eChapters

Plants belonging to the Rhododendron subgenera Pentanthera (deciduous) and Tsutsusi and Azaleastrum (evergreen) are called azaleas. Azalea belongs to family Ericaceae. Azaleas are one of the favourite ornamental plants used by home owners and professional landscapers. They are used as foundation, accent, individual specimen plants, and as mass plantings. Azaleas are good companion plants, working well in designs with many trees, shrubs and ground covers, offering a variety of landscape options. Azaleas can be found in all ranges of colours, from delicately pink-tinged white to strong, bright red, and there are species that has the startling colour of flame. Its bold colour scheme has caused people to carry it far and wide, for use wherever a sudden note in strong hue is appropriate among the milder expressions of the rest of the flowers. The evergreen azalea, Rhododendron simsii Planch., is one of the most important pot plants in Western Europe and the USA. The breeding history of this vegetatively propagated plant is a relatively short one, and breeding has been focused on flower characters because the public is continually asking for new flower colours and flower types.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Nevertheless, very little was known about the origin and the ancestor species used for this important ornamental crop. Rhododendron simsii, the species that is accepted to be the main ancestor, originates from hilly areas in China (Chang Jiang valley), Thailand, Laos and Burma. Apart from R. simsii, at least three other species from the Tsutsusi subgenus, from South-Asia and Japan, might have contributed: R. indicum, R. x mucronatum (Blume) G. Don and R. scabrum (Heursel, 1999).

From a floricultural viewpoint, azaleas are firstly divided into the two broad categories of deciduous and evergreen plants. The former, notoriously more rustic, have North American, Caucasian, and Asian origins, and are classified in the subgenus Pentanthera G. Don, whereas the latter derive exclusively from Asian species and are classified in the subgenus Tsutsusi (Sweet) Pojarkova (Chamberlain and Rae, 1990). Within the evergreen azaleas at least four more or less well defined groups of cultivars are distinguished according to their traditionally recognized most important ancestor: pot or Belgian azaleas (R. simsii Planch. putative hybrids), Hirado azaleas (R. scabrum G. Don putative hybrids), Kurume azaleas [putative hybrids of R. kiusianum Makino var. kiusianum and var. sataense (Nakai) D.F. Chamb. and R. kaempferi Planch.] and Satsuki azaleas [putative mutants or hybrids of R. indicum (L.) Sweet and R. eriocarpum (Hayata) Nakai]. The Hirado, Kurume and Satsuki groups are often referred to as Japanese azaleas because of their geographical origin (Scariot et al., 2007).

Bougainvilleas (Bougainvillea spp.) are tropical and sub tropical plants belonging to Nyctaginaceae family. They are thorny, evergreen and some are fragrant. Bougainvillea is named for “Louis A. de Bougainville”, a French navigator (1729-1811) who discovered the plant in Brazil in 1768. Bougainvillea plant spreading horizontally or hanging downwards as it is climbing upwards, it makes itself at home in almost any situation. It can be grown as a hedge, groomed as a ground cover, pruned as an espalier, trained as a tree or contained in a pot in a variety of shapes. Bougainvillea is ideal for bonsai. Red, violet, orange, yellow or white bracts appear at the ends of new growth.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Bougainvillea is a native of South America (Bailey, 1963, Menninger, 1970 and Hackett and Sachs, 1985) from Brazil west to Peru and south to southern Argentina. A French explorer and naturalist, Dr. Philibert Commerson or Commercon (1727-1773), discovered the bougainvillea in Rio de Janeiro in 1768. He may have been traveling on a supply ship at the time. His discovery would soon find a name and go on to make a name for itself all over the world. In 1766, a ship called La Boudeuse set sail from Nantes on a round-the-world voyage of discovery commissioned by the French government. At the helm was Louis-Antoine de Bougainville (1729-1811), a mathematician and an admiral in the French navy. When La Boudeuse arrived in Rio de Janeiro to rendezvous with the supply ship, the occasion made horticultural history. Commerson’s newly discovered plant received a name, bougainvillea, in honour of the admiral.

Twenty years after Commerçon’s discovery, it was first published as ‘Buginvillea’ in Genera Plantarum by A.L. de Jusseau in 1789. The genus was subsequently spelled in several ways until it was finally corrected to ‘Bougainvillea’ in the Index Kewensis in the 1930s. Originally, B. spectabilis and B. glabra were hardly differentiated until the mid-1980s when botanists recognized them to be totally distinct species. In the early 19^th century, these two species were the first to be introduced into Europe and soon, nurseries in France and England did a thriving trade providing specimens to Australia and other far away countries. Meanwhile, Kew Gardens distributed plants it had propagated to British colonies throughout the world. Soon thereafter, an important event in the history of bougainvillea took place with the discovery of a crimson specimen in Cartagena, Colombia, by Mrs. R.V. Butt. Originally thought to be a distinct species, it was named B. buttiana in her honour. However, it was later discovered to be a natural hybrid of a variety of B. glabra and possibly B. peruviana - a “local pink bougainvillea” from Peru. Natural hybrids were soon found to be common occurrences all over the world. For instance, around the 1930s, when the three species were grown together, many hybrid crosses were created almost spontaneously in East Africa, India, the Canary Islands, Australia, North America and the Philippines.

Lagerstroemia indica belongs to family Lythraceae commoly known as Crape myrtle. It it grown well in India for various landscape purposes. It is called Sawani or Shravani (Hindi), Dhayti (Marathi), Chinagoranta (Telugu), Pavalakkurinji (Tamil). Lagerstroemia a long period of striking rainy season flower colour, attractive fall foliage and good drought-tolerance all combine to make a favourite shrub or small tree for either formal or informal landscapes. It is a deciduous, multi stemmed; rounded crown; dense branching and is highly recommended for planting in urban and suburban areas.

The scientific name, Lagerstroemia, was coined in 1759 by Carl Linnaeus, who described and named the plant in honour of “Magnus von Lagerstroem”, an avid naturalist and director of the Swedish East Indies Company. Crape myrtle derives its common name from its crepe-like, crinkled petals, and the resemblance of its leaves to the true myrtle, Myrtus communis. “Crape myrtle” is a peculiarly-American term. Elsewhere in the world, “Lagerstroemia” is often used as the common name for crape myrtle (Knox, 2003).

