eChapters

Computer-based instructional teaching and learning platforms, commonly known as Learning Management Systems (LMS) or educational technology (EdTech) platforms, are designed to enhance the educational experience by integrating technology into the learning process. These platforms offer a range of tools and features that support both instructors and students in various educational activities. Here are some key platforms and their features:

Key Platforms

Moodle

Moodle (Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) is a widely used open-source Learning Management System (LMS) designed to provide educators, administrators, and learners with a robust, secure, and integrated system to create personalized learning environments. Here's an in depth look at Moodle, its features, and its use cases:

Key Features of Moodle

1. Course Management

• Customizable Course Creation: Instructors can design courses with f lexible layouts, multimedia content, and varied activities.

• Modular Plugins: Extensive library of plugins for activities, resources, and user management

Introduction

The problem of dealing with climate change, a critical global issue, has come to define our era. Human activities are rapidly altering Earth’s climate, with far- reaching repercussions for many industries, including agriculture. The necessity for environmentally responsible food production is pressing as the global population rises. One possible way to lessen the effects of global warming on food production is to adopt the sustainable agriculture practice of striking a balance between environmental protection, social justice, and economic viability. The impacts of climate change on farming may be seen all across the world right now. Global food security is threatened by climate change, which is causing higher temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and increasing extreme weather events. Greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and unsustainable farming practices all have a hand in accelerating global warming. Therefore, it is crucial to tackle the double problem of lowering agriculture’s environmental imprint while also adapting it to climate change. Sustainable agriculture works toward a compromise by encouraging robust and flexible agricultural practices. It aims to ensure the sustainability of food production in the future while reducing environmental effects by incorporating climate change adaptation and mitigation techniques into agricultural practices. Agricultural systems can be made more resistant to climate change by the use of sustainable farming practices such as agroforestry, crop diversification, soil conservation, and water management. Sustainable farming practices help communities adapt to climate change, boost local economies, and secure food supplies for future generations.

Introduction

For many years, it has been acknowledged that “augmentative” or “inundative” biological management can decrease arthropod pests (DeBach, 1964). The goal of increased biocontrol is to bring about behavioral and numerical changes in the natural enemies that live within agricultural environments. This tactic calls for the large production of natural enemies as well as their periodic release, to maximize their potential for reproduction during the growing season. For instance, the use of augmentative releases may be required if naturally occurring populations of parasitoids or pests are either nonexistent, do not successfully colonize fields or orchards, or colonize at a point in the season that is too late to provide effective pest control. The increase is being carried out to establish a population of natural enemies capable of keeping the number of pests at economically hazardous levels until harvesting time.

Biological Control

Controlling problems caused by things like mites, insects, weeds, and plant diseases with the help of other organisms is called biological control or biocontrol. It uses natural mechanisms like predation, parasitism, herbivory, and so on, but human intervention is almost always present.

Parasitoids

The term “parasitoid” refers to a group of insects, the larvae of which develop on or within the bodies of other insects, which the parasitoid kills eventually. The phenomenon is known as parasitism. The vast majority of parasitoids are classified as either wasps (Hymenoptera) or flies (Diptera). These insects are numerically quite abundant and play a significant role in almost every terrestrial environment.

Introduction

In the last two decades, sustainable agriculture has grown to become one of the most pressing issues in agriculture. Although there are numerous definitions of sustainable agriculture, most agree on three fundamental overlapping components: Ecological, economic, and social sustainability (Kaur 2013; Pilgeram 2013). Meanwhile, the prevalence of plant diseases is a major impediment to sustainable agricultural production systems worldwide, particularly in the tropics and subtropics. Farmers frequently apply agrochemicals (i.e., pesticides, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc.) over their recommended dose to manage plant diseases, raising serious concerns about food safety, soil, environmental quality, and pesticide resistance (Dordas 2008; Kaur 2013).

Disease detection on plants is critical for sustainable agriculture, and manually monitoring plant diseases is difficult. It usually requires a significant amount of work, knowledge of plant diseases, and extended processing time. Early detection is the base for efficient plant disease prevention and control, and it is critical in agricultural production management and decision-making. Plant disease identification has become increasingly important in recent years (Li et al., 2021). Diseased plants usually have visible marks or lesions on their leaves, stems, flowers, or fruits. In general, each disease or pest condition has a distinct visible pattern that can be used to identify abnormalities. Typically, the leaves of plants are the primary source for identifying plant diseases, and most disease symptoms may first appear on the leaves (Ebrahimi et al., 2017). Rapid advances in biotechnology have resulted in the development of various molecular diagnostic tools over the last decade. These tools, which are based on the properties of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) or proteins of the target agents, have improved the efficacy, accuracy, and speed of detecting and identifying disease-causing agents, as well as the characterization of a wide range of pathogens and pests. Various techniques are used in biotechnology for disease diagnosis and management, but molecular markers are used in particular for the detection, identification, quantification, and characterization of plant pathogens that cause diseases in plants (Kumar et al., 2015).

Concept of Community Development

A community is a group of people, who live in a geographical area and have interests in each other for the purpose of making a living. It is a form of social organization existing between the family and the state. Development connotes growth and implies gradual and sequential phases of change. A community development program means a program for gradual change in a group of people living in a geographical area and having an interest in each other for making a living. It involves the principles of sustainable development, empowerment, inclusivity, social justice, human rights, participative democracy, and equality. It is a collaborative and facilitative process of people who share a common purpose of building the capacity to have a positive impact on quality of life.

• Community development is a movement intended to promote better living for the whole community with the active participation and on the initiative of the community.

• It is a balanced program for stimulating the local potential for growth in every direction in both wealth and welfare by themselves with minimum outside help.

• It is technically aided and locally organized by self-help.

• Community development is adopted by many governments to reach village people and to make more effective use of local initiative and energy for increased production and better living standards.

• Community development is a process of social action in which the people of a community organize themselves define their needs and problems and plan for action.

Application of HACCP concept in surveillance & quality assurance programs for raw, frozen, canned, cured, irradiated, cooked, chilled, MAP & freeze dried products.

HACCP

Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) is a system that identify, evaluate and control hazards that are significant for food safety (CAC, 2003). It is a science based systematic approach that assesses hazards and establishes control systems to focus on prevention rather than end product testing. It enhances the safety of the product from biological, chemical, and physical hazards in a production process. It provides way to demonstrate competence to consumers and compliance with legislative requirements.

