eChapters

Abstract

There are enormous food processing industries comprising of grains and oilseeds milling, fruits and vegetables processing, spice grinding and other food processing units in India. Also, there are many seed processing companies in the country, which are engaged in the processing and production of good quality seeds of different crops besides National Seeds Corporation and State Seed Corporations. All industries are using different type of machinery and equipment like cleaner, grader, expeller, milling machines, polishers, dehusking machines, size reduction equipment, different type of grinders, separators, treatment machinery, mixers, pulverizes etc. Besides this equipment, material-handling equipment like conveyor (belt, chain or screw type), elevators, holding bins and other handling equipment are also frequently used in the processing plants. To meet the above requirement many firms are also involved in the manufacturing of these equipment and machinery. Since, most of the seed processing equipment, dhal milling plants, material handling equipment are manufactured by the unorganized sector and hence equipment and machinery fabricated by them are not of very good quality. However, Bureau of Indian Standards has formulated the codes of manufacturing for these equipment and machinery. Seed processing equipment manufactured in India are generally copy of imported processing equipment. The manufacturers do not use materials of good quality. Framework of the machines is very poor. These machines are not also tested for their efficiency, 

Abstract

Multi-commodity flours were prepared by blending rice flour, mung flour and potato flour with wheat flour in ratios of 0:0:0:100, 5:5:5:85, 10:10:10:70 and 15:15:15:55, respectively and packaged in glass jar, high density polyethylene and aluminium flexible packaging for biscuits development. The standardized formulations for biscuit had ingredients as 100 g flour/multi-commodity flour, 45 g sugar, 45 g hydrogenated fat, 1.25 g sodium bicarbonate, 1.25 g baking powder and 1.0 g curry leave powder. The biscuits were baked in convective baking oven at 180 > C for 10-15 min till baked. The well baked biscuits were removed from the oven, cooled to room temperature, packaged and stored under ambient condition. The physical quality (Mass, thickness, diameter, spread ration percent spread and bulk density), of biscuits were analyzed just after preparation under ambient condition. Results were also reported that the spread ratio of multi-commodity flour biscuits increased with decrease in the incorporation of wheat flour in multi-commodity flours. It is clear that spread ratio is mostly influenced by the diameter and thickness of biscuits.

Abstract

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) is an important pulse crop of India and its production is greatly affected by wilt disease. Pigeonpea wilt is a very destructive soil borne disease caused by Fusarium udum. In the experiments, ten treatments were applied viz.; Neem leaf extracts (T₁), Garlic extracts (T₂), Tulsi leaf extracts (T₃), bio-agents Trichoderma viride (T₄), Pseudomonas fluorescens (T₅), Polymer coating (polycot) @ 4 ml diluted in 5 ml of water per kg of seed (T₆), Polymer coaating + Trichoderma viride @ 6.0 g per kg seed (T₇), Polymer + Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 6.0 g per kg seed (T₈), Polymer coating (polycot) 4 ml diluted in 5 ml of water per kg seed + Vitavax power @ 3g per kg seed (T₉) and T₁₀ served as untreated. The observations were recorded six times at 10 days intervals and started from 40 days. These polymer alone @ 4.0ml per kg and in combination with bioagents and fungicides were applied to seed were tested against Fusarium udum. The highest per cent disease control and per cent wilt disease incidence were recorded 96.09 to 64.09 and 2.74 to 33.32, respectively in T₉ (Polymer + Vitavax power @ 3g per kg seed) at 10 days intervals followed by T₈ (Polymer + P. fluorescens) gave 94.46 to 53.06 per cent inhibition, T₇ (92.39 to 52.74) and T₆ (90.97 to 49.73) however, the lowest per cent disease control was noticed as 76.19 to 40.13 per cent in T₁ (Neem leaves extract) amongst all treatments except untreated.

1. INTRODUCTION

Field run seeds obtained from the seed production field posses high moisture and physical contaminants like trash and other inert materials (sand, stones, soil etc.,), diseased and pest damaged seeds, other crop seeds, weed seeds, deteriorated and damaged seeds, off-size and ill filled seeds, plant remnants etc. Seed processing is must to dry the seeds to safe moisture level, remove unwanted and inert materials as detailed above.

Seed qualities such as vigour and viability are improved by certain physical characteristics of the seed i.e., shape, size, large, denser and sound seed, etc. So, if grading is done to obtain a particular range of size, shape, length and density of the seeds, the quality of the lot is upgraded.