Crape myrtle is the smaller version of Lagerstroemia speciosa, commonly known as Pride of India or Queen crape myrtle. The deciduous crape myrtle is among the longest blooming trees in existence with flowering periods lasting from 60-120 days. Crapes come in heights as short as 46 cm and as tall as 12 m. Leaves are alternate and smooth, but leaf size depends on variety. Flowers are borne in summer in big showy clusters and come in white and many shades of pink, purple, lavender and red. The bark is a prominent feature being smooth, pinkinsh-gray and mottled, shedding each year. Leaves are small and dark green changing to yellow and orange in autumn. When the leaves fall in winter, crape myrtle becomes a living sculpture. The trunk and branches of tree-form plants have an attractively gnarled, sinuous character with smooth bark. Seeds are narcotic. In Manipur, flowers and leaves are used as purgatives. Bark is stimulant and febrifuge (fever removing). Roots are astringent and used as gargle.

Impatiens is the most popular bedding plant grown worldwide. The genus Impatiens is estimated to contain about 850 species (Grey-Wilson, 1980b). The majority is native to tropical and subtropical regions of India and Africa. The popularity of Impatiens walleriana is mainly due to its propensity for producing large numbers of flowers under low light intensity (Simmonds, 1980). Due to the high economic value and consumer demand for bedding impatiens, there has been a concerted effort by plant breeders to release a wide range of cultivars having different flower colours and distinctive foliage. Previously known as I. sultanior, I. holstii, it has several common names including “Busy Lizzie” and “Patience Plant”. It is one of two important groups of Impatiens in the horticulture industry with the New Guinea Impatiens (Impatiens hawkeri) group being the other. Despite being Impatiens walleriana is one of the most important bedding plants in the world, information on I. walleriana relatively scarce. Impatiens walleriana continues to lead as one of the three most important bedding plants worldwide. It is available as both seed and vegetative products. The history of its development, marketing success, wide adaptability, a large palette of flower colours and forms and unparalleled garden performance as a bedding plant for shade are described as an aid for continued crop development with breeding lessons for other flowering crops.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Jones and Smith (1966) proposed the Himalayan region as the centre of origin. Khoshoo (1957) and Gill and Chinnappa (1977) stated that the genus Impatiens contains over 600 species half of which occur in the Indian subcontinent. The major centers of diversity are in the highlands and mountains of tropical and sub-tropical India, Africa and Southeast Asia. There are only a few Holarctic species and none indigenous to South America or Australia (Zinov’ea-Stahevitch, and Grant, 1984). Impatiens walleriana also known by the names I. sultani Hook. f. and I. holstii Engl. is native to areas of Eastern Equatorial Africa including Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique Malawi and Rhodesia; as well as Zanzibar and Pemba Islands.

Typically, African impatiens are highly endemic forest species, which thrive in moist semi-shade areas, and often in high altitude regions that receive ample rainfall (Grey-Wilson, 1980). Nearly all African Impatiens are native to habitats above 800 m and one third can only be found in habitats above 1500 m. However, I. walleriana may also thrive at lower elevations provided that these areas receive increased rainfall from monsoons (Grey-Wilson, 1980).

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] is the leading oilseed crop in the world. Its area and production are far ahead of other oilseeds at the global level (Table 1). The commercial cultivation of this crop in India started in the early 1970’s. Within a span of 4 decades its spread has been phenomenal and today it occupies around 9.67 million hectares with a production of about 10.22 million with an average productivity of around 1006 kg ha^-1 (DSR, 2010) (Table 2). It is now the fourth largest among field crops after rice, wheat and maize (GOI, 2007) in India and has become the leading oil seed crop surpassing groundnut and mustard and rapeseed. It is contributing nearly 37% to the total oilseeds produced in India. The central India comprising the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan account for more than 95% of the total area under this crop. Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh etc account or the bulk ofthe rest ofthe area. It is predominantly a rainfed crop with only about 3% of the total area getting some assured irrigation facility. Further, it is concentrated in areas which receive lesser rainfall in its early vegetative phase. A large number of crops have been replaced by soybean to a variable extent in its march towards achieving its present position. Badal et al. (2000) have reported that a large number farmers switched over to this crop from sorghum, groundnut, maize, cotton etc in the state of Madhya Pradesh owing to greater yield potential even under adverse conditions (Table 3). Further, it has become an integral part of several cropping systems including both intercropping and-sequential cropping systems in different parts of the country.

1. Introduction

The Aquilaria malaccensis (Agarwood) is an Appendix II species of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1994). The species is also red listed under International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and is classified as ‘Vulnerable’ globally but ‘Critically Endangered’ in India (Oldfield et al., 1998; IUCN, 2009) and almost ‘Extinct in wild’ in Assam (Anon., 2003; Saikia and Khan, 2012a). The species due to its multipurpose uses is overexploited which is threatening its existence from the wild (Lee and Mohamed, 2016; Talucder et al.,2016). There are 21 reported Aquilaria species, of which 13 are fragrant resin producers, while the rest are yet to be studied (Lee and Mohamed, 2016; Talucder et al.,2016). Eleven of the domesticated species are A. malaccensis, A. crassna, A. subintegra, A. hirta, A.rostrata, A. beccariana, A. filaria, A. khasiana, A.microcarpa, A. grandiflora and A. sinensis (Zuhaidi, 2016). Species reported from Asia viz., A. apiculata, A. baillonii, A. banaense, A. beccariana, A. brachyantha, A. cumingiana, A. filaria, A. hirta, A. khasiana, A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa, A. rostrata, A. sinensis, A. subintegra and A. crassna are known to produce essential oils (Sulaiman et al., 2015). Only three species i.e. Aquilaria khasiana, A. macrophylla and A. malaccensis has centre of origin in India with A. macrophylla endemic to Nicobar Islands (Anon., 2003; Giri, 2003) and A. khasiana endemic to Khasi Hills of Meghalaya and surroundings (Kanjilal et al., 1982), while A. malaccensis is native to evergreen rain forests in the foothills of northeastern India (Chakrabarty et al., 1994; Saikia and Khan, 2012b) and West Bengal (Barden et al., 2000).

1. Introduction

There are a large number of indigenous rice varieties in India, which are still grown by the tribal people and small farmers of the remote areas where the modern agricultural practices, sufficient foods as well as healthcare systems are a dream. Nature has provided them some alternative ways. They have different indigenous rice varieties with its nutritional and medicinal values. Until recently, rice was considered only a starchy food and a source of carbohydrates and some amount of protein. Rice protein, though small in amount, is of high nutritional value (Chaudhary and Tran, 2001). It has extensive curative properties known from the ancient days. In fact, specific rice varieties with medicinal properties were cultivated and used in the treatment of some ailments in different counties of South East Asia.