6.1. History

HACCP was originally developed by Pillsbury Company in 1959 to produce zero defect food for astronauts of National Aeronautics Space Administration (NASA) in USA. In 1971, the HACCP concept was presented at the United States National Conference on Food Protection. The first major document on HACCP was approved by the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) in 1989. The Codex then issued the first HACCP guidelines in 1993, which was adopted by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). The USFDA’s Seafood HAACP program became mandatory in USA since 1997. The European Union, in 2004, laid down the general hygiene requirements of all food business operators (EC Regulation 852/2004) and the additional specific requirements for foods of animal origin, including live bivalve mollusks and fishery products which (Regulation EC 853/2004). The United States Food Safety Modernization Act 2011 became the latest enforcement of food safety measures to protect public health. Thus, HACCP has become an International reference system for food safety assurance.

1. Introduction

India completed its 75 years of independence in the year 2022. Government of India celebrated the country’s journey across its 75 years of independence and its magnificent achievements during that period as ‘Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav’. The official journey of Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav commenced as a 75-week long countdown from 12th March 2021 up to the 75th anniversary of India’s independence on 15th August 2022 and continued for a year beyond up to 15th August 2023. The Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav was commemorated as a Jan-Utsav in the spirit of Jan-Bhagidari, which means, a public festival with public participation.

The Hon’ble Government of India has, through this campaign envisioned the foundation of a self-reliant India and he said, “The Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav means elixir of energy of independence; elixir of inspirations of the warriors of freedom struggle; elixir of new ideas and pledges; and elixir of Aatmanirbharta. Therefore, this Mahotsav is a festival of awakening of the nation; festival of fulfilling the dream of good governance; and the festival of global peace and development”1.

Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav paved way to envisage a vision for the country, set goals and realize where the country would be in 2047, when India marks 100 years of its independence. Government of India termed the journey from 75 years to 100 years, the next 25 years, as the “Amrit Kaal,” which means a most auspicious period to start a new venture, signifying that it’s a time to make resolutions and achieve them (Sankalp se Siddhi)2.

Introduction

The development of ornamental fish and aquarium industry in India could be divided into three phases i.e., pre-juvenile, juvenile and post juvenile phase. The period, since independence till the beginning of the 21st century was the pre-juvenile phase of ornamental fish and aquarium industry. It was characterised by few numbers of aquarium shops mainly in metro and major cities of the country, availability of limited varieties of fish and aquarium products, high cost of products, very few number of hobbyists and lack of any institutional support. The ornamental fish and aquarium industry during this period had developed because of the individual efforts of ornamental f ish producers and aquarium traders. The total value of domestic aquarium trade was Rs. 55 crores, the export of ornamental fish from country was Rs. 1.74 crores (US$ 0.40 million) during 1999-2000 and aquarium keeping was known to be the hobby of rich only.

The span of juvenile phase was from the beginning of the 21st century to the year 2019-20. The hobby of aquarium keeping grew significantly during this period as about 1.25% of the urban house-hold were estimated to keep an aquarium at home or workplace. It was because availability of aquarium and aquarium accessories increased in the domestic market due to entry of Chinese products, the cost of fish and aquarium products reduced, the number of aquarium shops increased with existence even up to small cities and most importantly the availability of institutional support. The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, started providing financial assistance from 2006-07 to beneficiaries to set up ornamental fish production units. The schemes of MPEDA initially covered the coastal states of Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal and later inland states of Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan. A total of 579 ornamental fish production units of different grades were established in all these states but the scheme was closed in the year 2014 15. It was followed by another pilot project implemented by National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB), Ministry of Fisheries, Animal husbandry and Dairying, Government of India (GOI) with a proposed investment of Rs. 61.98 crores. It covered six coastal states namely Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, an inland state Bihar and one hilly state of Assam from north-east. The total value of domestic aquarium trade was about Rs. 555 crores during 2019-20 and the export of ornamental fish from country was Rs. 10.84 crores. The aquarium keeping was known to be the hobby of common man now.

An Overview of Parasitic Diseases in Asian Aquaculture

Parasitic induced diseases bring about significant economic losses in fish culture system. Estimated loss due to mortality and morbidity of fish due to parasitic infection is much more than that from microbial diseases. Protozoan ciliates (Ichthyopthirius, Trichodina) and flagellates (Ichthybodo, cryptobia) are some of the common ectoparasites of fish. Certain ectocommensal ciliates (Epistylis, Vorticella and Zoothamnium) attach to the external surface of fish leading to fouling. These protozoan ectoparasites are often associated with mortalities of younger stages of cultured fish. The situation becomes worst in water with low oxygen and high organic matter. Most extoparasitic protozoans have simple and short life cycle and reproduce by binary fission. Most protozoan ectoparasites are readily detected in direct microscopic examination of skin and gill scrapings. Histopathological changes in the integument following ectoparasitic protozoan infection are outcome of two counteracting cellular processes – hyperplasia of the epithelial cells, including mucus cells and chloride cells, versus a progressive cellular destruction. Cellular necrosis primarily occurs due to the feeding and attachment activity of the parasites. Generally, immersion therapy using suitable chemicals can control ectoparasitic protozoan infections

Disease caused by endoparasitic sporozoans are a serious threat to fish farms. These sporozoan spores present in the pond soil are normally ingested by the fish. The infective element of the spore (sporoplasm) is released in the gut. The sporoplasm reaches the target tissue using the vascular route. Once inside the target tissue, the vegetative trophozoites cause massive destruction of the target tissue and produce large spore containing cysts. There are two types of sporozoan infecting fish and shell fish namely myxosporidian and microsporidian. Myxosporidian occur in fish either as histozoic (intercellular tissue parasites) or as coelozoic (inside the lumen of various ducts and tubules) parasites. Microsporidians are intracellular obligatory parasites and lead to massive hypertrophy of infected cells (xenomas). There is no effective treatment for sporozoans. However, treating pond soil with chemicals and lime is the best option.

