eChapters

9.1 Introduction

The world is facing various challenges, including climate change, population growth, and decreasing fertile land. It is necessary for the agricultural sector to shift towards sustainability and innovation. To revolutionize traditional farming practices, alternative cropping systems and advanced technologies like plant tissue culture in greenhouses are being explored. The goal is to optimize resource utilization, enhance crop resilience, and reduce the environmental impact. By adopting cutting-edge technologies, such as plant tissue culture, crops can be propagated and cultivated within controlled environments like greenhouses, ensuring global food security and meeting the growing population’s demands.

1. Introduction

Modern technologies like artificial intelligence, machine learning, and big data have made robotics, a concept that dates back to ancient times, much more advanced. The area of robotics, originally used in industrial settings, has now expanded its scope to include a diverse range of industries, such as industrial robots, medical robots, military robots, space robots, and humanoid robots that adopt human-like characteristics.

In accordance with this existing structure, libraries have additionally adopted the use of robots, which have shown enhanced efficacy and capabilities in executing diverse library functions. A significant number of libraries around the world have used humanoid robots to facilitate a variety of library functions, including STEM education initiatives. Academic institutions such as the Chicago Public Library and the University of Rhode Island Library organize programs centered on robotics.

Libraries may become obsolete in the 21st century if they do not begin to harness new technology and improve their information and service delivery. Robots come in a variety of shapes and sizes, and they serve a variety of functions. It is difficult to define the purpose of a specific robot and its categories because each robot has its distinct feature and varies in size, shape, color, and components.

Introduction

The Fourth Industrial Revolution or Industry 4.0 is the aggregation of advanced digital technologies into manufacturing and production processes. These technologies include Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), the Internet of Things (IoT), big data, cloud computing, artificial intelligence (AI), and autonomous systems, which collectively facilitate smart manufacturing and interconnected industrial operations. When examining Industry 4.0’s wider ramifications, contradictions or fascinating facts surface. Its impact is widespread in society and the economy, even if it mostly concentrates on manufacturing. It may be seen in the service industry, urban development, and agriculture, among other areas (Ane & Yasmin, 2019; Kraus et al., 2022). Furthermore, the phrase encompasses not only the development of technology but also the evolution of organizational leadership and the significance of security and privacy in the digital era (Beattie & Wyer, 2019; ONIK et al., 2019). Overall, Industry 4.0 represents a transformative era where digital technologies are harnessed to create intelligent, interconnected systems that revolutionize traditional industrial practices.

1. Introduction

Organizing and disseminating the amount of information being generated in the age of information explosion is the challenge for library staff. According to Ranganathan’s fourth law of library science it is very important factor today, that how quickly library provides its information to the users. So, in this modern era to do this work beautifully, it needs the help of advance technology. Not only that, but also requires staff training.Even the library continuously changes its concepts to keeping the modernity, like library known as ‘Knowledge Resource Centre’, the books and non-book materials known as information and so on.Now a day the library has made its services better and better by using several technologies. From this point of view, the use of RFID technology is very important. RFID consists of four components vis Tags, Antenna, RFID Reader and Software. Though its use, we make the work of circulation easier, we can identify any missing documents very easily. After all, we can say that no document can be taken out of the library without a proper way. So there is acceptance of stock verification work.

Introduction

Food processing comprise of techniques employed to transform raw ingredients into final food product or to preserve the food product. Food processing industry as well as at domestic scale the food processing methods aim at providing processed food products for daily consumption by humans and animals. Food processing aims at increasing the shelf life, preserve, make nutritious or ready to eat foods, and getting the best quality final products. There are various techniques and methods which come under food processing such as drying, dehydration, fermentation, pickling, freezing, mixing, pumping, pasteurization, cooking and homogenization etc.

Rheological properties of foods are greatly influenced by various unit operations and processing methods or conditions such as heating and mechanical treatments. Processing of different food products such as dairy, fruit and vegetable products like jams and purees, chocolates, dough development etc. and basic make up of foods such as fats, proteins and others such as emulsifiers, hydrocolloids etc. affects the rheological properties of food product and which ultimately affects the quality of end product. Apart from processing conditions the compositional variations have a great impact on the textural or rheological properties of foods. The changes in rheological characteristics of a food product reflects the alterations in the molecular structure of the food material, this can aid in revealing the changes in product structure during different processing methods or conditions. In designing of various processes such as cooling, freezing and equipment design information about thermal properties is crucial. Moreover, in order to design storage structures for foods and refrigeration equipment the knowledge of thermal properties is important (Becker et al. 2003).

