eChapters

There are several fungicidal molecules available in the market, some of which are specific for certain diseases/pathogens while others are broad spectrum and can be used against a range of diseases. However, for proper control measures a knowledge of disease specific fungicide are very important. Ready-Reckoner for disease specific fungicide (Table 4) makes available the option for selection of alternative fungicide in the management of specific disease.

The application of insecticide to control a particular crop pest should have options of the pesticides, as some may be less effective than other due to various reasons.

1. Introduction

There is a general consensus that fruit and vegetable consumption is a key factor for a balanced diet. Globally, majority of people consistently are consuming less than the daily recommended fruit and vegetable requirement. Even in developed nations e.g., Australia, Canada, Europe, UK and USA, researchers have concluded that there is large gap between actual and recommended consumption of both fruits and vegetables despite decades of concern and publicity while resultant outcomes were short-lived. In a study from 52 low and middle-income countries 77.6% of men and 78.4% of women consumed less than the minimum recommended servings of fruits and vegetables. Same study reported 74% low fruit and vegetable consumption among adults in India (Hall et al., 2009). In India, recent studies on the fruit and vegetable intake amongst urban residents was reported as 265 g per day as against 400 g per dayof fruits and vegetables excluding potatoes and other starchy tubers, that is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2008).

Epidemiological studies conducted in recent years have indicated a positive correlation between the consumption of fruits and vegetables and prevention of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Health-promoting functional characteristics of vegetables are mainly attributable to their functional bioactive constituents. These effects can be listed as antioxidant activity, cholesterol-bindingcapacity, antidiabetic activity and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity. Studies conducted in cell culture models and animal models have revealed that bioactive compounds of plant foods, including soybean, hawthorn fruit, tea, buckwheat, oats, onion, garlic, almond, and vegetable juice, composed of tomato watercress, parsley, carrots, celery, lettuce, beets and spinach, have cholesterol-lowering activity (El-Shatanovi et al., 2012; Vadivel et al., 2011).

1. Introduction

Extrusion is one of the most preferred ways for creating the indulgence called ready-to-eat (RTE) snack foods with diverse shapes, sizes, colours and also nutritional and functional values which appeal to the diverse group of consumer with varied choices. In this chapter ready-to-eat extruded and puffed snacks are the focus covering the technology involved, criteria for ingredient selection, design of experiment, process modelling, effects of extrusion on physical, nutritional and functional quality of the snack; a few relevant case studies are also discussed.

1.1 Market for RTE snack foods

Indian cooking and lifestyle have undergone tremendous changes in the last 15 years. There are many major factors impacting this change which include, liberalization policy, dual income, separate living of couples, innovative kitchen applications, media proliferation, etc. The cooking style and eating habits in India varies drastically from southern part to northern part of the contry. Due to lifestyle pressure nowadays people prefer easy short way of cooking food rather spending too much time on cooking. Rapid urbanisation is also one of the reasons for people to buy such products. Snack foods comprise a very large variety of items including potato chips, crackers, nuts and extruded snacks, among others (Harper, 1981). Snack food extrusion includes subjecting selected raw material to a variety of complex physical processes to yield snacks with varied shapes and textures (White, 1994).

The RTE market in India was expected to expand to reach Rs. 2,900 crore by 2015, according to an analysis done by Tata Strategic Management Group (TSMG). The products may vary from noodles, pasta, masala packages, stuffed paratha, etc. and many more. There are many regional players who are making foray into ready-to-eat segment. Many national and international players like Nestle, Pepsico, ITC, Haldirams, Cavinkare, are already in Indian market with their products.

1. Introduction

1.1 Malnutrition

The term malnutrition generally refers both to under nutrition and over nutrition, but in this guide we use the term to refer solely to a deficiency of nutrition. Many factors can cause malnutrition, most of which relate to poor diet or severe and repeated infections, particularly in underprivileged populations. Inadequate diet and disease, in turn, are closely linked to the general standard of living, the environmental conditions, and whether a population is able to meet its basic needs such as food, housing and health care. Malnutrition is thus a health outcome as well as a risk factor for disease and exacerbated malnutrition, and it can increase the risk both of morbidity and mortality (Ogunrinade, 2014). A term used to refer to any condition in which the body does not receive enough nutrients for proper function. A person cannot properly digest or absorb nutrients from the food they consume, as may occur with certain medical conditions (Medicine, 2015). Malnutrition may range from mild to severe and life-threatening. It can be a result of starvation, in which a person has an inadequate intake of calories, or it may be related to a deficiency of one particular nutrient (for example, vitamin C deficiency).

Malnutrition is estimated to contribute to more than one third of all child deaths, although it is rarely listed as the direct cause. Lack of access to highly nutritious foods, especially in the present context of rising food prices, is a common cause of malnutrition. Poor feeding practices, such as inadequate breast feeding, offering the wrong foods, and not ensuring that the child gets enough nutritious food, contributes to malnutrition (WHO, 2015).

Pooled estimates report the prevalence of malnutrition among community-dwelling older adults of 6% and among hospitalized older adults of 39%. In developed countries, treatment of malnutrition is relatively inexpensive and effective: energy and protein supplementation using commercial “sip feeds” results in both weight gain and reduced mortality (Pereira et al., 2015). In 2013, one in four children under age five worldwide had stunted growth. Between 2000 and 2013, stunting prevalence globally declined from 33 to 25 %, and the number of children affected fell from 199 million to 161 million. In 2013, about half of all stunted children lived in Asia and over one third in Africa (UNICEF, 2015). Malnutrition may be several types as follows:

6.1 Introduction

There are a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic fiber-optic sensors which use absorption spectroscopy indirectly for the detection of various chemical species. These include pH, metal ions, oxygen in water etc. In such sensors a suitable reagent is immobilized on a solid support. The support can be the core of the fiber or some optical material attached at the end of the fiber. Further it is optically transparent to allow transmission of the light signal from the interface and should remain inert to the chemical reaction being analyzed. The analyte (or the chemical species) when comes in contact of the reagent affects the absorption properties of the reagent. In other words, in these sensors, the reagent acts as a chemical transducer for analytes that are not directly measurable by optical techniques. Following conditions for the use of reagents in sensors must be met:

Real-time crop monitoring for efficient climate guidance extends beyond monsoon-dependent regions and holds significant importance in a global agricultural context. While the fundamental technologies and principles remain similar, the specific applications and benefits are tailored to the diverse agricultural systems and climates worldwide.
10.1. Global Applicability Across Diverse Agricultural Systems
• Rain-fed Agriculture (Beyond Monsoons): In semi-arid and arid regions globally, where rainfall is scarce and unpredictable, real-time monitoring of soil moisture and plant stress through remote sensing and ground sensors is crucial for optimizing the limited water resources and implementing drought management strategies (Fig.10.1).
• Irrigated Agriculture: Even in systems relying on irrigation, real-time monitoring helps optimize water usage based on actual crop needs and prevailing weather conditions, preventing over-irrigation and conserving water, a critical resource globally.
• Temperate and High-Latitude Agriculture: In these regions, real-time monitoring can track temperature fluctuations, frost risks (as you researched previously), and the impact of shorter growing seasons on crop development, allowing for timely interventions like frost protection or adjustments to planting schedules.
• Tropical Agriculture: Beyond monsoons, tropical regions often face challenges like high humidity and pest/disease pressure. Real-time monitoring of leaf wetness and other microclimate factors aids in targeted pest and disease management, reducing the need for broad-spectrum applications.

2.1 Function

A variable ‘Y’ is said to be the function of an other variable ‘X’ if for every value of ‘X’ there exists a corresponding value of ‘Y’. It is denoted as Y = f (X). The function f (X) is a relationship between two variables (Y, X) which associates any given number x with another number y.