A. Viral Diseases of Shrimp

Shrimp farming which has grown to an industry in the last three decades is young compared to fish farming in the world. Yet the shrimp farming is facing serious problems with several types of viral diseases. Intensive culture in hatcheries and grow outs along with movement of stock across national and international borders of these animals with poor immune system has encouraged emergence of large number of viruses. During a short span of 30 years, 15 viruses of economic concern have been reported in shrimp culture of the Asia Pacific region. Shrimp viruses (Plate 8) can be broadly categorised into two groups:

1. Viruses infecting ectodermal (epidermis, hypodermal epithelium of fore and hindgut, nerve cord and nerve ganglia) and mesodermal (hematopoitic organs, antennal gland, gonads, lymphoid organ, connective tissue and striated muscle) origin tissues and replicating within the cytoplasm (YHV, TSV) and within the nucleus (IHHNV, WSSV), 2. viruses like MBV, HPV, BMNV, and BP infecting endodermal origin tissue and replicating within the nucleus of hepatopancreatic and mid gut epithelial cells. Lack of established shrimp cell line is the major drawback in study of shrimp viruses. Following are some of the common viruses causing diseases in shrimp hatcheries and grow out ponds in the Asia Pacific region.

Epidemiology is the study of diseases in a population in its natural setting. In epidemiology, the population is the patient and hence epidemiology is population medicine. All epidemiological studies are field based. In aquatic epidemiology, aquaculture ponds serve as the laboratory. This can be a great advantage over laboratory studies, which cannot be easily extrapolated to field conditions.

Diseases are among the greatest deterrents to the sustained production in aquaculture. Diseases such as Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS) in fishes and White Spot Syndrome (WSS) in shrimps have devastated aquaculture with bad impact on productivity and profitability. Various diagnostic and health management tools are being used to devise disease control strategies. It is becoming increasingly difficult to manage pathogens that have become endemic. Epidemiological approaches which have been very successful in human and veterinary medicine are now being increasingly recognised as important weapons that can be used in aquaculture to formulate disease control programmes.

Concept of Cause for a Disease

Cause from an epidemiological perspective is interpreted in quite a wide sense. This is somewhat different to the more traditional view of the role of cause being restricted to etiological agents. An epidemiological definition of a cause of a disease is “an event, condition or characteristic that plays an essential role in producing an occurrence of the disease”. Epidemiologists avoid defining the word cause for any disease outbreak, but prefer to use words such as determinants, exposures and risk factors. Alternatively, they will categorise causes as direct or indirect; necessary or sufficient; and single or multiple rather than defining primary etiology.

Introduction

Rice contains essential micronutrients such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), etc. which are generally lower when compared with other staple crops like wheat, maize, legumes, and tubers (Adeyeye et al. 2000). The most crucial micronutrients are iron and zinc, whose inadequacy is a leading cause of malnutrition. In this chapter we discuss estimation methodologies and diversity of Fe and Zn, its genetic basis, and improvement for micronutrient content through breeding techniques.

Procedure of Estimation of Fe and Zn Content in Rice Grain

Iron and zinc concentrations in rice samples were generally estimated by colorimetric method Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS), X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), and Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES). X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometry is extremely helpful in the non-destructive estimation of relative Zn and Fe concentration in rice breeding lines and large germplasm collection (Paltridge et al. 2012). The majority of biofortification programs employ XRF as a metal analysis tool. For estimation of Fe and Zn, panicles of middle row plants of each replication were harvested, sun-dried for 4-5 days to reduce the moisture content to 11-12 %, and then seeds were dehusked. Each brown rice sample of about 5g was subjected to energy dispersive X-ray fluorescent spectrophotometer (ED-XRF) as per standard protocol (Stangoulis and Sison 2008, Rao et al. 2014) and expressed in ppm (µg g-1).

The research methodology constitutes a comprehensive and well-structured plan of action for conducting the investigation and serves as a blueprint for the research process. Its purpose is to gain an understanding of the underlying concepts, methods, and techniques employed to define the study, gather relevant information, analyse data, and interpret the findings, thereby revealing concrete evidence and formulating theories.

In this chapter, an in-depth exploration of the research methodology is undertaken to comprehend the concepts, methods, and techniques employed for designing the study, gathering data, conducting data analysis, and interpreting the results. To facilitate clarity and ease of comprehension, the chapter has been divided into the following sub-headings:

1. Research Design

2. Locale of research

3. Pilot study

4. Sampling Design

5. Variables and their Empirical measurement 6. Methods of Data collection

7. Preparation of Interview Schedule

8. Item analysis and Expert’s rating for devising scoring technique for variables

9. Pre-testing of Interview Schedule

10. Data Processing and Analysis for FCM

11. Statistical Tools used for Data Analysis

12. Software used for Data Analysis

Introduction

Climate change is the long-term alteration of temperature and meteorological conditions in the Earth’s atmosphere. It is caused by unsustainable human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and rampant industrialization which released massive quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat from the sun and cause the planet to warm, resulting in various impacts on the environment and human society. Climate change is likely to disrupt the monsoon patterns and lead to more extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. This will have a significant impact on crop yields and food security in India, which is already facing a growing population and increasing demand for food. Additionally, rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns may also lead to the spread of new pests and diseases, further exacerbating the challenges faced by Indian farmers.

Additionally, climate change impacts are disproportionately affecting the livelihoods of smallholder and resource-poor farmers, who are more vulnerable to weather-related risks and have fewer resources to adapt. The Indian government and private sector are implementing various measures to help farmers adapt to changing conditions, but more needs to be done to ensure the long-term sustainability of the sector. The agricultural sector in India is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, as it employs a large portion of the population and is a major contributor to the country’s economy. The Indian government and various organizations are working to develop strategies and technologies to adapt to the changing climate and mitigate the effects on the agricultural sector. Time to time the Indian government have implemented various policies and programs to improve the productivity and profitability of the agricultural sector, including the transfer of technology and extension services.

Introduction

Climate change is a deadliest hazard to life on Earth. Global temperature is rising due to greenhouse gas emissions from the usage of fossil fuels, this result in widespread agricultural and fisheries failure, the extinction of hundreds of thousands of species, and whole towns becoming uninhabitable (Lindwall, 2022). Rising global temperatures are severely killing humans and trees, forcing half of all species to move, worsening water-borne and respiratory ailments in people, and jeopardising millions’ food and water security (Isaacs-Thomas, 2022). Addressing these concerns necessitates a worldwide collaboration to minimise greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable behaviours. Climate change affects agriculture production, lowers crop nutritional value, and increases the frequency of extreme weather events. These interruptions jeopardise food production, availability, and access, especially in vulnerable countries. Microbes play an important role in soil health, nitrogen cycling, and ecosystem stability. They impact a variety of soil activities, such as organic matter breakdown, nutrient mobilisation, and plant growth stimulation. However, climate change poses a substantial danger to microbial communities, possibly changing their activities and altering ecosystem dynamics (Wang et al., 2022). Transitioning to a low-carbon economy requires a global effort. Mitigation strategies include enhancing energy efficiency, adopting renewable energy sources, electrifying industrial processes, implementing efficient transportation systems, and introducing carbon taxes or emissions markets.