For rheological measurements various tests and techniques are available, such as steady and dynamic shear measurements. From the steady shear properties flow properties of the sample can be revealed whether the flow is Newtonian or Non Newtonian. In case of dynamic shear rheological properties information on viscoelastic characteristics can be withdrawn in terms of storage and loss modulus and depending on the predominance of each modulus the nature of sample can be predicted i.e. whether viscoelastic solid or viscoelastic fluid (Bhardwaj et al. 2019). Apart from these measurements, other rheological measurements are available for specific food materials, such as farinograph, alveo-consistograph, mixograph etc. are meant for study of rheological properties of dough. So, accordingly, depending upon the food material choice of rheological measurement can be made. To study the thermal transitions DSC (Differential scanning calorimeter) and DTA (Differential thermal analysis) are commonly employed. Dynamic measurements as a function of temperature or time are made in these techniques to detect the endothermal and exothermal changes. These techniques can be used to determine the phase transitions in various foods, for instance, crystallization and melting of water, lipids and other food components; denaturation of protein; gelatinization of starch and others (Roos 2015).

Humankind has always been a perceptive feel for rheological testing, e.g. in physical and visual evaluations of material properties such as hardness, stiffness, flexibility, and viscosity, and their relation to end-use quality characteristics. People often naturally measure the quality of solid foods by gently squeezing them, or liquid viscosity is measured by gently rotating the liquid in its container. These intuitive measurements gradually became formalized into quantitative descriptions of material properties.

Rheology can be defined as the study of how materials deform, flow or fail when force is applied. The name is derivated from Greek word: rheos, meaning the river, flowing, streaming. Therefore rheology means “flow science”. Rheological investigations not only include flow behaviour of liquids, but also deformation behaviour of solids. Normally, to measure rheological properties, the material is subjected to a controlled, précised and quantifiable distortion or strain over a given time and the material parameters such as stiffness, modulus, viscosity, hardness, strength or toughness are determined by considering the subsequent forces or stresses (Dobraszczyk and Morgenstern, 2003). The term rheology was coined by Eugene C. Bingham, a professor at Lafayette College, in 1920, from a suggestion by a colleague, Markus Reiner (Steffe, 1996)

Abstract

Rheological properties of dough from different flours are very important to know about the kneading and modeling process especially for development of bakery products. Rheological testing is helpful to examine the structural and fundamental properties of dough. The basic principle underlying evaluation of rheological properties are mechanical behavior of the dough, in conjunction with the physical structure of the dough, the molecular structure of the protein continuous phase in the dough and with chemical reactions of functional groups. This chapter presents some of the methods currently used in bakery industry for determining the rheological characteristics of the flour and the dough. The instruments such as Farinograph, Mixograph, Extensigraph, Alveograph and Amylograph, which are used for the measurement of dough rheological properties (due to visco-elastic behavior of dough) were described.

It is an inflammatory condition that mainly affects the children and young people in their teens. It is considered to be an allergic condition that mainly attacks the connective tissues of the body, causing joint pains and St. Vitus' dance due to central nervous irritation and skin lesions. The most serious damage that this disease brings is the damage to the valves does the heart. Certain streptococcus germs present in the throat are sometimes responsible.

The excessive and imbalanced use of nitrogenous fertilizers in the last few decades to meet the challenges of growing food demand of Worlds population has led to serious consequences of soil and water pollution, leaching of toxic nitrate into ground water and volatilization of nitrogen oxides into the environment. Therefore, judicious management of nitrogen in the environment is very much essential in the development of more productive and sustainable agriculture. Rapid declining of non-renewable energy sources viz. petroleum products, natural gas as well as energy crisis in the recent days, release of several pollutants during production of fertilizer N has also necessitated the development of alternative and/or supplemental technologies to obtain the fertilizer N for crop production.

The role of leguminous plants in improving the soil fertility is known for centuries. The nitrogen uptake in legumes by some unknown process was demonstrated through agronomic experiments by J.B Boussingault in 1838, which was opposed by Liebig and others. The presence of bacteria in the roots nodules of legumes was observed by P.G Lachmann (1858). M. Woronin (1866) further examined and observed them to be rod-shaped and motile.

