FAO, 2021). The increasing price of the biofuel, chiefly supported by sustainable energy policies and reducing carbon footprint policies, is one of the driving factors for increasing demand of rapeseed as global demand for renewable energy sources rises (Euopean Commission 2021).
Sunflower
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is an important oilseed crop used for biodiesel production, especially in temperate regions like Europe and North America (Demirbas, 2009). The oil content of sunflower seeds ranges from 25-50%, making it a suitable feedstock for biofuel (Atabani et al., 2012). The characteristics of sunflower oil, such as the high content of unsaturated fatty acids, lead to better cold flow properties of its biodiesel (Ramos et al., 2009). In addition, the creation of high-oleic sunflower varieties allowed considerable improvement in oxidative stability and led to the fact that sunflower biodiesel is more suitable for storage and combustion (Dimitrijevic et al., 2017). A second

Introduction
 
Poor nutrient use efficiency result in loss of nearly 0.8 million tonnes of nitrogen, 1.8 million tonnes of phosphorus and 26.3 million tonnes of potassium annually. Soil health is further deteriorated by imbalanced application of nutrients and excessive mining of micronutrients, leading to deficiency of macro- and micronutrients in the soils (ICAR Vision 2030). Due to the imbalanced use of plant nutrients, mining of nutrients is considered as the main cause for decline in crop yield and crop response ratio.

ABSTRACT

Vitex trifolia L. (Verbenaceae) is known for its medicinal property. Micropropagation can provide the opportunity to obtain large number of homogeneous plants and there are no reports of micropropagation of this species. So, we attempted for in vitro propagation of this species and described here is an efficient and rapid propagation method. This report describes in vitro shoot induction and plant regeneration from mature nodal explants of Vitex trifolia L. on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium fortified with benzylaminopurine (BAP), kinetin (KN), thidiazuron (TDZ), adenine (ADE), and 2- isopentenyladenine (2 - iP) (0.25-10.0 mM). Multiple shoots differentiated directly without callus mediation within 3 weeks when explants were cultured on medium supplemented with cytokinins. The maximum number of shoots (9 shoots per explant) was developed on a medium supplemented with 5.0 mM BAP. Shoot cultures was established repeatedly by subculturing the original nodal explant on the same medium. Rooting of shoots was achieved on half strength MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mM naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). Rooted plantlets were transferred to pots containing autoclaved soil and vermiculite mixture (1:1) that showed 90 % survival when transferred to outdoor. Plants transferred to the field have established themselves in the soil and are growing well. The regenerated plants did not show any immediately detectable phenotypic variation. Natural stands of Vitex trifolia are fast disappearing in India because of indiscriminate collection and over exploitation and the outlined procedure here offers a potential system for mass multiplication and conservation of Vitex trifolia.

The great Indian epic ‘Ramayana’ says that ‘Lord Rama’ has tried to cross over the Bay of Bengal so as to reach Sri Lanka from India from three points along the southeastern fringe of the Indian coast. Firstly, he is said to have tried to cross from Vedaranniyam which is mythologically called as ‘Kodiyakkarai’ Secondly from Manamelkudi and finally crossed over to Sri Lanka from Rameswaram Island (Fig.1), as the former two coastal locations were widely separated from Sri Lanka by Bay of Bengal and the Rameswaram Island was nearer to Sri Lanka during that period. But, the recently acquired satellite data shows the huge accretion of sediments and rapid land building activity off Vedaranniyam coast (Fig. 2 and 3). The geomorphic interpretations carried out using IRS 1A imagery and 14^C archaeological dating of such geomorphic features have shown that such ongoing sediment accretion phenomena off vedaranniyam nose might in future connect the Vedaranniyam part of Indian Peninsula with Jaffna Peninsula of Sri Lanka if the sediment accumulation continues unabated. The sediment accretion in this area, therefore, requires detailed studies particularly in the context of the coastal ecosystem (Fig. 1).