3.1 Applications

Nanotechnology, with its ability to manipulate materials at the atomic and molecular scale, offers diverse applications across various sectors, including aquaculture. In this extensive exploration, we delve into the innovative applications of nanotechnology in aquaculture, focusing specifically on areas beyond water parameter control and disease prevention. This comprehensive review highlights how nanotechnology enhances feed efficiency, improves growth and health monitoring, develops novel materials, and addresses environmental and sustainability challenges within the aquaculture industry.

1. Introduction to Nanotechnology in Aquaculture

1.1 Understanding Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology involves the manipulation and engineering of materials at the nanoscale, typically ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. At this scale, materials exhibit unique physical, chemical, and biological properties that differ significantly from their bulk counterparts. These properties make nanomaterials highly versatile for applications across various industries, including agriculture and aquaculture.

6.1 Alternative Protein Sources

Introduction

The rapid expansion of aquaculture as a significant contributor to global food security has highlighted the need for sustainable feed and nutrition practices. Traditional aquaculture feeds rely heavily on fishmeal and fish oil, derived from wild-caught fish, which poses ecological and economic challenges. The overreliance on these marine resources can lead to overfishing, increased production costs, and environmental degradation. To address these challenges, the aquaculture industry is increasingly exploring alternative protein sources that are sustainable, cost-effective, and nutritionally adequate. This essay discusses various alternative protein sources, their benefits, and challenges in the context of sustainable aquaculture feed and nutrition.

Plant-Based Protein Sources

Plant-based proteins are among the most promising alternatives to fishmeal in aquaculture diets. These proteins are derived from crops such as soybeans, peas, and canola. They offer several advantages, including wide availability, cost-effectiveness, and relatively low environmental impact.

In 1935, Prof. Ronald A. Fisher laid the foundation for the subject in his monumental work entitled “The Designs of Experiments”. Experimental designs concern the arranging of treatments in such a manner that the inferences and conclusions regarding the effects of these treatments can be easily done and their reliability measured. Experiments are made with a view to find the validity of a particular hypothesis and to have an idea about the extent of the reliability that can be placed on a particular conclusion arrived. The selection of the design will have a very great bearing on the accuracy of the ultimate results. By a random selection of experimental units it is possible to remove the ambiguity about the casual interpretation of the observed associations. Random sampling is the most essential ingredient of all experimental designs. Besides, there are many devices for increasing the precision of the inference and the calculations.

To understand design of experiments, let us first get acquainted with some important terms and concepts associated with design of experiments:

• Experiment: Experiment is a scientifically planned method. The experiment is conducted draw a valid conclusion about a particular problem. The conclusion is based on statistically observation.

• Treatment: The object or the procedures under comparison in an experiment are known as treatment. For Example: Fertilizers, varieties, cultivation practices, irrigation level in case of agricultural experiments and drugs, breeds, farms, etc. in case of animal experiments.

• Yield: The response of the treatment is measured by some indicator such as crop production, milk production, body temperature, etc. Such an indicator is called yield. The treatments are applied to some units such as field plots, sample of cows, sample of patients, etc. and the effect on the yield is observed.

• Experimental material: The experimental material is nothing but a set of experimental units. In other words, the material which is used in experiment is known as experimental material. For Example: A piece of land i.e. Agricultural field in agricultural experiments and a group of cattle i.e. animals in animal experiments.

Pineapple is considered as one of the important tropical fruits which are extremely demanded in the international market. This is due to its various quality characteristics like sweeter taste, blemish-free flesh, a cylinder shape with golden yellow pulp, a very pleasant aroma when ripe, low acidity, and a longer shelf life compared to other varieties (Banful et al., 2011; Malezieux et al., 2003). Pineapple can grow well in low as well as high fertile soil but the best production is obtained with high fertile soils. Souza et al. (2007) found that a fruit’s weight is directly correlated with the plant vigour at the time of f loral differentiation with a minimum D-leaf length. Therefore, it is proved by Souza et al. (2007) that nutrients play animportant role in pineapple cultivation to increase the growth and yield of the crop. It is also noted that the pineapple plants have a large nutrient uptake demand, especially for potassium, followed by nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, and phosphorus.

The focus on pineapple production should not only aim for stable volumes but also sustainable growth while maintaining quality standards amidst a growing population. The ‘Green Revolution’ with high inputs has plateaued, emphasizing the need for a natural balance to sustain life and property. Effective plant nutrient management is crucial for environmental, economic, and social reasons. Pineapple’s nutrient requirements, high in nitrogen (N), potassium (K), and iron (Fe), with lower needs for phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca), make soil organic matter desirable. Repeated cultivation exhausts soil nutrient reserves, leading to decreased yields. Heavy synthetic fertilizer use may cause soil impaction and acidification. Combining organic manure with chemical fertilizers is recommended for profitable and sustainable crop production while preserving soil fertility. However, excessive nitrogen application poses health risks. As farmers transition to organic farming, the negative impact of inorganic fertilizers on pineapple size, yield, and quality is evident.

Introduction

Packaging of food material is an essential component of food industry since packaging provides protection, physical tampering resistance and unique appearance to the food products which attracts the customers (Robertson, 2006). The handling of food products would be inefficient and costly if they are not packed properly (Robertson, 2006). The style and design of packaging influence their sale as well as demand. The main aim of packaging is to corroborate the safety and quality of food by preventing microbial contamination (Lee K.M, 2010). Plastics, papers, glass and metals are the common materials used for packaging of food products (Arvanitoyannis and Bosnea, 2004). Among these plastics are most commonly used packaging material because of their low cost, light weight, design freedom and high durability (British Plastic Federation). Various additives are added to the plastics to achieve desired physical and chemical properties. These additives are stabilizers, plasticisers, lubricants and f lame retardants. These additives have potential to transfer from the packaging materials to the food stuffs(K Bunia et al., 2013).