During recent times, both at national level and international levels, the land races are being preserved in the gene banks. The scientists said that they were also checking these land races for some such characteristics which were not available in the existing varieties so as to incorporate the same in the present varieties (Sultan and Subba Rao, 2013). Traditional varieties are experiencing an increasing trend among consumers, due to their incredible health benefits for example the traditional varieties possess higher amount of glutamic acid, fiber and vitamins. Some people also credit traditional varieties with other health benefits, such as giving sensations of cooling in the body, improves vocal clarity, eyesight, fertility and mitigating rashes (Caius, 1999).

While reviewing the status of education and research on medicinal plants in Bangladesh, it was found that there are 27 government and private educational institutions currently engaged in offering Bachelor or Diploma degree on Unani and Ayurvedic systems and training of traditional medicine practitioners in Bangladesh. Several other public and private universities have included different aspects of medicinal plants in their syllabus with other degrees at undergraduate and post graduate level. At present, there are 277 Unani, 201 Ayurvedic and 32 herbal drug manufacturers in Bangladesh with 6498 Unani, 4058 Ayurvedic and 537 herbal products registered by the Directorate General of Drug Administration. About 500 species of plants are identified which possess medicinal properties and are distributed throughout the country. There is no distinctive research organizations at present for conducting planned research solely on medicinal plants; though, the Bangladesh Forest Research Institute have some research programme on medicinal plants. Hamdard University- a private university is offering degree on Unani and Ayurvedic systems and conducting some research including drug manufacturing. Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute with other public and private universities are conducting some hectic research on medicinal plants including some high yielding variety development. The Government of Bangladesh (GoB) have taken some initiatives for development of Unani and Ayurvedic medicine sector like making ‘Bangladesh Unani and Ayurvedic Practitioners Ordinance, 1983’, ‘National Drug Policy 2016’, establishment of ‘Board of Unani and Ayurvedic Systems of Medicines (BUASM)’, etc. But proper implementation of the ordnance, strengthening the activities of BUASM and taking organized research programme on medicinal plants are very much essential for having skilled professionals, quality drugs and research.

Soils are the basis of food production. Ninety five percent of our food is directly or indirectly produced on our soil. A healthy soil maintain a diverse community of organisms that helps in controlling pests (insects, weeds, and fungus) but also form beneficial symbiotic association with plant roots, recycle essential plant nutrients and improve soil structure. A healthy soil can also be a strategic ally in mitigating and adapting to climate change, as soil sequesters CO₂ and prevent to escape into the atmosphere. Beside this, it contributes to mitigate climate change by maintaining or increasing its carbon content. This can be said that the proportion of organic carbon is available more in the soil than combining both atmosphere and ground vegetation. Most of the soil organic carbon (SOC) stored in the first metre of the soil in the form of organic matter. However, organic matter degrades due to deforestation; deplete soil biodiversity, loss of nutrients as consumed by crop plants, soil compaction due to excessive use of agricultural machineries, soil erosion, water logging conditions, and urbanization, which release greenhouse gases like CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O into the atmosphere causing global warming and climate change. One third of all CO₂ emissions come from changes in land use (deforestation, shifting cultivation, and intensification of agriculture) whereas two-thirds of CH₄ and majority of N₂O emitted through agricultural practices (Kotschi and Müller-Sämann, 2004).

7.1.    Single Action Gene
    
    7.1.1.    Osmoprotectants
    7.1.2.    Detoxifying Genes
    7.1.3.    Late Embryogenesis Abundant (LEA) Protein
    7.1.4.    Transporter Genes
    7.1.5.    Multifunctional Genes for Lipid Biosynthesis
    7.1.6.    Heat -shock Protein Genes
    
7.2.    Regulatory Gene
    
    7.2.1.    Transcription Factors
    7.2.2.    Signal Transduction Genes
    
7.3.    Choice of Promoters
    
7.4.    Physiological Evaluation of Stress Effect
    
7.5.    Conclusions
        
References

1. Basic Information on the Country and  Agricultural Status
 
1.1. Location of Côte d’Ivoire

Cote D’ivoire (Ivory Coast) is located in West Africa, between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer, with an area of 3, 22,462 km². It is bordered on the north by Mali and Burkina Faso, no the west by Liberia and Guinea, on the east by Ghana and on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, stretching across nearly 550 km. The economic capital Abidjan is with a population of more than 3 million people and Yamoussoukro, the political capital, has more than 1,50,000 inhabitants.

1.2. Population 
The Ivorian population is 1,53,66,672 people in 1998, of which 26 per cent are foreigners (4,000,047), with an annual population growth rate of 3.3 per cent and a density of 48 habitants/km². 53.8 per cent of the population is under the age of 20 years. The age group between 21 and 60 years is 41 per cent. These figures show the youthfulness of the Ivorian population. The average life expectancy is 65 years.

Introduction

Agroforestry refers to practices, which deliberately or intentionally mix or retain woody perennials on the crop/animal production systems. It combines elements of agriculture, crops and/ or animals with elements of forestry in production system in a unit of land, either simultaneously or sequentially. The term woody perennials includes tree, shrubs, bushes, palm, bamboos, etc. which in agroforestry context are often referred to as multipurpose trees and shrubs (Wood, 1988). The word deliberate has significance a few trees remaining during the process of land clearance for agriculture is not agroforestry. To qualify as agroforestry, a system should actively promote the woody perennials for a particular purpose, or purposes, on the farm (Bhatt et al., 2001). This land use system is particularly suitable for resource poor marginal farmers became diverse needs are fulfilled by one system with escape routes during natural calamities. In hill agro-ecosystems, agroforestry plays an important role in sustainable resource conservation and food security. It is also used to diversify and intensify farming systems through integration of indigenous tree-crops.

Abstract: Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex Del is an important multipurpose tree of traditional agroforestry system in the central India. The present chapter reports influence of tree canopy positions, i.e. mid canopy, canopy edge and canopy gap, of Acacia nilotica (12-yr) on texture, organic C, total and mineral N and P and soil pH, in different depths of soils, on productivity of rice during rainy and wheat during winter season. It also reports how residual nitrogen under the tree influence yield of rice following its felling after completion of rotation cycle. Sand particles are found to decline by 10% and 9% whereas clay particles increase by 14% and 10% under mid canopy and canopy edge, respectively, than in open. Clay particles are not influenced by the canopy positions. Soil organic C, total N, total P, mineral N (NO3- -N and NH4+- N) and P are greater under mid canopy and canopy edge positions than in open. Soil organic C and N pool sizes are maximum in 0-10 cm and decline with depths. Total and mineral P contents are nearly uniform across the depths. C/N ratio increases with soil depth. Despite greater nutrients pools under the tree, density, aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, aboveground biomass / belowground biomass ratio and yield of the rice decline by 27.5%, 27.5%, 19.1%, 14.8% and 24.9%, respectively. Like the rice, yield of wheat also declines under the tree. 