1. Introduction

Foods are complex biologically and chemically active systems that require close monitoring of their manufacturing, distribution and storage conditions in order to maintain their nutritive value, safety and sensory qualities by suitable chemical. The determination of trace impurities in food system presents considerable difficulties owing to complexity as it contains thousands of major and minor compounds (Nilufer and Boyacio, 2002). The choice of the method of analysis depends on the sample, the analyte to be assayed, accuracy, limit of detection, cost and time to complete the analysis (Aboul- Eneim et al., 2000). The chemical methods employed for food analysis and quality control are generally time consuming and require tedious or destructive sample preparation. For development of the new detection method, emphasis should be on development of simplified, cost-effective and efficient procedures that complies with the legislative requirements (Stroka and Anklem, 2002; Enker, 2003).

The molecular spectroscopy is a fast, accurate, easy and non-destructive technique that can be used as a replacement of time-consuming methods. Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy has proved to be a powerful analytical tool used in the agricultural, nutritional, petrochemical, textile and pharmaceutical industries (McGlone and others, 2002; Esteban-Diez and others, 2004). Infra red spectroscopy is based on the absorption of infra red light by the substance to be measured. This absorption excites molecular vibrations and rotations, which have frequencies that are the same as those in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (Pande and Mishra, 2015). This application uses a fiber optic coupled FT-NIR system operating in the 10,000 – 4,000 cm^-1 region in reflectance mode. It involves the analysis and quantification of molecular responses to introduced signals of known energy or frequency. All molecules (e.g. water, glucose, protein) have a definite amount of energy. When alternate energy (e.g. infrared radiation) is introduced, an energy exchange occurs between the introduced energy and the energy contained within the molecule. This is expressed as absorbance (energy is absorbed resulting in a loss of introduced energy), attenuated (energy is scattered resulting in a loss of introduced energy) or emitted (energy is released resulting in a gain on the introduced energy). As individual molecules and molecular groups (e.g. alcohols, nucleic acids, proteins, sugars and fats) have definite energy, by applying external energy of a known amount/type, one can structurally identify, quantify and even determine the natural state of these molecules within complex samples and mixtures.

ABSTRACT

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a woody perennial tree of tropical origin, belonging to the family Anacardiaceae. Cashew is being cultivated in India, Brazil and Africa countries. It is well known for its food, noon food and medicinal uses. In vitro clonal propagation of cashew, which is an effective method for large-scale multiplication of trees was tried. Cashew plantlets were regenerated from shoot explants of 2 - 3 year old grafted plants, which were regularly sprayed with Bavistin 0.1 per cent at weekly intervals. Among the different surface sterilization treatments used, a combination of antioxidants, antibiotics and fungicides was found to be better with around 40 per cent contamination free cultures being obtained. MS medium containing full strength macro elements supplemented with Kinetin (5 mg l ^-1), NAA (1mg l ^-1) and Brassinolide (0.1 mg l ^-1) was found to be best for shoot proliferation and shoot elongation. Micro shoots were rooted in vitro at a frequency of 70-80 per cent, when cultured for 4-8 days in quarter MS liquid medium supplemented with IBA (1mg l ^-1) after the pulse treatment with IBA (100 mg l ^-1) for two minutes. The average number of roots ranged from 3 - 5 with an average length of 1.63 cm. About 50 - 60 per cent of the rooted microshoots survived wearing and produced healthy and vigorously growing plants, which were transferred successfully to the field.

ABSTRACT

Asimple and reproducible protocol for the rapid propagation of Clitoria ternatea L., a flowering garden climber cum medicinally valuable plant, was developed through somatic embryogenesis from the leaf explants. Leaf segments excised from 12 days old in vitro raised seedlings on inducing callus by culturing in MS medium containing 0.5 mgl^-12,4-D and 0.1 mgl^-1 BAP and sub-culturing callus to MS medium containing 1.0 mgl^-1 BAP, produced numerous somatic embryos within 30 - 45 days. Embryos germinated and produced plantlets with intact shoot and root when they were cultured in MS medium devoid of any hormones and supplemented with GA₂ 0.1 to 1.0 mgl^-1. Elongation of plantlets could be achieved on hormone free MS medium in about 3 - 4 weeks. Well- grown plants on transfer to pots, containing sterile sand, in a growth chamber and three weeks later to the greenhouse gave about 40 per cent survival.