Seed processing refers to all the steps necessary for preparation of harvested seed for marketing namely handling, drying, shelling, preconditioning, cleaning, size grading, treating and packaging.

a. Balance Sheets or Net worth Statement

Balance sheet is the list of assets and liabilities owned by a business. It helps to calculate the growth in net worth of the business by calculating the change in assets less the change in liabilities. They represent the financial foundation on which the business is built.

The term ‘balance sheet’ implies some sort of balance as part of the document. That balance represents the relationship between assets on one side, and liabilities on the other, and the basic accounting principle that assets always equal liabilities plus equity. Since it is simply a list of assets owned and debts owed, at a given time, with monetary values attached, we must understand the concepts of assets and liabilities.

Assets are resources owned by or owed to the business such as dairy, equipment, real estate, and notes receivable. Assets are those parts of the business that are owned or controlled. They include any property/resource owned by a person or business e.g. cash, land, buildings, dairy, farm equipment and dairy-related share. Assets are usually listed on the top or on the left hand side of the balance sheet. They are classified in following ways

Key Points

• Patient assessment is only half of the disease diagnosis process.

• Using animal physiological values as a reference point can help measure a patient's health.

• Laboratory results support the patient's evaluation results.

• Patient evaluation findings suggest bodily system involvement.

Introduction

The patient assessment includes the owner's complaint, history, physical examination, and clinical examination of the animals (Fig. 1.1). Proper animal assessment is only part of the illness diagnosis process. Sometimes, evaluation results can be indicative of a medical condition. As a result, at the initial stage, assessing the animal aids in making a confirmation diagnosis. Given its significance, an assessment of the animal must be performed or obtained before concluding the laboratory finding, if available. Assessment can be conducted in several steps, each of which is detailed in the next paragraph. The physiological vital parameters of animals are crucial reference points to conclude the evaluation findings.

Introduction

The term multipurpose trees (MPT) refers to all woody perennials that are grown to provide more than one significant function (shelter shade, land sustainability) of the land use system they implement. More emphasis is given to trees which are indigenous in nature and have the capability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. All trees are said to be multipurpose. The term “multipurpose” as applied to trees for agroforestry refers to their use for more than one service or production function in an agroforestry system (Burley and Wood, 1991).

Multipurpose trees species (MPT) are grown to provide more than one significant crop of function or form. These may include fuel wood, fiber, fodder, flower, fruit, fertilizer (6F) timber, industrial purpose, nitrogen f ixing, soil conservation, soil protection and rehabilitation, shade and nurse trees, medicine, windbreak, shelterbelts, live fences, aesthetic or recreational purpose, shown in Table 16.1.

1. Meteorology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the atmosphere.

2. The scientific study of the interactions between living organisms and their atmospheric environment is called as Biometeorology.

3. 75% of the mass of atmosphere is in the troposphere.

4. The ozone layer present in stratosphere.

5. Exosphere gradually merges into interplanetary space.

6. The concentration of ozone occurs between 20 and 50 Km with the maximum around 25 km which is referred as ozonosphere.

7. Chromospheres - the layer which has the chemical activity predominant between 20 and 100 km.

8. Atmospheric composition varies above 80-100 km which is called as Heterosphere.

9. Heliosphere Molecular oxygen is seen been between 200 and 1000 km.

10. Ionosphere above 10000 km, hydrogen atoms are in an ionized state.

1. Downy Mildew (Green Ear)
Sclerospora graminicola
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Characteristic symptoms of the disease are pale, chlorotic, broad streaks extending from base to tip of leaves.
• At the advancement of disease, the leaf streaks turn brown and the leaves become shredded longitudinally.
• In severe infection, the downy fungal growth can be seen on the upper as well as lower surface of the leaves.
• Infected plants fail to form ear but if formed, they are malformed to green leafy structures.
• Complete ear can be transformed into leafy structure.
• Pathogen transformed all floral parts such as glumes, palea, stamens and pistils into green linear leafy structures of variable lengths and no grains are produced.
• Partial infection of ear head is observed in which some grains are produced and rest of the ear head is converted in to a green ear(Fig-1).

In previous section we discussed about the ability of the research design to precisely detect the relationship between cause and effect under controlled conditions. But in social research it becomes difficult to conduct the research under highly controlled conditions and moreover many of the researches in social science aim at prediction rather than understanding.