A function is a mapping or transformation of x into y and is denoted by y = f(x). The variable X represents the elements of the domain ‘D’ and is called the “independent variable”. The variable ‘Y’ represents the elements of the range ‘R’ and is known as the “dependent variable”.

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) stands out as a highly potent technology within the realm of molecular biology. With PCR, particular sequences present within a DNA or cDNA template can undergo replication, termed “amplification,” increasing their quantity manifold, ranging from thousands to millions. This process entails the utilization of sequence-specific oligonucleotides, a DNA polymerase capable of withstanding high temperatures, and thermal cycling.

Real Time PCR, a variant of the standard PCR technique, serves as a prevalent method for quantifying DNA or RNA within a sample. Through the use of sequence-specific primers, the quantity of copies of a specific DNA or RNA sequence can be assessed. This is achieved by monitoring the amount of amplified product at each stage throughout the PCR cycle. Earlier cycles exhibit amplification if a particular sequence (DNA or RNA) is abundant in the sample, while amplification in later cycles indicates scarcity of the sequence.

The growing adoption of Generative AI in academic institutions has moved the technology from experimental applications toward practical implementation across teaching, learning, research, student support, and university operations. This chapter examines real-world applications and institutional case studies that demonstrate how GenAI can be incorporated into higher education and other academic environments. Key applications include AI tutoring and learning support, curriculum and course development, assessment and feedback, research assistance, student-success services, and institutional operations. AI writing coaches can provide individualized guidance, while dialogic mathematics and coding assistants can support problem-solving without simply providing answers. Educators can use GenAI to develop learning objectives, case studies, examples, question banks, rubrics, multimedia scripts, synthetic datasets, and practice environments. The chapter also considers institutional experiences with AI policies, academic integrity, accessibility, privacy, and professional development. Successful implementations generally combine technological capabilities with human review, clear institutional guidelines, and AI literacy. Case studies demonstrate both the potential and limitations of GenAI, emphasizing that effective adoption requires contextual evaluation rather than technology-driven implementation alone. The chapter provides practical insights for institutions seeking evidence-based and responsible approaches to educational transformation through generative AI.

5.3.1. Main components

Shear tube: It absorbs heavy shocks and protects the components of rear transmission and main transmission from breaking.

Crown wheel and pinion: It transmits the drive from the main shaft to the rear axle shaft and inverts the direction of rotation to 90° from the main shaft. It reduces the speed and multiplies the torque.

Rear axle: It is a semi floating type. It transfers the drive from the sun gear to the rear wheel.

5.3.2. How does it work?

The drive from the main shaft of the gear box is taken to the rear drive shaft through the coupler planetary. Depending on the position of the high–low gear and lever which moves the coupler, power is transmitted directly or through epicyclic gear train. The drive from the rear drive shaft is transferred to a safety coupling also known as shear tube. The coupling is a safety device. In case the rear wheels encounter any shock loading, the coupling breaks and disconnects the gear box from the rear transmission. This prevents damage to costly parts in the transmission, clutch and engine. Power is transmitted from safety coupling to a pinion which has a spiral bevel gear at one end. The bevel pinion is supported on two tapered roller bearings carried in a housing which is mounted in the centre housing.

Theory

Research: The word research is composed of two words “Re” and “Search”.
“Re” - ‘Again or over again or a new’ 
“Search” - ‘To examine closely and carefully’ or ‘to test and try’. 
Research is a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge undertaken to establish principles / policies. 
Science: It is a systematized knowledge derived through observation, experimentation or any other systematic method or procedure in order to determine the nature of phenomenon or process being studied or the causes behind specific events.

Introduction

Milk is a natural food source of mammals. Animals produce milk to feed their young-ones until they are ready for solid feed. Cow milk contains protein, vitamins and minerals which are essential for the overall growth of the body. Cow milk contains a lot of nutrients and it has great role for overall health. Cow milk helps to boost the immune system of humans. Cow milk has a high content of calcium and minerals which plays a key role in maintaining bone density. Because of its high calcium content, cow’s milk is also considered great for teeth health. Cow milk has all essential amino acids which are required for growth and development of body. It is very beneficial for children as it helps to grow with physically and mentally. Cow milk help to reduce weight loss as it loaded with protein which is essential for weight loss. Calcium and vitamin D of milk increases the metabolic rate of the body. A better metabolic rate helps in burning calories faster. Drinking cow milk regularly helps in maintaining the blood sugar levels in the body. Cow’s milk has essential minerals and vitamins that help in processing the food normally and helps to maintain the insulin and glucose level.

Buffaloes thrive best in the areas of moderate rainfall as they require plenty of water for their daily bath. They live on coarser grass and even then are heavy yielders of milk. Buffalo species is thought to have originated in India. Indian buffaloes are the descendant of Bos arni found in north-eastern parts of India, especially in Assam & surrounding areas. There are two main types of buffaloes in India: River and Swamp types. However, both are called Bubalus bubalis. Most of the buffaloes in India are river types, though swamp varieties are also found in certain parts of the country, especially in eastern parts. Buffalo is our main milch producing species, that’s why the contribution of buffaloes to the total milk production is larger than that of cattle. India is the home tract of some of the best buffalo breeds. Buffalo has the major share in milk production in India. It is one of the major way for doubling the income of farmer by mix farming. Buffaloes are more resistant to many diseases as compare to cattle. Everyone know that, buffaloes milk are superior than cattle milk, hence fetching more price.

Seed rearing in coldwater and hill stream fisheries focuses on nurturing fish from the egg stage to a certain juvenile size, suitable for stocking in natural water bodies or for further cultivation. This process often includes artificial breeding techniques and aims to support fish population enhancement and the sustainability of fisheries in these sensitive ecosystems. Common species reared in these regions include Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Salmo trutta), Mahseer (Tor species), and Snow Trout (Schizothorax species). These fish are native to the high-altitude rivers, lakes, and streams of the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan areas, particularly in states like Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir. These species are highly valued for both ecological balance and economic benefits. Rearing them successfully requires moving hatchlings through the fry and fingerling stages under carefully controlled environmental conditions. These coldwater species flourish in well-oxygenated environments with water temperatures between 10°C and 18°C. Their development is strongly influenced by altitude, steady water flow, and simulated natural habitats. The fish are typically raised in raceways, tanks, concrete troughs, or flowthrough systems. These systems ensure a continuous flow of clean water, which is vital for preserving water quality and supporting the delicate physiology of coldwater fish. Feeding is a key part of early development. After yolk-sac absorption, larvae are introduced to high-quality powdered feeds or live food like daphnia and tubifex worms. For species such as Mahseer, semi-natural hatcheries and earthen raceways with gently flowing, clean water and gravel beds are ideal.

Introduction

Poultry includes all that birds which are domesticated for commercial purpose i.e. chicken, duck, quails, turkey, geese, pigeon, emu, ostrich and other domestic birds. Indians represent a major success story of poultry industry. While agriculture production has been rising at the rate around 2 percent per annum over the past 2 to 3 decades but at the same time poultry industry has been rising at the rate of around 8 percent. There is no religious issue regarding consumption of eggs and chicken and are accepted by all communities and are available at the most reasonable price. In last two decades, the egg production has gone to 70 billion from few millions and the broiler production has gone to 3.8 million tones.