The efficient food packaging solutions are the need of the hour for the Earth. The food losses including the production, post harvest, processing stages of the supply chain and food wastage includes loss of edible food occurring at the f inal stages of food chain that is during retail supply or ultimate consumption. The food born illnesses cannot be ignored which are a consequence of the contamination of food by bacteria, viruses, parasites, new chemical entities or toxicants. We need to optimise the food supply chain, increase food shelf life and consciousness amidst food producers to food consumers. The active and intelligent packaging may help the globe through sufficient food for the increasing population. Scavengers/ absorbers are important solutions which may absorb substances from the packaging inner atmosphere (ethylene absorbers, oxygen scavengers; emitters and antioxidants).

In irrigated agriculture, water is the most important and precious input among all the inputs required for the biological activities of the plant. It is also a key input not only for ensuring food security but also for sustainable socio economic development. Water plays a crucial role in enhancing agricultural production and provides food security. On a global scale, 97.5% of water resources are salty ocean water, with only only 2.5% being fresh water. The bulk of the latter occurs in the polar ice and glaciers, as well as deep aquifers, some in water bodies like rivers and lakes, and in soil moisture. On the whole, less than 1% of the world’s fresh water resources are available for human use. The world’s average annual precipitation of about 1100 mm, marked by wide variation in water availability, is creating a great divide in regions, resulting in plenty of regimes and scare/acute shortage regions.

In India, the average annual precipitation, including snowfall, is 4000 billion cubic meter (bcm), of which water availability in the river systems is estimated at 1869 bcm, and out of which only 1122 bcm can be used. About 690 bcm is surface water and 432 bcm is ground water. As compared to the world’s average annual rainfall of 1100 mm, India receives 1170 mm, which is highly erratic and uncertain in both time and space. Thus, in India, very limited fresh water is available for use because of competitive and conflicting demand from the agriculture, industry, power, and domestic sectors, which is expected to increase from 10.7% in 1990 to 22.5% in 2025. While that of agriculture will decrease from 89.3% in 1990 to 77.6% in 2025. The projected requirement of water for use by the different sectors shows an increase in energy and industry as compared to the domestic and irrigation sectors by 2025, indicating a growing scarcity of water availability in the future.

Introduction

Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) is a perennial herb that belongs to the Rosaceae family (Bayat et al.2019). Strawberry is sweet and has a distinct fragrance. Strawberries are a popular fruit that are known for their sweet taste, bright red color, and high nutritional value. It is abundant in several vitamins and nutrients, including carotene and anthocyanins. It is popularly regarded as the important table fruit of millions of people around the globe and well-liked by consumers. Strawberry, which has 98% edible component, is regarded as a whole fruit. typically eaten fresh and raw. They are tasty, healthful, and low in calories. Strawberries grow well in India in conditions that are often temperate in the north, subtropical in the plains, or tropical at high altitudes. The primary reason strawberry production is still in its infancy in India, despite its handsome fruits and palatable flavour, is that it is a perishable crop (Pramanick et al. 2012). The strawberry is a fruit that grows all over the world. The Roman poets Virgil and Ovid wrote about it in the first century, and gardeners have been growing strawberries in England since the sixteenth century (Boriss et al. 2006).

Introduction

The optimum soil pH for plant production is one that is slightly acidic, at this pH soil microorganisms are most active and plant nutrients are readily available. At extremes of high (alkaline) and low (acidic) pH this delicate balance is disturbed and plant nutrients that were in adequate supply can become either deficient or toxic to plant growth. Some essential nutrients such as phosphorous, calcium, magnesium and molybdenum become unavailable if the soil pH becomes too acidic. Acidic conditions will result in a lowering of plant production in farming systems. This will result in reduced profitability and an increased reliance on fertilizers to sustain any form of productive agriculture. Correcting soil pH to a more favorable pH range will increase the availability of essential nutrients.

Introduction

One of the most common concerns in irrigated agriculture is regarding water quality or salinity. Out of the ground water surveyed in different Indian States, as much as 84% is rated either saline or alkaline (Minhas 1996). Salinity management is very important for using saline water in irrigation safely. This requires an understanding of how salts affect soil as well as plants, of how hydrogeologic processes affect salt accumulation, and also of how cropping and irrigation activities affect soil and water salinity.

The objectives of management practices for getting optimal crop production with saline irrigation water include the prevention of salt build-up in soil which limit the productivity of soils and the control of salt balances in the soil-water system, as well as minimising the damaging effects of salinity on crop growth (Meiri and Plaut 1985). Amongst the various soil, water, and crop management options available, there is usually no single way to achieve safe use of saline water in irrigation but many different approaches and practices can be combined into satisfactory irrigation systems using saline water. The appropriate combination depends upon edaphic, hydrogeologic, climatic factors as well as social and economic condition of the farmer. Several practices interact with each other, and should be considered in an integrated manner, along with climatic and human factors. Because of the climate, the basic principles of saline water management need some adaptation, e.g. providing for a leaching requirement is not appropriate when the growing season for post-monsoon winter crops starts with a surface-leached soil profile, because it would increase the salt load. High salinities during the initial stages of growth are particularly harmful. Recommendations for effective management of irrigation water salinity depend upon local soil properties, climate, and water quality; options of crops and rotations; and irrigation and farm management capabilities

The collection of cones/fruits and seeds is the first step in the harvest, processing, and storage of seed in which man interacts with nature in determining ultimate seed quality. Successful collection, therefore, depends on understanding seed maturation and dispersal characteristics of each species, knowing local weather trends, and evaluating crop quality. Collection of propagating material is an expensive process and it is therefore also important that areas wherein cones and seeds are to be collected are evaluated to determine whether a sufficiently heavy crop to permit economic collection of seeds is present and whether the seed zone and elevation represented by the candidate area is appropriate for the production of seedlings needed in the reforestation program. Remember that properly collected, processed, and stored seeds may remain viable for a decade, so evaluation of seed needs may be projected well in advance of current harvest schedules through proper planning and organization of seed collection.

Seed testing

No matter how good processed seed may look, the actual value is the number of seedlings it will produce. Testing of seeds is therefore imperative to determine and identify the changes that have occurred from the time of collection until the seeds are sold or sown at one time. The critical step in evaluating a seed lot is the drawing of representative sample. Place all the test samples in a bucket, mix them thoroughly and subdivide to obtain sample size. Improvements in seed processing can only be obtained with quality control. These evaluations should be made in the processing plant and at a seed testing laboratory. The National Tree Seed Laboratories offers a free service to evaluate processing machinery. You need only collect a small sample of seed after it has been processed by each machine and send it to the laboratory. Be sure all the seed comes from the same lot so all samples are related. Each machine must be adjusted for efficient operation, and proper adjustment requires monitoring of the operation.