Soil testing kit is developed to determine the available nutrient status of soil by rapid test methods. With this system of soil testing, a farmer can test his own soil as often and, in as many places as he feels necessary, and after gauging the need of his soil, he can apply the fertilizers as required. The present mode of soil testing in laboratories usually takes few days and sometime weeks and the farmers may have to travel long distances to submit the soil sample.

The crop growth and productivity is conditioned by many factors of which, the nutrient status (Content) of plant parts such as leaf, stem, etc play a critical role. Moreover the leaf and stem are considered as the indicator parts of plants for assessing the nutrients content of plant. Each crop plant requires the essential element at a specific concentration at different growth stages and it is known as ‘critical level’. When the nutrient content of plant depletes below the critical level the plants may exhibit some symptoms. The requirement or otherwise the availability of nutrients can be assessed by i) plant diagnosis ii) soil analysis and iii) plant analysis by two methods a) by qualitative test and b) by quantitative estimation. Based on the plant or soil tests, the required nutrients can be applied for crops to sustain the growth and rectify the deficiency disorders. The rapid tissue test would pave way for rectifying the nutritional problems for quick recovery, however the quantitative estimation of both plant and soil for nutrients concentration will be more useful and economic for applying fertilizers either as basal or foliar and would be the long term strategy to cope up with nutritional problems.

For rapid tissue test to assess the nutrient status, different parts of plant should be taken as indicator tissue and some of the representative crops are furnished below:

Introduction

Mustard and rapeseed crops were grown since 3000 BC in the Indus valley and their use has been mentioned in the Ayurveda Simhata. Use of mustard oil is recorded in the last few centuries of the pre Christian era.

The global production of rapeseed-mustard is at 72 million tons (USDA), while that of the oil is 24 million tons. Currently China is the largest producer of mustard in the world. China, India and Pakistan grow about 90% of the world production of mustard. Rapeseed and mustard form the third important group of oilseed crops in the world after soybean (Glycine max) and palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq).

The word ‘rape’ and ‘mustard’ have been derived from the word rapum meaning turnip and European practice of mixing the sweet ‘must’ of old wine with crushed seeds of black mustard (Brassica nigra L. Koch) to form a hot paste, respectively (Hemingway 1976). Among the seven edible oilseeds cultivated in India, rapeseed-mustard (Brassica spp.) contributes 26.2% in the total production of oilseeds. In India, the rapeseed-mustard group is the third most important edible oilseed after soybean and groundnut, sharing 27.8% in the India’s oilseed economy. In India rapeseed and mustard are grown during the post-rainy winter season over an area of 7.49 million ha. Around 20% of the total area under rapeseed-mustard in India is totally under dryland cultivation subject to vagaries associated with dryland agriculture.

Introduction

The rare-earth elements (REEs) consist of a group of 17 elements that have atomic numbers between 57 (lanthanum) and 71 (lutetium). They are also known as lanthanides. The European Union banned all in-feed growth promoting antibiotics in 2006 because of public fears about the transmission and development of multi-resistant bacteria, which pose a threat to human health. Such restrictions have prompted the need to explore new safe, efficient, and inexpensive feed additives as alternative sources of growth promoters. Rare earth elements (REEs) have been used as feed additives for the last few decades due to their effectiveness in improving the body weight, feed conversion rate (FCR), and milk and egg production in various farm animals, including cattle, poultry, and swine.