In Jammu and Kashmir, 84% off the population is mostly non-vegetarian. The peoples of J & K, consumed 121 crore eggs and 7.4 crore kg poultry meat per annum. From the last decade, poultry sector has tremendous growth in Jammu & Kashmir. Poultry farming has come up in a immense way in Jammu, Kathua, Udhampur, Pulwama, Srinagar and Budgam districts with large number of educated unemployed youth taking poultry farming as a sustainable means of earning their livelihood. More than 8000 youths in J & K have been engage poultry farming for self employment till date. It is high time to take several measures to increase local production so as to achieve independency in J &K youths. Most of the imports of poultry meat and eggs come from the Punjab and Haryana state. Nearly 90% of the poultry farmers of the borders belt of the Punjab are dependent on the supply to J & K, as there is huge demand of poultry products throughout the year in the J & K. Indian Nutritional Academy; Hyderabad has suggested consumption of 182 eggs per head per annum as standard. The national availability is 63 eggs while in J & K, it is only 38 eggs.

Commercial poultry farming in India has creating profitable business opportunity for entrepreneurs. Poultry farming business can provide a great employment source for the job seeking people. This is such as business in India that can never dry up. All types of poultry product have a great demand inside the Indian market. Highly productive local and foreign breeds are available for commercial production. Requirement of initial investment for poultry farming is not too high. You can start small scale production and elaborate it gradually. Bank loans are available throughout the country. Numerous farms are available and can easily learn about poultry farming from those established farmers, KVKs, Universities.

Rearing post-larvae (PL) shrimp involves transitioning them from the larval stage to juveniles, typically done in specialized tanks or ponds. PL are stocked at densities of 75–100 per liter in indoor tanks, while outdoor tanks can accommodate higher densities. They are fed with live zooplankton, such as Artemia nauplii. Proper water quality, including dissolved oxygen and low ammonia, is crucial, with regular water changes and removal of waste. The tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, is one of the fastest growing species among cultured shrimps. The species is euryhaline and can even tolerate near freshwater conditions. In India, shrimp culture has been followed as a traditional activity since ages. However, it made a phenomenal growth during the 1990s due to the adoption of scientific practices. Farming of tiger shrimp is generally practiced in the tidal flats and other areas adjacent to the coastal waters. The steady demand in the global market and high economic return has attracted farmers to adopt tiger shrimp culture. India is endowed with a long coastline and hence offers scope for large exploitation of marine wealth. Till a few years back, fishermen in India were involving themselves in traditional marine fishing. In the seventies, fishermen started concentrating on catching prawns, more commonly known as ‘shrimps’, due to high profitable return on the same on account of their export value. Brackish water prawn farming started in a big way during 1991–94, especially in the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The estimated brackish water area suitable for undertaking shrimp cultivation in India is around 11.91 lakh hectares, spread over 10 states and union territories— West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. Of this, only around 1.2 lakh hectares are under shrimp farming now, and hence a lot of scope exists for entrepreneurs to venture into this field of activity. The following table gives the state-wise potential and present level of development.

Introduction

Now a day, goat farming has become more commercial. Due to its good economic prospects, goat rearing under intensive and semi-intensive system for commercial production has been gaining momentum for the doubling the income of the farmers. There is good encouragement from governments with providing subsidies on especially stall fed goat farming. Goat is being raised for centuries as poor man’s cow due to its importance of providing employment in rural areas by producing healthy meat. Goats also play major role in agriculture economy of India. Goat is excellent source of additional income for poor and landless owners. The goat milk is nutritious and easily digestible milk to their kids. Goats are easy to maintain as they can graze on open land. Goat farming is an excellent option where fodder and forage is limited. Goat farmers can get good returns with successful goat rearing. Goats are among the main meat producing animal in India, whose meat (chevon) is one of the choicest meats and has huge domestic demand. High demand of goat and its products with potential of good economic returns have been deriving many progressive farmers, business, professionals, ex-servicemen and educated youths to take up the goat enterprise on a commercial scale. The emerging favorable market conditions and easy accessibility to improved goat technologies are also catching the attention of entrepreneurs.

Sheeps were first domesticated by human being, many thousands of years ago for their wool, meat and skins. It provides a source of income to the shepherds through sale of wool and animal. Sheep do not need expensive building to house them and require less labour than other kinds of livestock. Sheep are economical convertor of grass into meat and wool. Sheep will eat varied kinds of plants compared to other kind of livestock. This makes them excellent weed destroyer. Unlike goats; sheep hardly damage any tree. The production of wool, meat and manure provides three different source of income to the shepherd. The structure of their lips helps them to clean grains lost at harvest time and thus convert waste feed into profitable products.

Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss the reasons for food grain surplus (7.5 marks, CSE 2019)

2. What are the reasons for good grain surplus in India? Write the steps taken by the government to save the food grains. (12.5M, CSE 2015)

Reason for Grain Surplus

Green Revolution

• Introduction of high yielding varieties of Rice and Wheat

• Green Revolution was made possible through the use of

Abstract

Potato in India was introduced as a long day temperate crop which found suitable climate in the higher hills of the country. Since then it is grown widely in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the Plateau and the Himalayan regions in north and the Nilgiris hills in south of India. The Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI), Shimla has developed 49 potato varieties by the conventional breeding for suitable cultivation of potato in different potato zones of India. A number of technologies for ware- and quality seed- potato production, storage and processing have been developed/standardized for adoption by the end users. These technologies have contributed immensely towards multiple increase in area, production and productivity of potato during last sixty years. Apart from conventional tools, modern biotechnological tools like whole genome sequencing technology, transgenics technology, molecular markers, RNAi and microarray technology have are also being employed in potato improvement.

INTRODUCTION
 
In India tremendous progress has been made in agriculture. In absence of check on population growth, it may cross 1.5 billions by 2030. As a consequence per capita availability of land 0.13 ha will further reduce to 0.1 hectare in 2020 A.D. The demand of growing population for food and fibre require country to produce higher yields from presently cultivated land. Currently an average of 2790 calories of food available each day for every human on the planet, (23 per cent more than in 1961 and enough to feed every one). The production targets and required yield to feed the ever increasing current population with present available resources will require the growth rate of 2.35 and 2.2 per cent in rice and wheat, respectively and as high as 4.45 and 3.38 per cent for pulses and oil seeds, respectively. This requires national average yield to be increased by 30-50 per cent, which is not a cakewalk. India will require producing additional 5-6 million tones annually to keep pace with ever-increasing national food and nutritional requirements. Recurrent famines, starvation death and lack of resources led to green revolution, which as of now has turned our begging bowl to agriculturally advanced cereal exporting country.

Advancements on sugar processing

India has popped out as one of the largest sugar processing country throughout the world. Through the collaboration of research and development carried out in the field of sugar processing, this industry has witnessed the vast changes in term of technology. Important considerations such as productivity improvement and cost reduction were the main objectives in the field of sugar processing. Sulphur dioxide was earlier used but afterwards lime treatment in clarified juice helped in the processing of white sugar from sugar cane. Since then the continuous progress and improvement has been made and advanced techniques are introduced for manufacturing of sugar with modern tools.

Ramjeawon (2004) reported that farmers and agriculture workers grow sugar cane and beet root for sugar production,providing about 20 kg per capita and that is equivalent to almost 13 percent energy requirement. Fechter et al. (2001) reported that production of the white sugar was focused more on juices rather than molasses which were taken as the raw material. Various processes such as ultra-filtration, de-mineralization and de-colorization were used for the production of white sugar. The traditional refining process wascheaper, and effective in terms of purification and juice purification was the method used for the processing of white sugar directly from the sugar cane. Crystallization was one of the process which is used for increasing the recovery of sucrose and it reduces the molasses production. Chromatography was used in the sugar industry for the separation of sucrose. Another method was ion exchange demineralization which was used in the sugar industry for the removal of minerals from the liquid sugar. Later adsorption has been incorporated to be used de-odorization and de-pigmentation. Membrane filtration is latest technique used in the process which was used for maintaining the quality of white sugar by removing unwanted particle from the juice. Velásquez et al.,(2018) reported that thermal processes are also used for the production of sugar from sugar cane. Non centrifugal cane sugar processing is used for this purpose and the product is obtained by evaporating the sugarcane which has the unique flavor and aroma. Later the product is used as the sweetener and has a traditional characteristics flavor and optimum nutrition.