Abstract: Alley cropping system is known for several services like fodder and fuel production, nutrient management, and soil erosion control from hilly terrain in humid tropics, but it could not make in farmers field. This study explores the role of Gliricidia leaf manure on nitrogen management in soils. Simultaneously, the system is modified to make it highly profitable, so that it may become farmer’s friendly in humid tropics. For nitrogen management in soil, two methods (leaves being incorporated into soil vs. surface) and three times of application, i.e. zero week after sowing (0 WAS), two week after sowing (2 WAS) and four week after sowing (4 WAS), of Gliricidia leaf in soil was considered. Two additional treatments, urea (120 kg ha-1, equal to the leaves) and control (no urea + no leaves) are also maintained to compute recovery of nitrogen from the leaves by the crop, and to know if the leaf manure could produce grain yield equal to that of equivalent urea. The study reveals there is no effect of the method of application on the decomposition and release of nitrogen from the leaves, soil N mineralization, nitrogen uptake, shoot biomass and yield of the crop, but time of application affects these parameters significantly. Maximum 50 % nitrogen is released quickly from the leaves within 15 days and remaining 48-49 % gradually in 60 days. Rate of soil N mineralization; nitrogen uptake, shoot biomass and grain yield in maize are the highest in 2 WAS and lowest in 4 WAS treatment. Recovery of nitrogen from the leaves is very low ranging from 4.5 to 9.3 kg ha-1. The leaves do not produce yield in maize equal to that of equivalent urea. However, for synchronization of maximum release of N from Gliricidia leaves and it’s 

Introduction

India has about 18% of the human and 15% of the livestock population of the world that needs to be supported from only 2% of the earth’s land area. The per capita land availability has declined from 0.89 ha in 1951 to 0.37 ha in 1991 and is likely to be 0.20 ha by 2035 (Singh, 2005). It is estimated that demand for green and dry fodder would be short by 64 and 24% by 2020, while it was short by 62 and 22% in 2005. The current sustainable production of firewood is 17 million tons from forest areas and 98 million tons from non-forest areas, leaving a net deficit of 86 million tons which is removed illicitly from forest and scrub formations all over the country. Nearly 32.67% of India’s geographical area is affected by various forms of soil erosion and land degradation. The area reported to be degraded in India varies widely, ranging from 63.9 million ha (Anonymous, 2000) to 187.70 million ha (Sehgal and Abrol, 1994), due to variations in approaches used to define degraded lands. The area under wastelands is estimated to occupy 63.85 million ha which is 20% of the country’s geographical area.

Introduction
 
Historically, foresters did not view trees as typical plants having the systems of heredity similar to all other living organisms. Previously it was felt that the tree development depended only upon the environment in which it was grown. Recently, the “forest tree parentage” in the tree improvement programme has gained importance.  Although there are several breeding methods for improvement of any crop, the most commonly used breeding method in tree improvement is “selection” of superior trees from existing or established population. The objective of selection programme is to obtain significant amount of genetic gain as quickly and inexpensively as possible, while at the same time maintaining a broad genetic base to ensure the future genetic general principle; that is choosing the most desirable individuals for the use as parent in breeding and production programmes.

The most successful tree improvement programmes are those in which proper vegetative propagules and provenances are used. Success in the establishment and productivity of forest plantations is determined largely by the species used and the source of seed or vegetative propagules used within the population.

A. General
        
B. Turf Grass
        
C. Indoor Plants

Introduction

Zymomonas mobilis, a gram negative, anaerobic, micro aerotolerant, ethanologenic bacterium metabolizes glucose, fructose, and sucrose. One of the major factor that limits the usage of Z. mobilis is the narrow substrate range. Moreover, there are no obvious genes reported for using lactose, maltose or cellobiose. Our preliminary sequence analysis of the Zymomonas mobilis ZM4 genome indicated the presence of a putative beta-galactosidase (bga) gene. However, the mechanism of beta-galactosidase (Bga) function is still unknown. Hence, Bioinformatics analysis was made to predict the physicochemical, biochemical and biophysical properties, domains, secondary and tertiary structures of the putative beta-galactosidase. These studies suggested that the putative beta-galactosidase gene was poorly expressed from its native promoter in Z. mobilis. The absence of beta-galactoside transacetylase and permease genes in Z. mobilis led to its inability to metabolize lactose. Hence, function predictions of Bga are performed because of the fact that it has a homologous partner.

Abstract
This paper presents a lucid and application-oriented delineation of the theory of probability which has proved itself as a basic tool in the theoretical and applied researches in almost all disciplines of science, specially, in the problems encompassing the real-life issues. Bio-informatics has recently emerged as a potential discipline of science and, needless to mention that the application of the probability theory has delved deep to elucidate the laws under its ambit. The inference procedures based on biochemical systems require the formulation of stochastic models (owing to the prevalence of low to moderate levels of stochasticity and noise in their dynamics) which, in turn, are developed using the probability laws in abundance. In Systems Biology, the estimation of parameters poses a prime task in biokinetic models developed on experimental data, and such estimation procedures have been possible only by applying appropriate tools derived using probability. Likelihood-free Bayesian inference that explicitly accounts for discrepancies between the model and the data, termed Approximate Bayesian Computation under model uncertainty is an off-shoot of the celebrated, Bayes' theorem of probability.