12.1. Introduction

Drying refers to the method of removal of moisture content from the food to a level at which the activities of food spoilage and food poisoning micro-organism are inhibited. Drying under open sun is probably the oldest method of food preservation used for agricultural crops including food grains, oilseeds as well as fruits and vegetables. Most of the fruits and vegetables contain enough moisture to permit the activity of enzymes and micro-organisms for spoilage and drying is necessary to reduce the water activity. Therefore, reduction in water activity of the food is the main principle of preservation by drying. Two commonly used terms for dried foods are low moisture foods and intermediate moisture foods (IMF). During drying, a single layer of fruit and vegetables, either whole or sliced after primary pretreatments is spread on trays which are placed inside the dehydrator or in the open sun for drying. In mechanical dehydrator, the initial temperature is generally kept at 43oC which is then gradually increased to 60-66oC for vegetables and 66-71oC for fruits.

1. The most effective method of selection is

a) Mass selection

b) Pedigree selection

c) Progeny testing

d) Selection index

2. The intensity of selection depends with number traits considered ‘n’ is

a) 1/n

b) 1/n²

c) n

d) 1/√n

Reports predict that 2050 will be a critical year for global agriculture, with the human population expected to increase by 50% compared to current levels (Future Farms, 2021). India is projected to become the world's most populous nation by mid-century, with an estimated population of 1.6 billion people. This demographic surge will necessitate a 70% increase in food production, underscoring the enduring importance of food security as a primary agenda for agricultural research in the coming decades.

For states that heavily rely on imports for essential commodities such as rice, fruits, and vegetables, it will be crucial to enhance the production and productivity of major crops to mitigate any external shocks in production or demand. This challenge is compounded by the imperative to conserve and optimize the use of natural resources. Recent studies indicate a 6.93% decline in average groundwater recharge in the state over the past decade. Additionally, the increasing pressure to convert agricultural land for non-farming purposes is expected to continue.

The mass of a body is usually defined as the material content of the body whereas the weight of the body is defined as the force with which the body is attracted towards the earth due to gravity. Therefore, the weight of a body is the product of its mass and acceleration due to gravity. The air in the atmosphere, which is a mixture of several gases has certain mass and although not very dense, will acquire some weight due to gravitational force of attraction when the entire column of the atmosphere from the ground level to the top of it is considered. Pressure is defined as the force for unit area. Therefore, the atmospheric pressure is defined as the force exerted by an air column of units area of cross section extending from earth’s surface to the top of atmosphere. As we go up in the atmosphere the height of the air column decreases, the air also become rarer and the atmospheric pressure decreases with increase in height.

Carnivora is an order of placental mammals that have specialized in primarily eating flesh, whose members are formally referred to as carnivorans. The order Carnivora is the fifth largest order of mammals, comprising at least 279 species. They come in a very large array of different body plans with a wide diversity of shapes and sizes. The common characteristics of carnivores are given below:

• They are meat eaters.

• There is the presence of canine teeth.

• The intestinal tract is short and is adapted to rapid digestion as well as the assimilation of meat.

• All species have anal glands. Some species, like the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), may eject the contents of the anal gland as a defensive maneuver.

• Os penis is present in males.

• There is a lack of a clavicle which helps in the freedom of movement of the forelimb.

• Ulna is well developed.

• Toes end in claws.

Agroforestry is a land use system that involves two or more plant species at least one of which must be a woody perennial. When perennial woody and herbaceous components are grown together on the same piece of land their performance would largely depend on their ability to share various growth resources in a given environmental situation. Due to difference in growth pattern and resource requirement of the components in agroforestry situation, a close interactive relation is obvious. Thus, careful management practices for the components are required to establish a successful agroforestry system. The characteristics of the trees and crops, and their interactions, can be modified with good management practices in order to take advantage of the positive characteristics and minimize the effects of the negative ones. Effective and efficient agroforestry management may be divided into two groups; tree management and agricultural crop management.

Calcium, anti-oxidants and certain enzymes are reported to play vital role in extending the shelf-life of harvested produce of many horticultural crops especially fruits. They help in maintenance of cell wall structure. Being an important constituent of cell wall, in the form of calcium pectate, it helps in maintenance of cell wall structure. Antioxidants are highly beneficial in extending the shelf-life of fruits besides maintaining the quality. Similarly, some enzymes play a key role in preserving the fruit quality and prolonging its market life. As some fruits are catergorized under ‘Low volume high value fruits’, it is essential to extend their shel-flife for reducing the post-harvest losses of fruits and also to reap better remuneration. Thus, it becomes indispensable to review the role of Ca, anti-oxidants and enzymes which are beneficial in keeping the harvested produce afresh for a relatively longer period.

Descriptive Statistics of Independent Variable With Respect to Minimum, Maximum, Range, Mean, Standard Deviation of Values, Variance, and Coefficient of Variance:

Results: The variable age (x1 ) having the range between 20 to 62. So, the mean of the age (x1 ) variable is 38.64. Similarly, the other variables education (x2 ), family size (x3 ), family income (x4 ), risk factor (x5 ), management factor (x6 ), natural calamities (x7 ), employment status (x8 ), expenditure (x9 ), push factor (x10 ), pull factors (x11 ) have the mean 5.220, 4.720, 1.270, 0.505, 4.790, 3.875, 4.809, 5.655, 2.226, 5.613 respectively. Here, we see that distribution of variables education (x2 ) and push factor (x10 ) among the respondents are moderately consistent and residual distribution of variables among the respondents are highly consistent.

The plant can absorb more than sixty elements as revealed from the plant tissue analysis, still a few elements is considered essential for the growth and nutrition of the plants. The deficiency of any one of the essential elements can stop completing the life cycle of the plants which is reflected on the yield of the crop. The growth of the plant which is expressed in terms of dry weight, length ,diameter etc. are interlinked with the plant available nutrients of soils.

3.1 Essential Nutrients

The essential elements are those elements which are required for growth and nutrition of the plants. There are 17 elements known to be essential nutrients for plants. The essential elements are classified as micro and macronutrients depending upon the requirement of the crop. Among the naturally occurring elements, eighteen elements are considered essential to plants. These are: C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl, Ni, Co. The elements which are found in different sources are required to be in available forms (Table 3.1) for growth and nutrition of the plants.