Introduction 
A broad definition of bioprocessing is the process of creating a valuable product from a live source. The system’s most important element is that the source organism is living and sensitive to its surroundings. Accordingly, the framework states that it will respond to relatively small changes in its physico-chemical environment by modifying its physiology to maximise efficiency. The use of entire cells and enzymes to catalyse bioprocesses in industrial settings is becoming more popular these days than conventional chemical synthetic methods. Among the many benefits of biotransformations in this context are their extensive substrate portfolio (including liquid, solid, and gas waste), one-pot reactions in mild circumstances and environmental friendliness. However, a number of drawbacks, including the unstable nature of biocatalysts and subpar performance in specific reaction conditions, the low solubility of some substrates in the reaction medium, substantial production expenses brought on by intricate downstream processing and product isolation and the lack of expertise in microbiology or bioprocess design, frequently make it difficult to scale up bioprocesses from the lab to the manufacturing facility. There is a growing need for innovative bioprocesses that can get over the aforementioned obstacle in industrial and environmental biotechnology in order to create effective, sustainable, and affordable processes. As a result, the industrial sector requires new methods that use biocatalysts that are highly active and stable under a variety of reaction conditions (typically accomplished through metabolic engineering), boost feedstock utilisation by using inexpensive waste resources, use green chemistry solutions that enable the use of fewer toxic solvents and reagents, or develop cost-effective biorefinery concepts that can transform industrial waste and byproducts into products with added value, thereby establishing new value chains. Figure 1.1 shows the three stages of a typical bioprocess: upstream processing, bioreaction and downstream processing which includes separation and purification steps. Every stage of these phases offers multiple chances to enhance a certain bioprocess.

Preamble

The recent advances in embryo transfer protocols have placed these techniques as widely adopted means of developing experimental models to understand complex biological processes such as feto-maternal dialogue, fetal programming and maternal effects on early development. This has noticeably widened the scope of embryo transfer programs which are now not only limited to transferring the genetically superior embryos from donors to recipients for faster genetic improvement, or as only the therapeutic tools in human medicine, but has embarked these techniques as basic research tools in biological research. It is however critical to achieve effective synchronization between donors and recipients along with optimal superovulation in donors to get more number of transferable embryos and subsequently greater conception rates of recipients. For transfer, the embryos are collected Day 6 or 7 post insemination of donors. An overall discussion of sequential steps to achieve successful embryo transfer along with recent advances in the subject area and its possible future scope is discussed in this chapter.

Abstract

The extensive use of antibiotics has raised serious health concern throughout the world due to development of resistance in microbes towards many classes of antibiotics. The emergence of multidrug resistance (MDR) in microbes and lack of novel classes of antimicrobial agents have raised an immediate need to identify new agents with novel mode of action. In addition to novel agents, inhibitors of efflux pumps are being now viewed as one of the most viable management strategy for treating MDR infections. In this concern, plants have always been a source of inspiration for novel drugs.

Introduction
The safety of meat and its derivatives is a paramount concern in the dynamic realm of food trade. Consumers demand food products that are not only affordable and possess an extended shelf life but are also of high safety standards. Consequently, meat inspections require strict adherence to good manufacturing practices and safety labelling that aligns with regulatory standards. Food-borne pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, pathogenic Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter spp., and Vibrio spp., are responsible for numerous illnesses, thereby exerting a significant impact on public health and the economy. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), food contaminated with pathogens, chemicals, and allergens results in 600 million cases of food-borne illnesses and approximately 400,000 deaths globally each year. Furthermore, 56 million individuals die annually, with about 7.7% of the global population affected by foodborne diseases. Meat and meat products are essential sources of nutrients for humans, providing high-quality protein, essential amino acids, B vitamins, and minerals. However, due to their high-water activity and nutrient content, they also create a conducive environment for spoilage microorganisms and food-borne pathogens. Until a few decades ago, the meat industry was largely dominated by the unorganized sector, with limited access to knowledge that could enhance productivity. However, in the post-World Trade Organization (WTO) era, meat entrepreneurs have succeeded in increasing productivity, although they have faced challenges in ensuring product quality that aligns with the legislative standards of numerous developed and developing countries. The use of antibiotics as antimicrobial growth promoters in animal food production has been a contentious issue, as their unauthorized application has inadvertently contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria within the food chain. Recently, the United States Trade Representative’s office estimated that international trade has expanded significantly since the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed in 1947. The establishment of the WTO in 1995 further facilitated trade in animal-origin foods and live animals between nations. However, the emergence and re-emergence of diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria have become a significant concern in this new pattern of food trade. Some of these pathogens are so virulent that they were not previously reported. According to a 1998 report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the annual cost of foodborne illnesses in the United States is nearly 10 billion US dollars. The bacterial pathogens most commonly associated with illnesses from beef products include Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfringens, and Staphylococcus aureus. Interest in Escherichia coli O157: H7 increased following a highly publicized food poisoning outbreak linked to undercooked beef patties in the United States in 1993, although it was largely confined to North America until the mid-1990s. Similarly, multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhimurium DT-104 has spread widely since it was first identified in the United Kingdom. In India, the incidence of Salmonella in red meat was recorded at up to 9%. These potentially harmful bacterial pathogens can reside on the hides or in the intestinal tracts of foodproducing animals or may originate indirectly through cross-contamination or the processing environment. Other emerging foodborne diseases include Listeriosis, which has spread throughout France and Canada, where meat and meat products have been implicated as sources of Listeria monocytogenes. Similarly, Staphylococcal food poisoning or food intoxication syndrome, first reported in 1894, has become a global issue in the meat industry.

Microbes present in the biofertilizer formulations help in microbial processes in the soil which augment the availability of nutrients to be taken up by plants. They are of different types based on their nature and function such as nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilizing, phosphate mobilizing or biofertilizers for micronutrients. Plants use different strategies for growth promotion at different stages of plant growth and development. Biofertilizers are mass multiplied cultures of specific beneficial microbial strains which improves the fertility of soil and productivity. The nutrients are added through natural processes of nitrogen fixation, solubilization of phosphorus and synthesis of growth promoting substances to stimulate the plant growth. The main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria.

11.1. Bio-enrichment of chemical fertilizers- A new approach

Yield response of different host plant depends on the mineral fertilizer and its fertilizer use efficiency. Generally, such fertilizers are low in efficiency due to environmental and soil factors. A large portion of synthetic fertilizers are lost due to fixation, leaching, run-off, erosion, volatilization, denitrification and precipitation without reaching plants. Hence, there is an economic loss and water and environmental pollution.

Microbial inoculants applied to the soil enhances the uptake of nutrient by plants and increase the efficiency of synthetic or organic fertilizers. In this context, it is possible to impregnate mineral fertilizers with specific microbial strain. A new approach is to incorporate the microbes or microbial compositions into fertilizer compositions.