INTRODUCTION

Soil is one of the most important factors associated with the success or failure of fruit production. Orchard soil management refers to those practices in the soil that aim at getting maximum productivity/production of quality fruits within the limits of soil, water and fertility management over the years. The decision regarding the practices of orchard management should always be taken well in advance before planting of an orchard. The practices for orchard management should be executed in a timely manner during the lifetime of the orchard. An efficient orchard management system always ensures higher return to the grower. However, no single management practice can be recommended for all orchards. The management systems varies from orchard to orchard, locality to locality, soil to soil, from one set of climatic conditions to another set of climatic conditions etc. These systems also have their own merits and demerits. Thus the choice of best suitable system depends on many factors such as climate, topography, rainfall, tree spacing, planting system/ orchard design, root depth of tree, economic condition of orchardists, fertility status of soil and type of main fruit crop etc.However, it should be combined with pruning, nutrient and water management, provision for pollination, fruit thinning and disease and pest management in order to obtain desirable tree growth and vigour with the aim to promote precocity with high productivity. The objectives of an ideal soil management system should be:

INTRODUCTION

Guava (Psidium guajava L.) is an important fruit crop of India. It is a tropical fruit but also grows well under sub-tropical conditions. Guava is one of the commonest fruits liked by all the people and is known as ‘Apple of Tropics’. It is one of the major fruit of India and considered the fifth most important fruit in area and production after mango, citrus, banana and apple. Guava is quite hardly, prolific bearer and highly remunerative fruit which needs relatively less care as compared to other fruits. It excels most of other fruit crops in productivity and food value and as such has wide adaptability to soil and climatic conditions. Guava is such a fruit which is practically grown all over the country on commercial scale and especially in kitchen gardens and near the tubewell premises. The best quality of guava in India is grown in the area around Allahabad. Guava bear heavy crop every year and offer handsome economic return to growers.

INTRODUCTION

The modern cultivated strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) is one of the most widely distributed soft fruits of the world due to its genotypic diversity, highly heterozygous nature and broad range of environmental adaptations. It is one of the most delicious and refreshing soft fruit. Its plant is cherished in gardens as well as in commercial fields for its beautiful red fruit that has tantalizing aroma. Being nutritionally rich, strawberry has now become an important table fruit of millions of people around the globe. Its fruit is different from other fruits as their seeds are produced on outside of the fruit. Strawberry is unique fruit crop, which gives quicker and very high return per unit area on the capital investment, as the crop is ready for harvesting within six months of planting.

The strawberry fruits are highly perishable in nature and need quick disposal after harvest thus it has remarkable scope for its cultivation near the towns, cities and processing units where the fruits can be utilized or processed immediately after harvest. Over the last few years, continuous progress has been made in strawberry cultivation due to the use of micropropagation technique for plant propagation, day neutral cultivar, protected cultivation for multiple crops in a year and low tunnels in open field, which are useful for exploiting the tremendous potential of this small fruit crop.

r DNA Biotechnology
    
Concept of r DNA
    
DNA Preparation from Tissue
    
Reagents
    
Preparation
    
DNA Buffer (Tris-EDTA)
    
RNase A (20 mg/ml)
    
Toe DNA Preparation for Southern Blots
    
Southern Blot
    
PCR
    
Polymerase Chain Reaction
    
The Cycling Reactions
    
Denaturation at 94°C
    
Annealing at 54°C
    
Extension at 72°C
    
DNA Sequencing
    
The Sequencing Reaction
    
Denaturation at 94°C
    
Annealing at 50°C
    
Extension at 60°C
    
Separation of the Molecules
    
Detection on An Automated Sequencer
    
Assembling of The Sequenced Parts of a Gene
    
Freezing of Buffalo Semen (Jindal, 1995)
    
Tissue Culture
    
Preparation of Media
    
Laboratory Procedure for IVF (Kharche et al., 2008)
    
Source of Oocytes
    
Preparation of Estrous Goat Serum
    
Collection of Oocytes
    
Laparoscopic Ovum Pick-up
    
Oocyte Retrieval from Ovaries Collected form Slaughter 
    
House
    
Slicing Technique
    
Follicle Puncture Technique
    
Follicle Aspiration Technique
    
Follicle Isolation Technique
    
Evaluation of Oocytes
    
In vitro Maturation of Oocytes
    
Preparation of Cells for Co-culture
    
Assessment of Nuclear Maturation After in vitro Maturation of Oocytes
    
Analysis of Nuclear Status is Ascribed to One of the Following
    
Sperm Preparation for in vitro Fertilization of Oocytes
    
In vitro Fertilization of Oocytes
    
Assessment of in vitro Fertilization of Oocytes
    
Assessment of Cleavage
    
In vitro embryo culture

8.1. INTRODUCTION

Exploitation of heterosis through development of hybrid wheat is one of the most attractive options to increase wheat productivity. The efforts on developments of hybrid wheat started in early fifties (Kihara, 1951; Fukasawa, 1953) through cytoplasmic male sterility system (Livers and Heyne, 1968). Later, in seventies, research works from public as well as private sectors have shifted their efforts to the use of gametocide (chemically hybridizing agent-CHA), and a number of gametocides were tested in eighties. In wheat, heterosis is especially interesting for grain yield and for the resistance of plants to both parasites and climate risks (Rousset, 1986). With this advantage in mind, the first phase of hybrid wheat development started in the United States in 1975. Chronological events of wheat hybrid development have been given in Table 8.1. Subsequently, a number of hybrid wheat has been released in countries such as Argentina, France, and United States (Pickett, 1993).

Key facts

    
•    Though water is the most widely occurring substance on earth, freshwater accounts for only 2.5% whereas the rest of water is saltwater. The agriculture sector uses more than 75% of freshwater available. 
    
•    The current observed climate change impacts on water resources include increased precipitation at high latitudes and temperate areas, decreasing precipitation at low latitudes; decreasing snow covers, and glaciers in most regions; decreasing flows in some river basins; floods and droughts in some countries and significant decreases in lake and river size in Africa.
    
•    A number of climate models projected that a doubling of atmospheric concentrations of CO₂ would increase global precipitation by at least 5%.  The precipitation is expected to increase in some areas, such as, at high latitudes and in the tropics (south east monsoon regions and over the tropical Pacific), whereas the precipitation is likely to decrease in the sub-tropics (e.g. much of North Africa and northern Sahara).

Key facts

    
•    Fish is an important source of animal protein for billions of people (estimate 2.6 billion people). About 200 million people and their dependants worldwide, mostly in developing countries, live by fishing and aquaculture. 
    
•    Fish living in temperate and Polar Regions could be benefited from climate changes since an increase in water temperature would extend the fish growing season. Moreover, rising temperature could reduce over-wintering stress normally experienced by temperate fishes.
    
•    Rise of temperature may cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen (DO) or hypoxic conditions (as temperature and DO are inversely related) and can impair fish reproduction and may cause endocrine disruption in fish (increase incidence of malformations and may alter sex differentiation and sex determination in fish).
    