ABSTRACT

The carbonatites are genetically and geochemically distinct and contain several rare earth minerals that are unknown or are very rare in other types of rocks. A useful review of the REE’s in carbonatites is given by Cullers and Graf (1984), who point out that carbonatite contains the highest concentration of REE’s and highest LREE: HREE (La:Lu) ratio of any igneous rock. High REE abundances are considered as the diagnostic character of carbonatites to discriminate them against recrystallized limestone. Rare earth mineralization in carbonatities can be classified into three categories. The first is primary magmatic crystallization (bastnaesite). The second is hydrothermal mineralization and the third is supergene mineralization produced by weathering of carbonatitie bodies. The only economic Nb mineral in carbonatite is pyrochlore. Apatite deposits constitute the largest bulk mining in carbonatites and have higher phosphate content than marine phosphorites. Pyrochlore, cubic fergusonite, eschynite, Fe-Nb rutile, monazite apatite, bastnaesite and allanite are the rare earth minerals that are enriched in Tamil Nadu carbonatites. Such enrichment of above rare earths is typical of undersaturated alkaline complexes. The lanthanides are seen associated with these minerals, mainly the light lanthanides are predominant than heavier ones. Thus the carbonatite complexes provide the locus for several metal deposits that are presently of strategic importance, containing elements, which are otherwise largely dispersed in earth crust.

Genus : Physalis 
Species : peruviana L.
Family : Solanaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 28, 48

Physalis (Greek for Bladder, as the thin calyx enlarges and encloses the fruit). Fruit is called as husk tomato or ground cherry. Is  a plant of warm and temperate  regions and is mostly cultivated for its edible fruit  which is sub acidic in taste and  the flavour resembles that of tomato hence the name tree tomato or husk tomato. The genus comprises  nearly 75 species mostly of American origin, however few species are also found in Asia and Europe. The species peruviana and pubescens are cultivated for their edible fruit whereas P. alkekengi Linn and  P Franchetii  Hort., are highly valued for their shiny large red calices. Plant is a very old garden plant grown mainly for its brilliantly coloured calices, is perennial, grows zigzag with soft pubescence  on stems. Leaves ovate, base broad and angular, petiole spreading at top. Flowers whitish with yellow anthers.

Raspberries are grown for the fresh fruit market and for commercial processing. There are many species of raspberry but the name originally referred with the red fruit to the European species Rubus idaeus. The English name comes from an old English term “raspis”, which refers to the slightly hairy or “rasping” surface of the fruit. The raspberry can be of any colour from orange, pink, red, purple to black. Rubus albescens also known as Mysore raspberry is native to India. It is also called Snowpeaks, Ceylon or Hill raspberry. 

The satellite data is available in raster format. Raster data consists of two – dimensional array of pixels or grids which stores the values representing features. All the pixels are of same size and shape with their particular coordinate location. A raster data format is shown below.

The calculation of raster data statistics is very essential before performing some geoprocessing operations. Raster data statistics involve knowing the distribution of pixel values in a band, comparing the pixel values of two bands, extracting values of all bands for a particular geographical location or point, and computing statistics like mean, median, standard deviation, etc. at pixel level across all bands of raster dataset.

In R, codes to perform raster data statistics are present in raster package. The visualisation of raster data statistics can be done by rasterVis package. So, we need to import these packages in R in order to perform this exercise.

A ratio is the comparison or simplified form of two quantities of the same kind. This relation indicates how many times one quantity is equal to the other; or in other words, ratio is a number, which expresses one quantity as a fraction of the other. For example, the ratio of 1 to 2 is 1 : 2. The numbers forming the ratio are called terms. The numerator, “1”, in this case, is known as the antecedent and the denominator, “2”, in this case, is known as the consequent.

In this article we will learn the approach applicable to solve various problems on ratios and proportions. In the next few lines you will go through some important concepts related to ratio problems and the methods you should apply to solve those problems. It is always better to solve as many problems as you can to boost your confidence. Some important points are given below to remember;

Q.1 Informations available on an auxiliary variable X which is highly correlated with the study variable y, can be utilized in improving the sampling design for the study variable y.

Q.2 Information on auxiliary variable X can be used for stratification of population for the study character y.