Introduction
Metal-catalyzed C–N cross-coupling reactions are powerful synthetic methods for producing both simple and complex organic compounds, including natural products. These methodologies typically involve shorter reaction times and can achieve good to excellent yields with a broad range of reactions, exhibiting high regioselectivity in certain cases. The coupling of carbon and nitrogen to create organic compounds that contain nitrogen, such as urea and amides, is one of the most fundamental chemical reactions and plays a crucial role in human civilization. C–N coupling reactions have significant importance in industry, starting with the production of ammonia (NH3) through the Haber–Bosch process. Molecules containing C–N bonds are prevalent in a variety of organic materials, natural products, pharmaceutical compounds, and agricultural chemicals. This wide applicability makes them crucial chemicals, leading synthetic organic chemists to continuously seek out novel synthetic methods. In recent years, numerous synthetic strategies involving either transition metals or metal-free enzymes and biocatalysts have emerged. Additionally, new technologies, such as electroreduction, have been employed in these C–N coupling processes (Bariwal & Van der Eycken, 2013, Li et al., 2022, Yin et al., 2024, Rahman et al., 2022).
Common copper salts/complexes, and diamino ligands
Copper is commonly found coordinated by two, three, or four ligands, resulting in linear, trigonal planar, or tetrahedral geometries. Well-known and inexpensive copper halides, such as copper (II) glycinate, copper (II) acetylacetonate (particularly CuI), copper acetates, copper oxide, copper sulfate, and copper triflate salts, are widely used as catalytic systems in C–N bond-forming reactions. Additionally, other complexes such as Cu di-isopropyl salicylate (CuDIPS), copper phthalocyanine, and copper aspirinates have also been employed in these reactions. Copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reactions are well-established methods for forming triazoles via C–N bonds in one pot. These reactions often involve domino click chemistry and green approach methodologies, leading to the synthesis of biologically important triazoles. Copper salts in combination with diamine ligands are widely used in C–N bond-forming reactions through cross-coupling strategies. Some notable examples of such diamino compounds that can coordinate with copper are illustrated in Figure 1.

Introduction
In the realm of modern agriculture and plant breeding, the integration of advanced biotechnological tools has revolutionized the traditional methods of crop improvement. Traditional approaches to genetically improving horticultural crops that are primarily propagated asexually encounter multiple challenges. These include an extended juvenile phase, the absence of seeds, a high level of intraand interspecific incompatibility, frequent heterozygosity, seed sterility, and, most importantly, the restriction of certain valuable traits to wild species (Mehlenbacher, 1995). Conventional or classical breeding techniques rely on natural processes and traditional tools to develop new plant varieties or cultivars. However, these methods are often time-consuming, labor-intensive, and less efficient. The lengthy process, coupled with the challenges of maintaining desirable traits, makes it difficult to achieve rapid genetic improvements. As a result, there is a growing need for more advanced and precise breeding methods to enhance crop development (Jain and Kharkwal, 2004). A molecular marker is a specific DNA segment that signifies genetic variations at the genome level, aiding in genetic analysis and breeding (Dhutmal et al., 2018). These are composed of nucleic acids as well as proteins and used on basis of naturally occurring polymorphism (Thottappilly et al., 2000; Ahmad et al., 2020). These markers are closely related with the target gene and they act as sign or flags (Nadeem et al., 2018), aiding in the identification of specific regions associated with advantageous characteristics such as disease resistance, yield potential, nutritional content, and environmental adaptability (Meena et al., 2023).The advancement of high-throughput molecular markers and genetic maps has enabled the precise identification of genes responsible for agronomically important traits, potentially enhancing breeding through markerassisted selection (MAS). Compared to traditional breeding methods, MAS overcomes the challenges of phenotypic selection and significantly improves selection efficiency. This approach accelerates crop improvement by ensuring the effective transfer of desirable traits with greater accuracy and reliability (Wani et al., 2022). The incorporation of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies and high-throughput genotyping platforms has also facilitated genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and the discovery of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) linked to important traits, further enhancing the resolution of genetic analysis. In recent years, molecular markers have been extensively used to characterize and enhance genotypic and phenotypic traits in temperate fruit and nut crops. Studies have focused on assessing genetic diversity in almonds, identifying genes responsible for red skin color in apples, developing sharka disease-resistant apricots, and sequencing the almond genome. These markers have been successfully used for genetic studies in many horticultural crops including vegetables (Gulsen et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2008 a and b; Schafleitner et al., 2013; Yadav et al., 2015; Sharma et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2017 and Kumar et al., 2019) and flowering crops (Kumar et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2016 and Kumar et al., 2018a and b). These advancements highlight the crucial role of molecular markers in improving breeding strategies, accelerating genetic improvements

1. INTRODUCTION

Preservation of foods by drying is perhaps the oldest method known to mankind. Drying is a thermo-physical action and its principles are governed by heat and mass transfer laws inside and outside the product. The weight of the product is reduced to the extent of 1/4^th to 1/9^th of its original fresh weight. Drying of foods and biological products is a widely applied process for different purposes such as increasing the shelf-life, reducing packaging costs, lowering shipping wastes, encapsulating flavours, making food available during off-season, adding value by changing the phase structure of the native material and maintaining nutritional value. Drying or dehydration of fruits and vegetables can be accomplished with low capital while maintaining high quality and obtaining less perishable food products.

Introduction

Supplementary feeding is an essential practice in fish farming operation which accounts for over 60% in total input cost. The dependence of candidate species on balanced supplementary feed increases with increase in stocking population in ponds targeting per hectare higher production as the standing crop of cultured species exceeds the natural feeding capacity of ponds. Therefore, feeding of artificial feed balanced in all nutrients such as protein, lipid, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals containing optimum protein and energy ratio has assumed foremost importance in aquaculture industry. The use of balanced feed however, is directed towards optimum realization of genetic potentials of farmed species for survival, immunity, growth and reproduction (Mohanty, 2009). Consequent to researches done in India and abroad, a strong data base has been developed about the nutritional behavior of great majority of these cultivable fish and shell fish species and several feed formulations have been successfully undertaken. With optimum pond management, feeding of formulated balanced feed, it has been possible to increase aquaculture production as high as 15- 17 t/ha/yr for carps and 8-12 t/ha/yr in semi intensive prawn and shrimp farming in India (Mohanty, 2009).

Abstract

Vegetables are health capsules, being the chief source of vitamins and minerals besides providing other dietary elements like carbohydrates, proteins and even fat and enzymes to some extent, antioxidants and fibre. Though India is the second largest vegetable producer (147 million tones in 2012) in the world, per capita supply and consumption of vegetables in India is very low (160 g day ^-1). It is now realized that the problems of satisfying hunger and nutrition are much beyond the realm of food crops alone and therefore, to supplement and balance our diet, more vegetables are to be included. Vegetables not only provide nutritional security in rural areas but also financial security to small and marginal land holders growing vegetables in the hinterlands of urban markets. Commercialization of vegetable production is the scene of the day as they are money spinners in domestic markets and dollar earners in global markets. To compete in the domestic and global market and for year round supply of quality produce, protected or greenhouse cultivation of vegetables is imperative. Water and nutrients are the top most growth and production inputs in any crop cultivation and vegetables are no exception to this. In order to get the potential yields with matching quality of vegetables grown under protected cultivation, the best of the management strategies to supply water and nutrients is needed. In this direction, drip fertigation is the best option for efficient supply of irrigation water and fertilizer nutrients for greenhouse grown vegetable crops. The studies carried in different parts of the world have clearly indicated that fertigation technology resulted in substantial yield increase with marked enhancement of water and nutrient productivity.