2.1 Introduction

Apple is the most widely grown temperate fruit of the world. It is considered as ‘King of Temperate Fruits’. Apple is popular because of its delicious taste and pleasant aroma. It is rich in carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorous, iron, and vitamin B6. Apple is rich in anti-oxidant, flavonoids and dietary fibre. The phytonutrients and anti-oxidants may help reduce the risk of developing cancer, hypertension, diabetes and heart disease. Apple is mainly used for table purpose. The various processed products are prepared from fruits like juice, jelly, candy, preserve, canned slice, wine, concentrated juice and cider.

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most commercially important vegetable crops globally, with a significant demand for high-yielding hybrids and improved open-pollinated varieties. Efficient seed production methodologies play a crucial role in ensuring the availability of genetically pure and high-quality seeds for commercial cultivation. Traditional hand emasculation and pollination remain widely used despite being labor intensive, given their economic feasibility due to high seed yield per fruit. Hybrid seed production is further refined through mechanized pollen collection and controlled pollination techniques, enhancing efficiency. Seed quality management, including rigorous isolation protocols, field inspections, and breeder and foundation seed production standards, ensures genetic purity and viability. Advances in molecular breeding and the application of marker-assisted selection (MAS) have enhanced the efficiency of parental line development and hybrid seed production. This chapter provides an in-depth review of tomato seed production methodologies, covering botanical characteristics, genetic resources, and breeding objectives aimed at improving disease resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and fruit quality traits. It further discusses varietal advancements in the public and private sectors, highlighting elite hybrids and open-pollinated cultivars tailored for different agro-climatic conditions. Additionally, the package of practices for seed production in tomato underscores the importance of isolation, field inspections, seed extraction methods, processing techniques, and quality assurance standards to maintain genetic purity and seed viability.

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) is one of the important commercial cucurbitaceous cash crops grown mainly by small holding farmers in Asia where it is cultivated on more than 340,000 ha annually (McCreight et al., 2013). Eastern Asia, possibly Eastern India, or Southern China is most likely the center of origin for bitter gourd (Walters and Decker-Walters 1988; Miniraj et al., 1993). It is also known as bitter melon, bitter cucumber, balsam pear, bitter apple, or bitter squash (Morton, 1967). Fruits are known for abundant source of vitamins and minerals. Delicious preparations are made from fruits after stuffing and frying. It is also consumed in the form of Juice, Tea and Pills. Bitter gourd fruit abounds in phytonutrients (Dhillon et al., 2017) and often used to manage type 2 diabetes as a folk medicine. Clinical studies confirmed that elevated fasting glucose levels in pre-diabetics can be reduced by supplementing the diet with bitter gourd fruits. (Amirthaveni et al., 2018; Krawinkel et al., 2018). Medicinal properties present in the bitter gourd fruits are used in the curing of diabetes, asthma, blood diseases and rheumatism.

The current seed market of bitter gourd in Asia values ≈ 16 million Euros. The bitter gourd seed market in India alone is 400 metric tonnes having value of 350-400 crores. 70 % area is under hybrids and 30 % is covered by open pollinated varieties.

Crop residues are valuable natural resources that may be managed to maximize various input use efficiencies. These are a great source of organic materials for improving the soil structure, water holding capacity, the soil's ability to withstand pH variations, increasing the cation exchange capacity, reducing the phosphate fixation, as a storehouse for micronutrients and secondary nutrients especially in organic farming. Organic matter serves as a source of energy for soil fauna and microbes, which are the main agents controlling the decomposition and release of mineral nutrients in organic soil ecosystems. Crop leftovers are frequently burned by farmers, especially after harvest, which depletes the soil's nutrient content and microbial population and produces greenhouse gases. Each year, a sizable amount of crop residue is produced and if used efficiently, they may provide partial or full amount of the nutrient budget required under organic farming for the production of annual or perennial crops besides achieving resource conservation and environmental sustainability.

1. Introduction

Crop residues are the non-economic plant parts like straws, stubble, stover etc., that remain in the field after harvesting the economic product. Crop remains from threshing sheds such as groundnut shells, oil cakes, rice husks, corn and sorghum cobs or discarded during crop processing can also be utilized in organic farming. India produces 108.75 MT of wheat, 121.46 MT of rice seed, 30.24 MT of maize seeds, 49.66 MT of millets seeds (jowar, bajra, ragi, and small seed millets), 392.8 MT of sugarcane, 46.11 million bales of fibre crops (jute, mesta, cotton), 25.58 MT of pulses and 36.57 MT of oilseed (Agricultural statistics at a glance, 2021).

To fully harness the potential of human creativity in industrial applications, it’s essential to safeguard and organize it effectively. One of the best ways to achieve this is by obtaining a patent. The term “patent” is derived from the Latin word “patere,” meaning “to lay open” or make available for public inspection. A patent is an exclusive right granted by the government to an inventor/creator for a limited time in exchange for disclosing their invention for public use. With this right, the patent holder can prevent others from making, using, selling, or exploiting the invention for a certain period, thereby providing commercial benefits to the inventor.

Patents are among the oldest forms of intellectual property rights and are territorial in nature, offering protection only within the country where they are granted. However, through conventions and the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), applicants can seek protection in multiple countries. Obtaining a patent grants the inventor a monopoly right to control the product’s production, sale, and marketing. Although the rights granted through a patent are limited to a specific country, extending protection to all contracting countries is possible through a PCT application.

Introduction

A number of experts have recognised three different stages in the march of man on the earth. These consist of: (i) When the civilization is dominated by the forests, (ii) When the civilization is overcoming the forest and (iii) When the civilization is dominating obstacles caused by forests. Now a days, Indian Himalayas including that of Jammu and Kashmir is passing through the third stage i.e., to the point of destroying itself in the process.

Deforestation’s relentless march is stripping the Jammu and Kashmir Himalayas bare of its forest cover. From the majestic coniferous forests of Pir Panjal Himalayas to the deciduous and mixed canopy of subtropical forests the story is tragically the same i.e.. the indiscriminate destruction of forests that could turn the state into vast and inhospitable waste land. Hence to sustain and prosper the civilization, the forests must be saved from being further destroyed.