As we discussed earlier, aim of science is development theory, understanding, prediction and explanation of natural phenomenon. In many of the cases we are more interested in predicting the occurrence of social phenomenon rather than explaining it or understanding its relationship with other phenomenon. Under such conditions internal validity is of less use because a relationship that is established in artificially controlled conditions (with high internal validity) may fail to express itself in natural setup due to effect of extraneous variables. When the relationship between cause and effect is weak enough to be expressed in natural setup then it is of less use in predicting the phenomenon. Under such conditions we require experiments that are conducted in nearly natural setup, so that we can generalize the findings of the research to the wider domain.

Origin and Distribution of Camel

A camel is an even-toed ungulate within the genus Camelus of the family Camelidae bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as “humps” on its back. There are two species of camel, viz. Camelus dromedarius (single humped dromedary) having habitat in dry hot arid lands of Africa and Asia, and Camelus bacterianus (double humped or bactrian) habitat of cold arid lands of Central palaerctic (a zoogeographical region consisting of Europe, Africa north of the Sahara, and most of Asia north of the Himalayas) region. Family Camelidae also includes other species which are camel like mammals. Those are Lama (Lama glama), Alpaca (Lama pacos), Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) and Guanaco (Lama guanicoe). These four species are termed as new-world Camelidae having habitat in South America. The Indian camel belongs to Camelus dromedarius. A very small numbers of double-humped camels are also available in Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir.

Camel is an important component of desert eco-system. It is capable of traveling long distance in hot, arid and sandy regions carrying men, material and providing energy to agricultural operations. They provide milk, meat, hair and used as work animals. It is believed that Camels were domesticated during the period from 3000 to 2500 BC. Average life expectancy of a camel is 40-50 years. The height at the shoulder and hump of a fully grown adult camel is 1.85 and 2.15 metres, respectively. Camel can run at a speed of up to 65km/h for a short distance and can sustain a speed of up to 40km/h for long distance.

Weed

Definition: “Weed is an unwanted plant growing where it is not desired.” – Jethro Tull

Commonly noticed weed species in fruit orchard:

• There are more than 30,000 species of weeds distributed world over, out of which 18,000 are noxious and cause serious losses.
• Around 250 species are causing serious economic losses.
• Monocot weeds (Narrow leaf/Grasses): Cyprus, Cynodon, Poagrass, Rye grass, Quackgrass etc.
• Dicot weeds (Broad leaf weeds): Dandelion, Chenopodium spp., Parthenium, Solanum, Euphrobia spp., Ground ivy etc

Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.)

The crop requires cool and dry climate during the growing season. Sowing of seeds at 4 kg/ha in 0.25-0.50 cm depth during November 20 to December 20 was recommended. In medium black cotton soil of Malwa region, second week of November was reported to be optimum time for sowing. Broadcasting of seeds followed by light sweeping with broom found to give uniform germination. A spacing of 30x 45 cm found to be most ideal to get higher seed yield in Isabgol under Madhya Pradesh situation. Response of chemical fertilisers was found low. However, a fertiliser dose of 25 kg/ha each of N and P₂O₅ as basal dose and 25 kg/ha N as top dressing at 30-42 DAS was recommended for commercial cultivation in Gujarat while 50 kg/ha N reported to increase the seed yield in Madsaur areas of Madhya Pradesh. At Anand three irrigations viz. first at the time of sowing and subsequently at 30 and 70 days after sowing (DAS) proved to be beneficial. However, four irrigations at sowing, 10,25, and 50 DAS at Mandsaur are recommended. Chemical weed control was found to be economical and a pre-sowing or pre-emergence application of Isoproturone (0.5 kg ai/ha) was recommended for weed control. One spray of Metalaxyl + two sprays of Mancozeb were found significantly superior in controlling downy mildew. In Gujarat, Pearl millet in Kharif and Isabgol in Rabi season are advocated as a suitable crop rotation. Groundnut-Isabgol rotation gave higher economic return followed by Soybean-Isabgol and Pigeon pea-Isabgol rotations in Maharashtra.

Marek’s disease is a herpesvirus-induced neoplastic disease of chickens characterized by infiltration of various nerve trunks and/or organs with pleomorphic lymphoid cells. Marek’s disease is world wide in distribution. Marek’s Disease has been named after Josef Marek who published the disease in 4 roosters in 1907.