INTRODUCTION

Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn (teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk is cosmopolitan in soils. It is a destructive plant pathogen with an almost unlimited host range. The fungus inhabits in soils and causes damping-off of seedlings, root, crown and stem rots, and occasionally foliar blight (Baker, 1970). R. solani is an important symbiont with the saprophytic seedling stage (protocorm) of many orchids (Warcup, 1985). It aggressively colonizes organic matter and is one of the fastest growing fungi. According to available information, the isolates of R. solani possess the following-characteristics (Plate 2.1).

Under natural conditions, the largest source of labile carbon (C) inputs to the soil is root exudates (Bertin et al., 2003; Hutsch et al., 2002; Kuzyakov 2002). Roots exude a variety of low-molecular weight organic compounds, including sugars, amino acids, organic acids (Bertin et al., 2003), but also contain hormones, vitamins, amino compounds, phenolics and sugar phosphate esters (Uren, 2001). These compounds are rapidly metabolized; for example, Hutsch et al., (2002) found that 64–86% of maize root exudates were respired by soil microorganisms. The effect of root exudates depends on the distance that they can diffuse away from rhizoplane (Gupta and Mukerji, 2002).

Abstract

The rhizomicrobiome plays a vital role in maintaining plant health and is highly influenced by the root exudates of the host plant. Plants select a subset of microbes at different stages of their development, and determine the microbiome community composition in its immediate vicinity presumably for specific functions. The rhizomicrobiome is composed of diversified microbial community with specific functions and is highly influenced by the plant type, soil type and environmental conditions. The rhizomicrobiome communities apart from promoting plant growth also elicit induced systemic tolerance to salinity and drought in stressed plants. Bacterial communities producing 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase modulate stress ethylene in plants and alleviate the effects of abiotic stress and increases plant adaptability to stressed environment.

Rhizosphere

The term Rhizosphere was introduced by the German scientist, Hiltner in 1904. It is region of the soil, which is subjected to the influence of plant roots. It is the unique environment under the influence of plant roots. The roots of plants are not only involved in the uptake of mineral nutrients and water for plant growth, but they also release a wide range of organic compounds in the surrounding soil.

Abstract

Soil is the natural growth media for living plants and microbes, and rhizosphere is niche for a group of soil microorganisms inhabiting around the plant root zone. The warmed and humid agro-climatic conditions of the area aggravate A. flavus contamination and aflatoxin production in maize grains from field to storage. In this article aflatoxin contamination in maize, antagonistic activity of rhizosphere microbes against toxigenic A. flavus, through fungi, antagonistic activity of rhizosphere bacteria against toxigenic A. flavus, bacterization of stored maize seeds for aflatoxin control and inhibition of aflatoxin production in stored maize seed with rhizobacteria has been discussed in detail.

To a soil microorganism, the rhizosphere is like a lush oasis in the desert. In comparison to near-starvation conditions of the bulk soil, the rhizosphere is the place where nutrients are plentiful and microorganisms flourish. The term rhizosphere was first used by Hiltner in 1904 to describe the zone of soil under the influence of roots. The rhizosphere can extend more than 5 mm from the root and is the area of increased microbial activity due to exudation of low molecular weight compounds from root cells. The rhizoplane is the surface of plant root and any strongly adhering soil particles. The microbial populations that colonize the interior of the root and from intimate associations with the root are considered endophytes.

Introduction

The rhizosphere plays a pivotal role in the boundary where biological and chemical activities profoundly impact various landscape and global-scale processes. Understanding these processes is crucial for maintaining planetary health and sustaining the organisms inhabiting it (Morrissey et al., 2004). To enhance the yield potential of staple food crops, leveraging the root systems of plants becomes essential to meet the anticipated doubling of global food demand in the future (Gewvin, 2010; Zhang et al., 2010). Amidst the challenges posed by global climate change and the burgeoning global population, there’s an increasing need for greater productivity from cultivated food, animal feed, and fibers on less favorable and often infertile lands—conditions already prevalent in many developing nations (Tilman et al., 2002). Advancing our understanding and control of rhizosphere processes stands as a critical frontier in research for the next decade.

Rhododendron belongs to family Ericaceae. The word “Rhododendron” is derived from the ancient Greek word “rhódon” which means rose and “déndron” which means tree. This genus is characterized by shrubs and small to (rarely) large trees. The smallest species grow up to 10–100 cm tall and the largest Rhododendron giganteum is reported to grow over 30 m tall. They are noted for their clusters of large flowers. The alpine species have small flowers and small leaves and tropical species grow as epiphytes. The colour of the rhododendron flower is available in nearly every colour of the rainbow including various shades of blue, yellow, pink white, red, orange and purple. Rhododendron flower from January through August, depending on the location and the climate.