4.1 Introduction
In many surveys, information on an auxiliary (supplementary, ancillary or apriori) variable x, which is highly (positively or negatively)correlated with the variable y under study, is readily available and can be used for improving the sampling design. Stratified sampling and probability proportional to size (p.p.s) schemes are two examples of improved sampling designs, in which the use of data on auxiliary variable has been made. However in both the schemes, it implies that the information on auxiliary variable on individual sampling units is available prior to presentation of sampling design. In case, data on auxiliary variable for individual sampling units are not available but only the aggregate value for all units of auxiliary variable is available, the two schemes can not be used. In such a situation, the aggregate data on auxiliary variable can still be used at the time of estimation of parameters under consideration, provided the data on auxiliary variable for the sampled units can be easily obtained at the time of recording the values of the study variable. Such types of estimation are based on ratio, product, difference and regression methods of estimation.

4.1 Introduction

In many surveys, information on an auxiliary (supplementary, ancillary or apriori) variable x, which is highly (positively or negatively)correlated with the variable y under study, is readily available and can be used for improving the sampling design. Stratified sampling and probability proportional to size (p.p.s) schemes are two examples of improved sampling designs, in which the use of data on auxiliary variable has been made. However in both the schemes, it implies that the information on auxiliary variable on individual sampling units is available prior to presentation of sampling design. In case, data on auxiliary variable for individual sampling units are not available but only the aggregate value for all units of auxiliary variable is available, the two schemes can not be used. In such a situation, the aggregate data on auxiliary variable can still be used at the time of estimation of parameters under consideration, provided the data on auxiliary variable for the sampled units can be easily obtained at the time of recording the values of the study variable.

Introduction

Ration formulation is a process by which different feed ingredients are combined in a proportion necessary to provide the animal with proper amount of nutrients needed at a particular stage of production. It requires the knowledge about nutrients, feedstuffs and animal in the development of nutritionally adequate rations that will be eaten in sufficient amounts to provide the level of production at a reasonable cost. The ration should be palatable and will not cause any serious digestive disturbance or toxic effects to the animal.
 
Different species, strains or classes of animals have different requirements for energy (carbohydrates and fats), proteins, minerals and vitamins in order to maintain its various functions like maintenance, reproduction, egg production, milk production and/or growth.
  
Least-cost ration formulation for non-ruminants is being prepared by  linear computer programming. For ruminants the approach used is to maximize the use of roughage, then, concentrate is used to supply the deficient  nutrients to meet the requirement of the animals. It should be remembered that rations for ruminants are formulated on dry matter basis due to wide variations in moisture content of feeds especially roughage.

Introduction

The people in Kolli Hills were more traditional in nature believing the fith and practices of the local communities. They happened to manage their livelihood through agriculture and maintained an indigenous life with their own knowledge system. They used to maintain the longstanding traditions from their ancestors and spread the knowledge in different spheres of livelihood. Such socially generated knowledge is popularly called as local knowledge. The ongoing practice of using such knowledge for indigenous communities established the belief that such knowledge used in atraditional manner was fruitful for the people. The concept of indigenous knowledge gained its worldwide recognition through the United Nations Conference on Environment and Education in 1992, World Conservation Strategy of International Union and Conservations of Natural Resources in 1980, Brundtland Commission, and World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987. These events recognized the existence of indigenous knowledge in every country, society, culture. Since India has a long history and much enriched culture there is abundant reservoir of indigenous knowledge in every part of the country. Similarly Kolli Hills of Namakkal district in Tamil Nadu, is a historical land having enriched cultural heritage which has varied communities and immense resources. Its flora and fauna are vast and varied in nature. The tribal communities, of this Kolli Hills, “Malayali” appear to live on their own knowledge system. The paper is intended to unfurl the essence of Indigenous Tribal Agricultural Practices (ITAPs) in Kolli Hills and the rationality analysis ITAPs in the study area. According to Grenier (1998) indigenous knowledge is the traditional knowledge of the local community existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographical area.

Fisheries
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Agricultural Tools
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Crop Management Practices
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Crop Protection Measures
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Medicinal Plants
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Post Harvest Methods
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Seed Storage Structures
Seed Storage Structure
Kuluppai / Kulumai (Mud Pot)
Th. Gopalakrishnan, 52 years old is residing in A.Edayapatti village in Manapparai taluk of Trichy district. He is educated up to 10^th standard and has agriculture as his primary occupation. He possesses a post harvest storage structure called ‘kuluppai/kulumai’.