Occurrence

In chickens only, however turkeys and quail have limited susceptibility. Lesions similar to MD have been seen in pheasants, ducks, pigeons, geese, canaries, budgerigars, swans and great horned owls. However, aetiology for lesions in these species has not been proved. It may appear at 3-4 weeks but usually after eight weeks, with major losses from 12-25 weeks. Morbidity and mortality varies depending on the virulence of MDV.

Abstract

Food processing involves the transformation of raw animal or plant materials into consumer-ready products, with the objective of stabilizing food products by preventing or reducing negative changes in quality. Without these processes, we would neither be able to store food from time of plenty to time of need nor to transport food over long distances. Food processing has also gained its importance in the wide variety of diet among people throughout the globe and availability of exotic food items at various places. Processing of food items enhance the taste, flavor and aroma of the food thereby increasing the overall chances of its acceptability among the masses. So, it is essential to determine and recognize the database of physical and engineering (aerodynamic and mechanical) properties of these agricultural products because these properties play an important role in designing and developing of specific machines and their operations such as sorting, separating and cleaning, also to determine the optimum in seed metering device in pneumatic planter and precision sowing machine to suite every size of these grains.

Abstract

Pigeon pea is an important pulse crop of India and its production is greatly affected by wilt disease. Pigeon pea wilt is a very destructive soil borne disease caused by Fusarium udum. In present research work plant extracts (Garlic, Neem, Tulsi), bio-agents (Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens) and fungicides (Vitavax, Bavistin and Thiram + Carbendazim) were tested against Fusarium udum. Among them fungicides were found most effective in inhibiting mycelial growth of Fusarium udum recorded 100% inhibition followed by garlic bulb extract (52.12 to 56.33%). Among bioagents, Pseudomonas fluorescens inhibit the growth up to (46.00 to 51.79%) followed by T. viride (44.32 to 48.79%) amongst all treatments except untreated.

Keywords: Pigeon pea, Fusarium udum, bio-agent, fungicide

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) is one of the major pulse crops grown in the tropics and subtropics belonging to family Leguminaceae. It has wide adaptability and low input requirements mostly grown in kharif season.

There are different types of greenhouses, the low cost and high cost or low technology or high technology greenhouses. The cost of greenhouse and expenditure on crop production under these greenhouses would vary according to technology to be used and the crop is to be produced. The cost would vary from place to place with location of greenhouse. For each type of greenhouse its cost would vary according to geo-climate, the production practices and input expenditure/availability. The cost of construction of greenhouse in 2019 hence varies from Rupees 500 to 6000 per square meter.

9.1. Molecular breeding and marker assisted selection

Using conventional breeding, developing new varieties takes atleast 15-20 years.

Molecular breeding shortened the time to 7-10 years.

One of the tools for faster variety development is Marker Assisted Selection (MAS).

MAS-refers to use of DNA markers to assist phenotypic screening.

Plants that possess particular genes or quantitative trait loci (QTL) may be identified based on their genotype rather than their phenotype.

Introduction

Rice, being an important crop in India, there is a part to focus on improving rice production and productivity. A number of biotic and abiotic factors mostly referred as production constraints that affect the rice yield adversely and subsequently, needs an extraordinary consideration to the developing demand of continuously emerging population of India (Kumar and Jha, 2000). Abiotic stress has been estimated that more than half of the yield potential of major crops is mainly affected due to unfavourable growing environments such as drought (Cortina and Culianez-Macia, 2005). The current study was aimed to carry out to assess the impact of Pink pigmented facultative methylotrophs (PPFM) and plant growth promoters on mitigating drought stress effects in semi dry rice.

1. Blast
Pyricularia grisea
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Crop is susceptible to the disease during all stages of its growth, from seedling to grain formation stage.
• In young seedlings, lesions are generally of spindle shaped, however lesions of different sizes may also be observed.
• In the beginning the spots have yellowish margin and grayish centre. Later, the centres become whitish grey and disintegrate.
• Lesions are isolated in the beginning and afterwards they may soon coalesce. The distal portion of the leaves beyond the lesions may hang and drop off.
• In older plants, the disease appears on leaf blades with typical spindle shaped spots.
• Under congenial conditions, such spots enlarge, coalesce and form bigger lesions.
• Lesions are like those on the seedlings and are about 0.3-0.5 cm in breadth and 1-2 cm in length. Apices of the infected leaves beyond the lesions hang down and sometimes break.
• Stem infection causes blackening of the nodal region, penetrating into the tissues.