1. Introduction
With commercial uses ranging from the production of high-quality substances to the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, hydrogenation is an essential step in the formation of organic compounds (Cerveny et al., 1986). There are two main approaches to hydrogenation: direct hydrogenation, which employs pressurized hydrogen gas, and transfer hydrogenation (TH). A versatile and effective approach for producing a large variety of hydrogenated molecules, the TH method entails adding H2 to molecules via an origin other than H2 gas. This approach is increasingly preferred over direct hydrogenation and has recently attracted considerable interest in hydrogenation research. The benefits of the TH method include (i) the elimination of potentially dangerous pressurized hydrogen gas and the complexity of experimental setups, (ii) the accessibility, cost-effectiveness, and ease of use of hydrogen donors, (iii) the potential to recycle the main byproduct, and (iv) the availability and stability of the catalysts employed (Brieger et al., 1974).
1.1. The Historical Context, Core Principles, and Groundbreaking Research on TH (transfer hydrogenation)
With a history spanning more than a century, the TH reaction has a rich past. In order to enable hydrogen transfer between equivalent donor and acceptor units, Knoevenagel showed in 1903 that palladium black could efficiently aid in the disproportionation of dimethyl 1,4-dihydro terephthalate into dimethyl terephthalate and cis-hexahydroterephthalate. Three primary types of hydrogen transfer reactions were distinguished by Braude and Linstead: (i) the hydrogen movement within a single molecule; (ii) hydrogen disproportionation, which entails transfer among identical donor and acceptor units; and (iii) TH-dehydrogenation, which takes place between distinct donor and acceptor units. Of them, THdehydrogenation— often just called TH—is the most well-known and often applied sector. Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley (MPV) reductions, early transition metal-catalyzed reactions, organocatalytic processes, enzyme-catalyzed reactions, heat techniques, and base-catalyzed reactions are among the types of TH reactions that are classified according to the type of catalyst used. The historical context, important research, and underlying ideas of each category will be covered in detail in this section.In 1925, Meerwein et al. independently reported the significant MPV reduction, which were the first TH process involving carbonyl groups. After earning his Ph.D. under Richard Anschütz in Bonn, where he was appointed a professor in 1914, Hans Meerwein (1879–1965) moved to Königsberg in 1922 and then to Marburg. His name is associated with a number of processes and reagents,

Introduction

In India, climatic conditions are very diverse and fruit crops of temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions are grown. Frequently, the fruit crops of one regional environmental requirement are grown in another region. This type of crop husbandry has some typical pest problems as the insect and mite pests have easy access to any of these regions depending upon the fruit crop. The application of management approaches in isolation of insect pests on fruit crops demand a unified strategy to suppress the different pest populations under the concept of ‘crop management’. Thus, to sustain the crop management for the better fruit quality, a judicious integration of safe chemical/biopesticide molecules must be used with other non-chemical approaches namely host plant resistance, bioagents, cultural and mechanical practices etc.

Poultry production in India has emerged as a rapid growing sector among agricultural and livestock sector. Indian poultry industry has made a significant impact in economic, nutritional and socio-cultural aspects including livelihoods of poor rural households. Ever since its inception and is presently emerging as sun rise sector with a growth rate of 10-15% and overall turnover of Rs 70,000/- crore. Despite of frequent ingress with various pathogenic avian diseases including avian influenza, which is a severe setback for the industry, India has sustained globally as 3rd and 5th biggest country for egg and meat production respectively. Emerging and re-emerging poultry diseases in the country are posing significant challenges to the poultry industry.

Introduction

The importance of soil in agriculture cannot be overstated, as it serves as the foundation for crop growth and sustenance. However, many regions grapple with problematic soils characterised by issues such as poor fertility, erosion, contamination, and structural degradation. In recent years, significant steps have been made in addressing these challenges through innovative approaches and technologies. This change in outlook includes the combination of imaginative advancements, protection procedures, and biological standards to enhance farming efficiency while limiting ecological effects (Singh et al., 2011).

Farmers are challenged with the management of problematic soils characterised by fertility issues, erosion, contamination, and structural degradation. Sustainable agricultural techniques depend on the efficient management of problematic soils, which is also critical to environmental sustainability, global food security, and farming systems' ability to withstand climate change. The idea of changing soil and harvest management practices a complex system that incorporates accurate horticulture, agroecology, and computerised cultivating innovations (Fu et al., 2021).

Introduction
Because of their useful uses, porous substances are of scientific interest. Depending on the size of the pores, these solids are categorized as microporous, mesoporous, and macroporous. Microporous solids are defined as having pores that are 2 nm or smaller (Figure 1) (Zheng et al., 2002). Solids that are mesoporous fall between 2 and 50 nm, while those that are macroporous are larger than 50 nm (Zheng et al., 2002).
Over the past 20 years, the synthesis of MOFs has garnered a lot of attention since it may produce a wide range of visually pleasing structures that may also be very useful for applications in other porous material-related domains. Coordination polymers, or MOFs (Figure 2), are a type of crystalline materials that are currently garnering a lot of attention because of their appealing qualities. Metal ions serve as connectors and organic bridging ligands as linkers, forming the compound’s backbone. The ligand’s chemical structure and the connecting metals’ characteristics determine whether MOFs will develop the appropriate architectural, chemical, and physical characteristics (Hu et al., 2004). They are permeable and can form structures in one, two, or three dimensions. Because of their intriguing topologies and potential uses as functional materials for gas purification, gas separation, gas storage, and adsorption (Sculley et al., 2011; Friscic, 2012; Lu et al., 2011; Burnett et al., 2012; Lin et al., 2009), molecular magnets (Kang et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2012; He et al., 2013; Dang et al., 2010; Feng et al., 2012; Ranocchiari et al., 2011; Sumida et al.,2012), heterogeneous catalysis (Sonnauer et al.,2009; Kreno et al.,2012), luminescence, catalysts, and sensors (Chughtai et al.,2015), MOFs and coordination polymers (CPs) are of great interest to modern inorganic chemistry for their logical designation and synthesis. The potential of metal-organic frameworks as appropriate candidates for the detection of a number of pertinent organic and inorganic analytes, such as biomolecules, ionic species, hazardous compounds, environmental contaminants, etc., has been encouragingly realized. MOFs are among the leaders in the development of materials for realtime sensing applications because of their practical ability to tap various types of photophysical processes, even when they are present simultaneously, as well as their freedom to adjust their electronic characteristics and pore surfaces for

Introduction

In horticulture crops, plant materials has been  propagated through vegetative propagation methods for its superiority in growth as well as yield for centuries. Among vegetative propagation methods, micropropagation is most advance technique which made a significance in the horticultural crops to increase quality and yield. It can produce many plants from a single individual.

Abstract

Packaging plays an important role in the food processing Industry. It makes food more convenient as well as gives the food greater safety assurance from microorganisms, biological and chemical changes such that the packed foods can have longer shelf life. In order to meet the huge demand of processed food with longer shelf life, various methods of preservation and packaging are being used in the food processing industry. Drying and dehydration is one of the method which helps preservation of a perishable commodity against deterioration or spoilage.