To reduce or to minimize the deforestation, the Social Forestry Project and Agroforestry System came to fore. The primary objective of Social Forestry is to increase supplies of fuel wood and fodder in rural area through plantation on community waste lands, degraded forest lands and on private lands through farm forestry (Patnaik, 1995-96). The latter i.e., Agroforestry is now much more widely used subject than the mere production of wood and food. In the changing scenario of the environmental degradation and ecological imbalance as a result of degradation of the forest resources of the country, agroforestry consists of inviting the prime attention of forests for upliftment of both environment and ecology vis-a-vis to enhance agricultural/horticultural and livestock production. In fact, agroforestry came as a new’ name during the year 1978. Since then, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, has developed a vast network of agroforestry in all 36 centres of Agroclimatic Zones (Tejwani, 2008). However, Dr Tejwani started working with agroforestry during 1957 on fodder fuel plantations and trees on farm boundaries. Hence, agroforestry must be included in the agriculture.

People all around the world have been conducting genetic association studies for a long time. Still the literature to practically understand the statistical analysis of such data using software packages is scarce. Statistical analysis of molecular data is a vast topic. So we will be undertaking one of the important basic and preliminary topics “Statistical analysis of genetic association studies among unrelated individuals” in this chapter. Overall, we will be discussing population association studies in which qualitative and quantitative data on unrelated individuals for various economic traits is collected and these individuals are also typed at a number of Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) markers. This excludes family-based association studies, admixture mapping or linkage studies. Various software packages used in this chapter to analyze molecular data of a population are given below in Table 1.

In the past, there was no targeted development of biomaterial based on scientific criteria. Instead devices consisting of material that had been designed, synthesized and fabricated for various industrial needs (the textile, aerospace, and defense industries) were tested in a trial and error fashion in the bodies of humans and animals. These unplanned and sporadic attempts had modest success. Most frequently, the results were unpredictable, mixed, and confounding both in success and in failure. In addition to traditional medical devices, diagnostic products, pharmaceutical preparations and healthcare disposables, now the list of biomaterial application includes smart delivery systems for drugs, tissue cultures, engineered tissues and hybrid organs. Undoubtedly biomaterial have had major impact on the practice of contemporary medicine and patient care in both saving and improving the quality of lives of the humans and animals4.

Insects are present everywhere. In the world where life is possible, insects can be found. To begin with, it is not necessary to go to distant places. Insects can be collected from garden, cultivated fields or even in our house. For the collection of insects, we must have some idea of the following:

1. How they live.

2. What they require at different stages of life.

A. Complete Metamorphosis

There are four stages

Introduction

A revolution is coming to the more than a century-old automobile industry. Electric vehicles (EVs) are viewed as a solution to a variety of problems, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions, fostering sustainable economic growth, improving air quality, and reducing the importation of fossil fuels. The demand for electric automobiles in India is rising. Incentives and programs have been launched by the federal and state governments to promote the usage of electric vehicles, and there are also regulations and standards in place. A consumer is a person or group that plans to purchase something, actually does so, or utilizes it for primarily social, family, domestic, or other non business or entrepreneurial activity-related objectives.

An asset that is an important criterion for evaluating the status of the consumer economy can be used to estimate consumer savings.

The concept of electric cars has been around for a while, but in the past ten years, it has gained a lot of attention due to the expanding carbon footprint and other environmental implications of fuel-powered cars. In contrast to an internal combustion engine, which generates power by burning a mixture of fuel and gases, an electric vehicle (EV) is propelled by an electric motor. When electricity was one of the favored sources of motor vehicle power in the late 19th century, electric vehicles (EVs) first made their appearance, providing a degree of comfort and usability that gasoline cars of the day were unable to equal.

Introduction

A payment gateway is a server that is located between the web server of the merchant and the web server of the acquiring bank. When a merchant receives an order, it is transferred to the payment gateway by the merchant server.

The payments sector in India is set to reach USD 100 trillion in volume and USD 50 trillion in transactional value by the end of 2030. The payment gateways, which are also a part of the payments sector are set to reach USD 1.21 billion in India, growing at a CAGR of 17.6% between 2024-2029. The global payment gateway landscape as of 2024 stands at USD 16.27 billion growing at a CAGR of 16.43%. Payment gateways across the world are credit card-based gateways, with the introduction of card readers in mobile phones. The Fintech and payments sector boom in India cannot be justified without mentioning UPI (Unified Payments Interface), which has encompassed payment solutions for small street vendors to large conglomerates with its user-friendly interface and QR-code-based payments. UPI is one of the major payment gateways in India, in addition to IMPS (Immediate Payment Service), RTGS (Real Time Gross Settlement), and NEFT (National Electronic Funds Transfer) and many more.

Introduction

The value of data privacy in the linked world of today cannot be emphasised. As digital technologies proliferate and personal data is collected, stored, and analysed on a large scale, people and organisations are more susceptible to data exploitation and privacy violations. In the modern era, privacy of data are vital because of following reasons:

1. Safety Regarding Personal Information: Fundamental People’s freedom to manage their personal data protected by data privacy. In a time when everyone has a digital footprint, maintaining one’s liberty and dignity requires protecting private information such as financial records, health records, and internet activity

2. Trust Management is Critical for Organisations and Companies: Maintaining data privacy improves reputation and brand loyalty by building trust with stakeholders, clients, and consumers. On the other hand, privacy violations and data breaches can seriously harm an organization’s reputation by undermining people’s confidence in its ability to protect sensitive data.

3. Compliance with Laws and Regulations: Strict data privacy laws have been passed by governments all over the world to uphold people’s rights and make businesses responsible for handling personal information. Adherence to regulatory mandates similar to the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the EU and the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) in the US not only necessary from a legal standpoint but also morally required for moral business practices.

Cyanide poisoning

Cyanide poisoning occurs in animals due to sorghum and/or other chemicals and characterized by ataxia, incoordination, cystitis, paralysis, and death.

Etiology • Sorghum – drought resistant varieties.

• Fumigants, fertilizers,

• Pesticides.

• Industrial leakage/waste, electroplating.

• Photographic processes.

Feline Leukemia

Feline leukemia is an infectious viral disease of cats, lion, tiger etc. caused by oncorna virus and characterized by malignant lymphoma, lymphocytosis and immunosuppression. It is also known as feline lymphoma or feline lymphosarcoma.

Etiology

• Oncorna virus of retroviridae family

• Type C oncorna virus, RNA virus has reverse transcriptase

Pathogenesis

The virus is transmitted horizontally through salivary and nasal secretions of sick cats. It affects lymphocytes causing their proliferation leading to production of neoplastic growth.

Characteristic symptoms

• Enlargement of superficial lymph nodes

• Lymphocytosis

• Chronic diarrhoea

• Abortion