•    Bioavailability and toxicity of common pollutants such as pesticides and heavy metals may be enhanced with increasing temperatures. Therefore, exposure of toxicants at elevated temperatures may cause a decline in recreational and commercial fisheries.

Introduction

Agroforestry is the science of designing and developing integrated self-sustainable land management system, which involves introduction or retention of woody components such as trees, shrubs along with agricultural crops including pasture/animals simultaneously or sequentially, on the same unit of land and at the same time, to meet the ecological as well as socio-economic needs of local people. A typical agroforestry system will allow economic and ecological interactions between woody and non-woody components and also increase, sustain and diversify the total land output. Agroforestry systems are very important for the area currently under agriculture, the number of people who depend on land for their livelihoods, and the need for integrating food production with environmental services (Garrity, 2004; Makundi and Sathaye 2004). Agroforestry provides a unique opportunity to combine the twin objectives of climate change adaptation and mitigation. Although agroforestry systems are not primarily designed for carbon sequestration, there are many recent studies that substantiate the evidence that agroforestry systems can play a majorrole in storing carbon in above ground biomass (Sathaye et al. 2001;

Introduction

Arid environs are delineated by extreme and harsh weather conditions due to excessive heat and inadequate, variable precipitation; however, contrasts in climate occur. These climatic disparities are the result of temperature variation, distribution and season of rainfall and the degree of aridity. Moreover, high evapo-transpiration, periodic droughts, low organic matter levels, different associations of vegetative cover and soil enhances the problems of these regions. In general, hot arid climates have excessive heat and strong prevailing winds, unhampered by obstacles on the ground and as result aeolian erosion is common with frequent seasonal drought occurrence (Sharma and Tewari 2005). These climatic limitations make very difficult place for the inhabitants to attain their livelihood. People of these areas have spent their life within these constraints for centuries. They have faced serious challenges due to lack of sufficient resources and very low productivity which has added to the vulnerability of the region. 

Introduction

India has a long tradition of agroforestry which is widely practiced in all ecological and geographical regions of the country. Traditional agroforestry systems are broadly based on indigenous knowledge and the species are selected as a part of the cultural patterns of the community. The farmers and land owners in different parts of the country integrate a variety of woody perennials in the crop and livestock production systems depending upon the agro-climatic conditions and local requirements.

Introduction

The world demand for wood is continuously increasing due to increase in population. The ever increasing population has led to depletion of existing timber reserves and the forestland base has been reduced by increased allocation of forest areas to urban, agricultural, recreational and other uses. The growing awareness towards development of plantations has generated a voluminous increase in the demand for quality planting material. Conventionally, propagation is achieved through sexual (seeds) or vegetative methods (rooting of cutting, grafting, layering, etc). Propagation through seeds is routinely used for production of planting material but it generates immense genetic variability which is not desirable while propagating perennial tree species. In order to propagate selected trees with desirable features vegetative propagation methods like rooting of cuttings, grafting, layering etc have been developed. These methods can produce genetically identical off springs thereby preserving the advantageous traits;

The extreme weather events of the present day and the expected future climate scenarios at global and regional scales have been attributed to the changes in the atmospheric chemical composition and the massive amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by humans since the industrial revolution, bringing about the global warming and resulting in Climate Change. Further, the natural disasters like flash floods are attributed to the highly conspicuous human interventions with nature – the earth and its atmosphere. The parody of the situation is that, while the GHGs sourcing countries are mainly the developed ones, the sink of the result are the agrarian-dominated and eco-sensitive economies of the tropics. Invariably, tropical regions are to be affected the most, because, on the one hand the general circulation of the atmosphere directly and naturally causes divergence of the polluted air from extra tropical regions towards tropics, while on the other, the industrialization within the tropical regions too would affect the local atmosphere. Karnataka State, being located well within the tropics, can be truly impacted by the climate change caused by anthropogenic sources and it is demarcated into 10 agroclimatic zones (Fig. 9.1) based on crops, soils and climate. Climate experts have warned that Karnataka is likely to be more vulnerable to climate change than other states in India.

In order to achieve maximum and sustainable crop production from available farm resources, it is essential to have proper knowledge of the agro-climatic resources of the location/region. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the climatic conditions would help in determining the suitable agricultural management practices for taking advantage of the favorable weather conditions and avoiding or minimizing risks due to adverse weather conditions. better planning of cropping pattern, developing irrigation and drainage plans for an area (Chaudhary et al. 2015). Hence, trends of temperature and rainfall are studied in this section with possible impact studies on rice production for Chhattisgarh state. Challenges of rainfed rice production can be understood through trend studies of key weather variables. Analysis of rainfall in the context of rainfed rice production in Chhattisgarh state has been carried out. Analysis has been done at Department of Agrometeorology under All India Co-ordinated Research Project (Raipur) to characterize the key weather parameters statistics.

Introduction

In India importance of beekeeping is for honey production and little importance has till now been given to the primary biological and economic role played by bees in the pollination of agricultural crops. Honeybees are most fascinating creatures on the earth. They provide not only honey and also other valuable beehive products such as bees wax, pollen, royal jelly, propolis and bee venom. The bee forage in good quality is the primary requirement for production of the beehive products whereas efficient management and manipulation of bee colonies can competent for more production. A wise beekeeper adjusts to colony manipulation techniques according to floral and climatic conditions. In temperate regions there is enough flora during particular period i.e. spring and summer of the year and bees collect and store food but they face protracted dearth period in winter. Under subtropical climate of the country, nectar and pollen sources are available for most part of the year which are helpful for production of beehive products with quality.

Livestock farming is an integral part of crop farming and contributes substantially to household nutritional security and poverty alleviation through increased household income. Indian agriculture is an economic symbiosis of crop and livestock production with cattle as the foundation. Dairy animals produce milk by converting the crop residues and by products from crops which otherwise would be wasted. Dairy sector contributes by way of cash income, drought power and manure. Livestock provides for human needs by way of food, fibre, fuel, fertilizer, skin and traction. India has the largest livestock populations in the world. It has 57 per cent of the world’s buffalo population and 16 per cent of the cattle population. It ranks first in respect of cattle and buffalo population, third in sheep and second in goat population in the world. 70 per cent of the livestock are owned by 67 per cent of small and marginal farmers. 76 per cent of the milk is produced by weaker sections of society. Out of total livestock in the country, 37.28 per cent are cattle, 21.29 per cent are buffaloes, 12.71 per cent are sheep, 2640 per cent are goats and only 2.01 per cent are pigs. All other animals are less than 0.37 per cent of the total livestock. The species-wise breakup of livestock population in India (Table 16.1)

“Terra”per se is an extraordinarily complex, messy geophysical system with dozens of variables, most of which change in response to one another. The basic proposition behind the science of climate change is also rooted in the floral and faunal cohabiting with the Homo sapiens. Livestock and related fodder cultivation and the green waste generated in a farming enterprise are of extreme significance when we ponder over the climate change. Confusion and complacency reigns the thinking process and planning process related to climate change. Confusion in the sense, that risk communication in this regard is so placid. Complacency, we say due to the lackadaisical attitude of our policy makers. To make it very plain, fodder production sector as well as farm sector will suffer the most in Kerala for want of scientific thinking, planning and execution.