1. Introduction
Palladium (Pd), which has the atomic number 46, was discovered in 1803 by the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston. It is a well-known transition metal recognized for its versatile catalytic properties in chemical reactions, material sciences, and various industries. The palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions extend beyond the formation of biaryls. Many carbon–carbon, carbon–nitrogen, and carbon–oxygen bond-forming reactions in organic chemistry are facilitated by palladium salts and catalytic systems derived from palladium. Some notable organic reactions that involve palladium include the Mizoroki-Heck reaction, (Biffis et al., 2018, Koranne et al., 2023, Lee et al., 2021) Suzuki-Miyaura coupling, (Zhang et al., 2023) Negishi reaction, (Haas et al., 2016). Stille coupling, (Cordovilla et al., 2015). Sonogashira coupling, (Chinchilla & Najera, 2007) Tsuji-Trost reactions, (Kvasovs et al., 2023). and Wacker catalytic processes. (Zhang et al., 2023) In this chapter, we will focus on the applications of palladium and its salts in C-N bond-forming reactions.
2. Palladium (Pd)-Catalyzed C–N Bond Formation
Besides copper, palladium metal is considered as the most widely used metal in organic synthesis. The discovery of cross-coupling reactions catalyzed by palladium(0) complexes in the 1970s was a highly important achievement that substantially changed the strategy of organic chemistry. Best applications of the palladium salts are in enantiolective and new C-N bond forming reactions. Stephen L. Buchwald and John F. Hartwig opened up the catalytic scope of palladium in newer methodologies on C–N bond forming reactions during 1990s, (Ruiz- Castillo & Buchwald, 2016) and henceforth, new methodologies of carbocycles, heterocycles, and simple organic compounds have been created in large scales (Rayadurgam et al., 2021). The mechanisms of palladium-catalyzed C-N cross-coupling reactions are critically discussed in numerous high-quality research journals with different theoretical and experimentally proven methods (Beletskaya & Averin, 2021). However, the most acceptable mechanistic pathway to reaction products in these Pd-catalyzed reactions involving palladium is illustrated in Scheme 1. The process begins with the formation of a palladium complex through the reaction of an aryl halide (which can be aliphatic, heteroaryl, or functionalized alkenes/alkynes), a palladium salt, and amino nucleophiles. In the presence of a suitable base, the loosely bonded halide or any leaving groups are eliminated, leading to the formation of a palladium (IV) complex. This complex then undergoes reductive elimination, resulting in stable aminated aryl, heteroaryl, alkyl, or functionalized alkenes/ alkynes. Additionally, a more generalized reaction mechanism is presented in a circular pathway format, highlighting the bonding approaches, rearrangements, intermediate formations, and the final release of target compounds, as depicted in Scheme 1. The involvement of higher valence organo-palladium complexes in such catalytic transformations have been well established (Hickman & Sanford, 2012).

The pineapple, botanically known as Ananas comosus Merr, is the most famous edible member of the Bromeliaceae family. It is native to southern Brazil and is known by a variety of names, including “pina” in Spanish, “abacaxi” in Portuguese, “ananas” in Dutch and French, “nanas” in Southern Asia and the East Indies, “po-lo-mah” in China, “sweet pine” in Jamaica, and merely “pine” in Guatemala (Morton, 1987). After banana and mango, the pineapple is the third most important tropical fruit of the world (Chen et al., 2019; Nath et al., 2019). The pineapple became a major cultural icon of luxury after its introduction to Europe in 17th century. Pineapple has been grown commercially in greenhouses and on many tropical plantations since the 1820s. Furthermore, it is the world’s third-largest tropical fruit producer. Hawaii was a major pineapple producer in the twentieth century, with Costa Rica, Brazil, and the Philippines accounting for nearly a third of global pineapple production. Pineapples grow as a small shrub, with the un-pollinated plant’s individual f lowers fusing to form multiple fruits. The plant is usually propagated from a side shoot or an offset produced at the top of the fruit and it matures in about a year.

Crop Improvement

Pineapple is usually propagated through asexual method by using slips, crowns or suckers. Sexual reproduction in pineapple is barely used due to its self-sterile nature and failure in formation of seeds. Seed set can occur in case of self-fertilization but the seedlings are with low vigour due to inbreeding depression (Robert et al., 2003). Pineapple is heterozygous in nature, on this wise hybridization is possible in this crop. Gametophytic self incompatibility is reported in this crop where pollen tube growth is repressed in the uppermost part of the style. Diploid chromosome number of the crop is 2n=50. The genome size of the crop is estimated to be 526Mb and total genes were anticipated to be around 25,862 in number (Zhang et al., 2014).

ABSTRACT

Plant growth promoting (PGP) bacteria play an immense role in promoting crop growth mainly by direct mechanisms such as N_2-fixation, phosphate solubilization and phytohormone production and indirectly may help to suppress pathogens or contribute to enhance absorption of nutrients leading to increase yields. The N₂fixers are grouped based on their niche adaptation as endophytic nodular symbionts (Rhizobium spp.), free living (Azotobacter spp.), associative symbionts (Azospirillum spp.) and endophytic non-nodular symbionts (Azoarcus and Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus). In the recent past, phosphate solubilizing and phytohormone synthesizing bacterial communities also gained momentum.

Introduction
A significant challenge in the field of chemistry lies in the application of green methodologies aimed at enhancing the efficiency, cleanliness, and environmental sustainability of chemical processes in alignment with contemporary green chemistry goals. Recent global environmental issues have motivated researchers to create and implement more sustainable chemical practices to reduce the reliance on and generation of harmful toxic materials. The importance of coupling reactions lies in their role as effective and robust techniques for synthesizing key pharmaceutical agents, polymers, and natural products (Colberg, 2022). Crosscoupling reactions are particularly focused on the formation of C-C (carbon-carbon) and C-X (carbon-heteroatom) bonds. For the last three decades, cross-coupling chemistry has been widely utilized to facilitate the development, discovery, & market introduction of innovative types of pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals (Carsten Bolm, 2012).
In cross-coupling polymer reactions, two reagents equipped with activating functional groups engage with a specific metal catalyst, culminating in creating a new covalent bond. The loss of the activating groups carries out this process. In the 1940s, Kharasch and Fields first discovered the cross-coupling reactions using Grignards reagent with aryl or alkyl halides in the presence of metal halides such as NiCl2, CoCl2, FeCl3, CrCl2, or CuCl2 as a suitable catalyst. (Wu, 2021). Cross-coupling reactions have tremendous valuable applications in many vital areas, such as powerful tools for synthesizing essential pharmaceuticals, natural products, polymers, and agrochemicals. Furthermore, cross-coupling reactions have facilitated the synthesis of important molecules with industrial relevance, such as losartan, which is produced through a late-stage Suzuki cross-coupling reaction. Additionally, these reactions have created previously unattainable molecules, as the Suzuki coupling reaction ranks as the second most prevalent reaction in medicinal chemistry (Kotha, 2022). The predominance of sp2-hybridized carbon nucleophiles and electrophiles in most cross-coupling reactions has presented challenges in the pharmaceutical sector, as the “flattening” of many pharmaceutical targets results in a reduced number of specific drugs and an increase in off-target interactions. Nevertheless, crosscoupling reactions exemplify the capacity of robust synthetic methodologies to profoundly influence and inspire molecular design within the chemical industry. Recent trends in advances with the cross-coupling reactions are enabling the development of new reaction mechanisms, the synthesis of new compounds & development of new catalysts, and reactions that proceed under milder conditions.

Introduction
   
The major land mark in the primary food production is the Green revolution during sixties, eventually leading the country to self-sufficiency in food grains. At present, agriculture and allied sector contributes 22% of GDP in India. Total arable area in India is 184 million hectares contributing a total food grain production of 210.01 million tonnes. Horticultural crops including fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices and medicinal and aromatic plants have emerged as a major economic activity in India. Horticulture crops cover over 20.7  million hectares of area, which is approximately 11.25%  of the total gross cropped area of the country and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural output. India is the world’s second largest fruit and vegetable producing country accounting for 81.29 million tonnes of fruit and 162.2 million tonnes of vegetables (Annon., 2013).

Introduction

• The green revolution of the 1960s and 1970s ended chronic food deficits and while cereals still command the attention of policy makers, fruit production has surged impressively, making India the second largest global producer behind China.