It is a storage structure used to store grains, which is suited to all ecosystems. This structure is invented by ancestors and maintained for more than 100 years until now. 

Traditional Varieties

The genus Dioscorea comprises of approximately 600 species and sustains livelihood around the globe. Air yam, aerial yam, bitter yam, cheeky yam, potato yam, and parsnip yam are all names for Dioscorea bulbifera L., a traditional medicinal plant native to Asia, Northern Australia, America, and tropical Africa. It’s been used in traditional medicine for a long time and has a lot of potential.

Morphological characteristics

It is a perennial herbaceous climber that can reach a height of 10-20 metres and has multiple fibrous roots. The leaves are alternating, broadly cordate, and bright green in colour, with rounded basal lobes arising from one of them. Aerial tubers (bulbils) are circular, smooth-surfaced tubers that grow freely in leaf axils. Annual stems emerge from a tuberous, woody rootstock. These stems either creep along the ground or climb up the surrounding vegetation. Dioscoreaceae subfamilies are distinguished by the presence of bisexual and unisexual blooms. Seeds are trilocular, dark brown, and somewhat winged (1.2-1.6 by 0.5 cm).

Floral characteristics

Flowers are grouped in spikes that are hanging, axillary, solitary, or fascicled. The seeds are winged at the base, while the capsules are oblong and winged. The fruit has three valves and the perianth is tubular. From September to November, the plant blooms and bears fruit.

Abstract

The Rawana landslide, located in Sirmuar district of the Shimla Himalayas, Himachal Pradesh is repeatedly active in the recent years. It is a NE-SW oriented slide with the crown in the southwest and the wider toe in the northeast resting in Giri River. During some of the sliding events emanations of heat and gases were also inferred. In order to understand the landslide phenomenon and the causative factors, and there from to evolve mitigation measures, detailed studies of the slides were under taken. The Landslide hazard zonation mapping carried out in Rawana landslide using LHEF rating based BIS method indicates that it is located in high hazard zone. The detailed studies show the complex geological, structural, morphotectonic and hydrological setting. From the studies it is surmised that the toe erosion by Giri river and the rainfall infiltration in the mid slope region are responsible for the slide. Remedial measures have been accordingly evolved.

3.1. Reserve Bank of India

Established in April 1, 1935 as per RBI Act, 1934.

Agricultural Credit Department (ACD) organized in 1935 coordinated Bank’s operations with State Co-operative Banks and other banks and organization dealing with agricultural credit

Financing agriculture by commercial banks is looked after by Department of Banking Operations and Development (DBOD)

While, ACD continued to take care of co-operative credit

Introduction 
Rural entrepreneurship is not only important as a means of generating employment opportunities in the rural areas with low capital cost and raising the real income of the people, but also its contribution to the development of agriculture and urban industries Building capacity of Rural Agri-prenuers are a promising solution for unemployment (Renuka, 2020), migration, economic disparity, reduce poverty, development of rural areas and backward regions. Most of the rural populace is associated with agriculture and allied activities as pedigree occupation. However, to be commercially viable, these units need to sharpen their skill sets to thrive as a successful venture. India is home to about 700 tribal groups with a population of 104 million, as per 2011 census. This indigenous people constitute the second largest tribal population in the world after Africa. Tribal population of Jammu & Kashmir is among the nascent Tribal Groups joining the main stream of planned development, to which they have brought a distinct and colourful cultural variety. Their economy is closely linked with the forests and they are living a substandard life because of their primitive mode of livelihood. Majority of them are placed below the poverty line, possessing meagre assets and are exclusively dependent on wages, forest produce and farming, that too in a traditional way which leads to non remunerative returns. The peculiar aspect of tribals of our state is their scattered population who inhabit the difficult and remote geographic terrains which poses a severe threat to their speedy development. In J&K state the following communities have been declared as scheduled tribes 1. Balti, 2. Beda, 3. Bot, Bota, 4. Brokpa, Drokpa, Dard, Shin, 5. Changpa, Garran, 6. Mon, 8. Purigpa, 9. Gujjar, 10. Bakerwal, 11. Gaddi and 12. Sippi.