Livestock have the potential to be transformative; by enhancing food and nutrition security and providing the income to pay for education and for other needs, livestock can transform lives of many (Jimmy Smith et al., 2013). The projected growth of population is 9.6 billion in the year 2050 from the current population of 7.2billion (Gerber et al, FAO, 2013). The world demand for milk and meat in 2050 is expected to expand 58 and 73% respectively from their demand levels in 2010 (FAO, 2011). Nevertheless, the growth animal agriculture is not on par with the demand. Today, in a world of limited resources, in the face of climate change and a rising world population, a major issue is global food security (Augustine et al 2013). The key inferences of the latest approved summary for policymakers by the IPCC (2013) on climate change are 1). Warming of climate system is unequivocal and will continue beyond 2100. Global surface temperature change for the end of the 21st century is expected to exceed 1.5°C relative to 1850 to 1900 for almost all RCP scenarios 2). It is very likely that frequency of heat waves and heavy precipitation events have increased 3).

Climate change has become a global threat as its impact is evident on the Earth. In the coming decades,the severity of climate change is expected to aggravate the ecosystem. Due to its vulnerable ecosystem and geographical location, the North eastern region (NER)of India that is home to about 40 million people is considered as one of the most climate sensitive areas in the country. The NER is among India’s least developed region andscarce information is available on the impact of climate change in this region. However, initial scientific research and field observations confirm that the region is suffering from the impacts of climate change already. The region comprising 0.26 million km2area occupying 8% of nation’s territoryconsists of the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim. These states consist of a part of the east Himalayan region, which extends eastwards from Arunachal Pradesh to the Darjeeling hills of West Bengal. The entire region is a part of Indo-Burma and Himalayan hotspots i.e. characterized by rich biodiversity, heavy precipitation and high seismicity.

The climatic changes and global warming may impact the economic viability of livestock production systems in a significant manner. The possible consequences of increased ambient temperature on the livestock include reduced feed intake, reduced weight gains, lower milk production and lower conception rates during summer periods. Though animals can, to some extent, adapt to higher temperatures with prolonged exposure, the production losses are likely to be exhibited in response to higher temperature events. However, potential direct and indirect impacts of climate change on livestock production have not yet been thoroughly explored. Changes in availability and quality of fodder have also been identified as one of the major impacts of climate changes leading to lowered productivity of livestock species. Climate change could also affect the distribution of vector-borne livestock diseases. These changes occur as a result of shifts in the geographical ranges of ticks, mosquitoes, flies and other vectors.

Abstract

In a developing country like India with exploding population pressure and shrinking availability of resources per capita, agricultural intensification maintain soil health is the only way to solve hunger and poverty. Soil is a fundamental resource base for agricultural production systems. Besides being primary medium for crop growth, soil functions to sustain crop productivity, maintain environmental quality and provide for plant, animal and human health. Soil organic matter (SOM) content is frequently identified as a primary attributes of soil quality assessment. It is evident that SOM influences various soil physical,chemical and biological properties. Besides, SOM serves as a slow release reserviour for macro-, secondary and micronutrients to plants.

We are entering an era when certain environmental conditions will exert a degree of concern which has never been before encountered by man in the course of human history.

The survival of human beings depends on the realisation that they have to live in harmony with the various elements of the environment which are interconnected.
    
(i)     An understanding of the components and processes which takes place in the environment.
    
(ii)     The relationship between different abiotic and biotic components and the assessment of resources with reference to needs of people in a region is essential for their survival.
    
(iii)     A reduction in rate of growth of population in developing countries and a reduction in consumption of resources by developed countries would lead to a balance between population and resources. In this manner, the awareness of the problems faced by environment would enable people to take appropriate decisions. This makes the earth habitable for future generations.

Introduction

Indian agriculture is entering in a new phase. The major research and development efforts in the Green revolution era focused on enhancing production and productivity of selected food grains crops and only in Indo-Gangetic plains. The new challenges demand that issues of resource and input use efficiency receive high priority to ensure past gains can be sustained and further enhanced to meet the emerging needs. Issues of conservation have assumed importance in view of widespread resource degradation and the need to reduce production costs, increase profitability and make agriculture more competitive. The conventional mode of agriculture through intensive agricultural practices was successful in achieving goals of production, but simultaneously led to degradation of natural resources. The growing concerns for sustainable agriculture have been seen as a positive response to limit both low-input, traditional agriculture and intensive modern agriculture (relying on high levels of inputs for crop production). Sustainable agriculture relies on practices that help to maintain ecological equilibrium and encourage natural regenerative processes. Agricultural systems relying on such approaches are not only able to support high productivity, but also preserve biodiversity and safeguard the environment. Conservation agriculture has come up as a new paradigm to achieve goal of sustained agricultural production. It is a major step toward transition to sustainable agriculture.

Conservation Agriculture (CA) is an agro-ecological approach for sustainable crop production and intensification. CA comprises the resource conserving agricultural production practices that aim to achieve more produce at less cost while enhancing the quality of the natural resource base. CA is all about providing multiple options for farmers, endowed differentially. The basic components of CA include drastic reduction in tillage, adequate retention of crop residues on the soil surface, use of economically feasible diversified crop rotations, avoidance of freewheeling and practice of controlled traffic, if possible. These elements of CA are not site-specific but represent unvarying objectives that are practised to extend CA technologies efficiently across all production conditions. No-till agriculture is considered as a revolutionary step in the direction of preventing land degradation and rehabilitation of the resilient but fragile lands. No-till agriculture together with other associated management practices such as direct seeding into loose crop residues to provide soil cover and to conserve soil moisture, judicious choice of crop rotations and agro-forestry tree species constitutes CA. CA is thus being widely accepted as an important component of the overall strategy for enhancing productivity, improving environmental quality and preserving natural resources for food security and poverty alleviation in such areas.  Recent CA trials conducted in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu seem to bring out that the rainfed tropical India stands to benefit more from CA than the irrigated areas.