• Annual growth in horticulture has seen fruit production grow at faster rate and constitute the larger segment of agriculture. • No doubt, there has been manifold increase in area, production and productivity but when we compare the productivity of various major fruit crops with other developed countries, our productivity is very low.

• This may be mainly attributed by non-availability of quality planting material and seeds, existence of old unproductive seedling orchards, small and unirrigated land holdings, use of inferior genetic stocks/ varieties/hybrids, poor management and non-adoption of package of practices, high incidence of pest and diseases, heavy pre and post harvest losses and lack of trained human resource.

• To meet increasing demand the productivity per unit area per unit time and per unit investment has to be increased from limited land resources, where production and supply of quality planting material of elite varieties is one such important factor that can bring tremendous improvement in production, productivity and higher economic returns to farmers.

• This may be mainly attributed by non-availability of quality planting material and seeds, existence of old unproductive seedling orchards, small and unirrigated land holdings, use of inferior genetic stocks/ varieties/hybrids, poor management and non-adoption of package of practices, high incidence of pest and diseases, heavy pre and post harvest losses and lack of trained human resource.

Abstract

The structure and function of proteins involved in plant-microbe interactions is investigated through large-scale proteomics technology in a complex biological sample. Since the whole genome sequence are now available for several plant species and microbes, proteomics study has became easier, accurate and huge amount of data can be generated during plant-microbe interactions. Proteomics approaches are highly important and relevant in many studies and showed that only genomics approaches is not sufficient as much significant information are lost as the proteins and not the genes coding them are final product which is responsible for the observed phenotype.

Abstract

Production of healthy and vigorous seedlings is the foremost crucial step for raising a successful vegetable crop. Now a days seedlings are raised in trays under controlled atmospheric conditions called as transplants. As soil substitutes, artificial media made of perlite, vermiculite and peat moss are commercially available. A good rooting medium should be light weight, well drained, well aerated, and soilless with or without starter solution or added nutrients and with good water and nutrient holding capacity. The media should be sterilized before use. Selection of trays for cell shape, size and number depends on the type and nature of crop. Most of the vegetable transplants are now being produced in hardened plastic or polystyrene containers. Only good quality certified seeds should be used in media filled trays after priming, pelleting, coating or other seed treatments as per the crop requirement. Germination chambers as insulated rooms to maintain suitable conditions over large period of time may also be used. Generally vegetable crops need fertilizer application after expansion of first true leaf. Young seedlings are managed carefully to avoid any toxicity while taking care of their nutrient management. Water requirement also depends on growth stage and variation in weather conditions. Other seedling management practices include shading, thinning, weeding, disease/pest control, hardening off and subsequent transplanting. Containerized greenhouse plants can be grown using the conventional “rail” (or rack) system or the “float” system. Shipping factors such as mechanical injury, environmental conditions and length of storage affect plant vigour and establishments. IPM (integrated pest management) offers a practical way to effectively manage pests on vegetable bedding and transplants.

Introduction to Research

Research is an inseparable part of human knowledge. Its role in human life is as precious as that of salt in a vegetable. The life would lose its taste without research exactly in the same manner as a vegetable without salt. The modern academics just cannot stand and meet the aspirations of a matured society, if it does not provide for research and investigation. “The obvious function of research is to add new knowledge to the existing store. but its power for cleansing our minds of clinches and removing the rubbish of inapplicable theory is equally notable. Scientific research is a cumulative process. It is also a projective process, especially in the social sciences. Understanding can be (advanced) not only by gains in knowledge but also by discarding outworn assumptions”.

Introduction

Stored-product insects are serious pests of dried, stored, durable agricultural commodities and of many value-added food products and non-food derivatives of agricultural products worldwide. Various estimates on post harvest losses across the country revealed that there is loss of 2–12 per cent during storage exclusively by insects. Almost all the insect species may destroy 10.0 -15.0 per cent of grain and contaminate the rest with undesirable odour. The major loss is done by two internal feeders i.e. rice weevil and grain borer, which are major pests of rice, wheat and millets (Champ and Dyte, 1977). They also help in transportation of fungi (Sinha and Sinha, 1990). The losses during storage are quantity losses and quality losses. Quantity losses occur when insects, rodents, mites, birds and microorganisms, consume the grain. Infestation causes reduction in seed germination, increase in moisture, free fatty acid levels and decrease in pH and protein contents etc. resulting in total quality loss. Quality losses affect the economic value of the food grains fetching low prices to farmers (Das et al., 2013).

1. Introduction
Soils stand out as an intricate and diverse ecosystem on our planet. Their significance extends beyond supplying 98.8% of the world’s food, encompassing a wide array of essential services such as carbon storage, regulation of greenhouse gas emissions, flood prevention, and offering support to burgeoning urban populations. However, it is crucial to recognize that soil is a finite natural resource. The unprecedented growth of the human population, escalating from 250 million in the year 1000 to 6.1 billion in 2000, with projections reaching 9.8 billion by 2050, along with the intensified practices of agricultural production, is exerting immense pressure on the sustainability of soils.
For long-term sustenance the concept of ‘Soil quality’ was propagated around three decades back from now in the United States of America, and further expanded to the scientists of European and Asian countries. Soil health and soil quality are two interweaving term that signifies the potentiality or capacity of soil towards mankind. These two words complement each other in such a way that one term automatically comes with another to determine both aspects i.e. agricultural sustainability and environmental quality in terms of plant, animal and human health (Haberern, 1992; Doran, 2002). Idowu et al. (2007) remarked that the term “soil quality” is more favoured by scientists, whereas “soil health” is a term favoured by farmers as it connotes a holistic approach to soil management. The inception and application of soil quality term was officially approved by Soil Science Society of America (SSSA). They defined soil quality as “The capacity of a specific kind of soil to function within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health” as illustrated by Karlen et al. (1997). It is a complex composition of certain properties associated with physical (texture, bulk density, water holding capacity, infiltration capacity etc.), chemical (pH, EC, organic carbon, extractable macronutrient and micronutrient etc.) and biological (microbial activity and related parameters) conditions of soil (Prabha et al., 2020). There are primarily two key methodologies for assessing soil quality: the descriptive approach, which focuses on characterizing various aspects or attributes of soil quality, and the Indicative approach, which aims to identify the ability or capacity of an attribute in a desired manner. The comprehensive process of developing a soil quality index is guided by the 3-Is framework: the Identification of indicators, Interpretation, and Integration of selected soil quality indicators. It is important to note that the specific set of indicators utilized can vary between different soils, diverse agroecosystems, and from one crop to another. Additionally, climatic conditions and other abiotic factors may also significantly influence the assessment of soil quality.
The USDA has categorized soil quality indicators into four primary groups: visual, physical, chemical, and biological indicators. However, in the current context, the dominant indicators are physical, chemical, and biological. For a systematic assessment of soil quality, it is crucial to collect individual parameters and integrate them meaningfully. Consequently, integrated soil quality indicators

Introduction

Humans and grass are inextricably linked to each other. The oldest unequivocal grass fossils are 25 million years old, originating in the Oligocene epoch (Thomasson, 1987). Grasses are one of the first permanent vegetation to reappear after disasters, such as volcanic activity, extended droughts, floods, fires, explosions, abandoned urban ghettos, and battlefields. In the past, landscaping was universally regarded as an extravagance for the affluent or as a decorative for mediocre and average structural design. Today, growers offer hundreds of selections for landscape designers who envision their backyard canvases swept with fulsome grasses. Countries are capitalizing on this industry at a furious pace and turfgrass research can be circuitously, the next moolah machine for enhancing lifestyle, real estate values and tourism revenues.