Mass contact method in extension education involves reaching a large audience or community through various communication channels to disseminate information, raise awareness, and promote behavior change. Unlike individual or group contact methods that involve direct interaction with specific individuals or small groups, mass contact methods are employed to reach a broader audience efficiently. These methods leverage mass media, such as radio, television, newspapers, social media, and public events, to deliver educational messages and engage with the target population.

Objectives

1. Dissemination of Information: To provide accurate and relevant information on agricultural practices, technologies, health, education, and other relevant topics to a wide audience.

2. Awareness Building: To raise awareness about important issues, challenges, and opportunities within the community, encouraging informed decision-making and action.

3. Behavior Change Promotion: To promote positive behavioral changes, such as adopting improved agricultural practices, adopting healthy behaviors, and participating in community development initiatives.

4. Community Mobilization: To mobilize community members to participate in extension programs, community projects, and collective action for social and economic development.

5. Knowledge Sharing: To facilitate the sharing of knowledge, experiences, and best practices among community members, extension agents, and stakeholders.

The chemistry of humic substances is the least comprehended in the field of Soil Science. The many important functions of humus will remain obscure if the structural chemistry of the humic and fulvic acids is not known. A variety of functional groups have been reported in humic substances. However, considerable disagreement still exists in respect of the exact amounts present and, in some cases, proof of existence is lacking.

Some important structural groups of organic molecules are given below:

The ease with which a text can be read is referred to as readability. Complexity, recognizability, legibility, and typography are all possible inclusions. Sentence length, syllable density, and word familiarity are common considerations in readability algorithms.

It refers to how easily a reader can comprehend a written content. The complexity of a text’s vocabulary and syntax, as well as how it is presented, determine how easily it may be understood in natural language (such as typographic aspects like font size, line height, and line length).

Why is readability important?

1.0. Objectives

• To produce proficient and smart readers
• To develop constructive comprehension of texts
• To impart the techniques of a fusion of knowledge and skills and train learners accordingly
• To develop strategies to get the crisp of the meaning of paragraphs and pages.
• To practice reading comprehension

1. Introduction

Libraries play an important role in developing reading habit among students. The Academic library specially means to support the teaching learning process and is focus to work on curriculum based education system. Inculcating reading habit among students in academic Library is a challenge. Our College SMRK BK AK Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Nashik is dedicated towards the Women’s Education has accepted this challenge and established Book Club to inculcate reading habit among students. Reading Drive is one of the unique practices run in our college from 2014. Every year more than 200 students enrolled under the Book Club and read the books other than academics. Under this club, we take various activities such as Book Review Competition, Book talk, Books Exhibitions on Various Occasions, Digital Exhibition of Book Reviews submitted by students, New Arrivals Desk, Ask a Librarian and execute this Reading Drive.

After successful recording of the electrocardiogram, the next step is its reading, analysis, interpretation and report writing. It is the most important part of electrocardiography. Patients details ( name, species of animal, breed, age ,sex, owners’ name and address with E-mail and mobile number) and date of tracing are to be mentioned in the electrocardiograph prior to actual recording of the electrocardiogram or can be jotted down on the ECG strip after completion of recording as per available facility in the electrocardiographic machine. Clinical complaints and observations should be kept in mind while interpreting the electrocardiogram.

37.1. Aim

To prepare ready to serve drink from fruits.

37.2. Theory

Ready to serve (RTS) drink is a type of fruit beverage which contains at least 10% of fruit juice and 10 degree Brix total soluble solids (TSS) with 0.3% acidity. It is not diluted before serving, hence it is known as ready to serve beverage. Mango drink, guava drink, pineapple drink are the commercial products available in the market.

Sweetened fruit juice is categorized as ready to serve beverage in which the minimum juice content shall be 85% with a minimum TSS of 10%, while unsweetened juice is a natural juice having 100% fruit juice with natural total soluble solids. These are preserved by heat processing method. Sweetened apple, pear juices are commercially manufactured.