Introduction

Carbon on earth is stored primarily in rocks and sediments. Only a tiny fraction resides in mobile reservoirs – the atmosphere, oceans, soil and terrestrial biosphere – to play a vital role in biological, physical and chemical processes at the earth’s surface. The small fraction of C present in the atmosphere as CO₂ is especially important, as its abundance is a major regulator of the climate of the planet. The rapid increase in atmospheric concentrations of CO₂ over the past 150 years, reaching current concentrations of about 380 ppm, corresponds with combustion of fossil fuels since the beginning of the industrial age. Conversion of forest lands to agricultural use also redistributed C from plants and soils to the atmosphere and altered ecological balance through physiological effects on vegetation. The understanding of C sources and sinks has advanced enormously in the last decade. However, we cannot yet quantitatively define the global effects of human activities such as agriculture and forestry on climate change. An understanding on the long-term changes in atmospheric concentration will help enhance understanding on how the earth’s climate will evolve in future.

Abstract

Roselle, or Jamaica sorrel (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) is a popular vegetable in many tropical regions, cultivated for its leaves, seeds, stems and calyces of which, the dried calyces are used to prepare tea, syrup, jams, jellies and beverages. It is an annual herbaceous shrub belongs to family Malvaceae originated in old world tropics. The fresh calyces and young leaves are used as a vegetable in various cuisines and the plant also yield industrial bio fibre. It also has nutraceutical potential, high pigment content, and nutritional and medicinal properties. Roselle is a drought tolerant crop and cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics during hot and rainy seasons. China and Thailand are the largest producers and control much of the world supply, where as the best quality roselle comes from Sudan. Many medicinal applications of this plant have been developed around the world. It is used to treat hypertension, pyrexia, dyspepsia, and leukaemia hepato protective, due to its high content of protocatechuic acid. Leaves are emollient and sedative and also show antihypersensitive, antihyperlipidimic, diuretic and anti oxidant properties. Hence, it is an ideal candidate crop for low input multi-cropping system for the food and nutritional security for developing countries.

Case Study    :    Orissa Super Cyclone 1999

Appendix-'F'    :    Chemical and Industrial Disaster Mitigation
    
Appendix-'G'    :    Emergency Procedure for Handling Chemical Disasters
    
Case Study    :    Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984

Abstract

Abundant organic wastes come from agriculture sector. Earthworms offer an opportunity for beneficial disposal of this unwanted material by converting into vermi compost, a national wealth. It is rich in nutrients, enzymes, hormones and beneficial microbes but free from harmful chemicals and pathogenic microorganisms, hence improves crop productivity. Disposal through burning creates environment pollution and loss of valuable plant nutrients. Dumping creates unhygienic situation. Vermicomposting is quicker than other conventional composting techniques. In northeast India, Eisenia foetida and Perionyx excavatus were found equally efficient in vermi composting of agricultural wastes. Among different bio mass, vegetable wastes and soft weeds were converted to compost very quickly by using Perionyx excavatus within 1 to 2 months. Composting was found moderate (3 to 4.5 months) in crop residues and hardy weeds while slow (5 to 10 months) in case of dry tree leaves. When different wastes are mixed together it takes 3.5 to 4.5 months for complete composting. Composting can be accelerated by mixing the wastes with cellulolytic fungi such as Triichoderma viride, Trichurus spiralis, Paecilomyces fusiporus and Aspergillus awamori. Vermicompost prepared from wastes is a marketable product. It can bring prosperity in the villages by means of employment generation and good income. Awareness among people can be created through training.

Introduction

Vegetables are one of the potential crops in meeting the food requirements and improving the nutritional status of our people. They play a vital role in crop diversification, employment generation, and nutritional security and in improving the economic conditions of farmers.

Our country has made a tremendous progress in vegetable production and ranked as second largest producers of vegetables in the world with a total production of more than 125 million tons per annum. Our estimated demand is about 225 million tons by 2020 AD. This target can be achieved through use of improved vegetable varieties, hybrids and production technologies even with diminishing land and water resources.

In Indian vegetable scenario, IARI has contributed significantly by developing more than 168 improved varieties and 24 hybrids in different vegetables. Apart from high yielding, many of these varieties/F₁ hybrids are resistant to biotic and abitic stresses and also suitable for processing, value addition and export. Besides developing large number of improved varieties and F₁ hybrids of vegetables, IARI has developed/standardized improved hi-tech vegetable nursery and off-season production technologies which require commercialization by the entrepreneurs as these can bring quantum improvement

Introduction

The floriculture industry in India is characterized by growing traditional flowers (loose flowers) and cut flowers under open field conditions and protected environment conditions, respectively. India also has a strong dry flower industry, which contributes a major share to the overall trade. Other segments like fillers, potted plants, seeds and planting material, turf grass industry and value added products also contribute a share in the overall growth of the floriculture sector. 

Area and Production

With the rise in people’s investment in flower purchase for gifts at social ceremonies or for home decoration, the focus shifted to production of cut flowers too. The fresh increase in the area under flowers is more for cut flower production, but not necessarily at the cost of loose flower production.
A large share of the total world production area is in India. With an estimated area of 1,60,000 ha (2007-08), India perhaps is the largest production base in the world. The last decade and a half has witnessed significant increase in the area under flowers, which has tripled from 53,000 ha (1993-94). 
(Fig. 1).

Introduction

Self Help Groups (SHGs) are fast emerging as a powerful tool of socio-economic empowerment of the poor in rural areas. These are based on the principle by the people, for the people and of the people. Such groups are participatory processes to provide opportunities for people to share knowledge, common experiences and problems.

Self Help Groups (SHGs) of women in India have been recognized as an effective strategy for the empowerment of women in rural as well as urban areas, bringing women together from all spheres of life to light for their rights or a cause. Since the overall empowerment of women is crucially dependent on economic empowerment,  women through these SHGs work on a range of issues such as health, nutrition, agriculture, forestry etc. besides income generation activities and seeking micro credit. “SHG is a small, economically homogeneous and affinity based group of people who have decided to save and contribute to a common fund to be lent to its members as per the groups decisions”. Generally, a ‘Self Help Group’ (SHG) is formed when members of a community, who have the same or similar problem, come together, meet, share experiences, have discussions and thereby arrive at solutions.