Rhododendron belongs to family Ericaceae. The word “Rhododendron” is derived from the ancient Greek word “rhódon” which means rose and “déndron” which means tree. This genus is characterized by shrubs and small to (rarely) large trees. The smallest species grow up to 10–100 cm tall and the largest Rhododendron giganteum is reported to grow over 30 m tall. They are noted for their clusters of large flowers. The alpine species have small flowers and small leaves and tropical species grow as epiphytes. The colour of the rhododendron flower is available in nearly every colour of the rainbow including various shades of blue, yellow, pink white, red, orange and purple. Rhododendron flower from January through August, depending on the location and the climate.

Rhododendron tomentosum Harmaja has been used in ethnomedicine for the treatment of various ailments such as cough and cold, insect bites, rheumatism as well as a repellent. The essential oil of wild rosemary with rich polyphenolic fraction which possesses analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, insecticidal, antidiabetic, antioxidant and anticancer properties (Dampc et al., 2013).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Majority of Rhododendron species are native to the eastern Himalaya and southeast Tibet, Asia, North America, Europe and Australia along with the islands of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, New Guinea and the Philippines. The highest species diversity is found in the Himalayas from Uttarakhand, Nepal and Sikkim to Yunnan and Sichuan with other significant areas of diversity in the mountains of Korea, Japan and Taiwan. The rest are broadly spread throughout the northern hemisphere in relatively small isolated populations in Japan, northwestern North America, the Appalachian and the Caucasus Mountains. The tropical Rhododendron species range from south-east Asia to northern Australia with 55 known species in Borneo and 164 in New Guinea. Interestingly, the species in New Guinea are native to subalpine moist grasslands at around 3000 metres above sea level in the Central Highlands. Relatively fewer species occur in North America and Europe. The genus Rhododendron of Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) has been enumerated a total of 87 species, 12 subspecies and 8 varieties and have been recorded in IIHR. Among these 6 species and one subspecies are reported from Western Himalaya. The maximum concentration of 86% was observed in Arunachal Pradesh (75 species). The species of Rhododendron exhibit significant diversity in habit and broad range of distribution from the altitude of 800-6000 m and the best range is observed in 3001-3500 m altitudes. An analysis revealed that 20 taxa are endemic, 30 are rare, 24 are endangered, 3 are vulnerable and 47 taxa have to be assessed (Sekar and Srivastava, 2010). More than 50 hardy species of Rhododendron have been introduced from the wilds of China, Tibet, Bhutan and Vietnam since 1981 (Cox, 2012). George Forrest collected more than 400 Rhododendrons in China in between 1904 to 1932 for introduction to the western world (Geng, 2010).

Morphological characteristics

Rewand chini is a perennial stout herb, 1.5–3.0 m tall. Roots are very stout and thick. Leaves are radical, orbicular, or broadly ovate, very large, and 30–45 cm in diameter with long petioles.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are small, dark purple or pale red in axillary panicles. The plant has three to five years of juvenile phase, followed by reproductive phase. Flowering occurs in June–July. Seeds are collected in late August–September, when they turn dark brown. Seed production potential varies from 300 seeds to 950 seeds per plant.

Distribution

The species occurs in the temperate Himalayas, from Kashmir to Sikkim, at an elevation of 2800–4000 m. It is found in alpine zone on rocky soil, moraines, and crevices, between boulders and near streams in specific pockets. It is sporadically cultivated in the North-eastern states for its leaves, which are used as vegetable.

Climate and soil

Rewand chini plant is restricted to the temperate, sub-alpine, and alpine zones of the Himalayas. Well-drained, porous, humus-rich soil is suitable for its cultivation. It prefers exposed or partially shaded habitat and can be cultivated on altitudes above 1800 m in height.

As early as the 16th century, rhubarb was farmed and marketed for therapeutic purposes. According to History of Fruit, by the 19th century, rhubarb had acquired prominence as a food and vegetable source, with a redder stem and sweeter flavour. Rhubarb is a native of Central Asia, and knowledge of its therapeutic properties dates back five thousand years in China. It was also widely used by Arabs, Greeks, and Romans in antiquity. It came as no surprise to Marco Polo when he discovered it in China in 1271.

Botany and taxonomy: Rhubarb refers to the fleshy, edible stalks (petioles) of Rheum species and hybrids (culinary rhubarb) of the Polygonaceae family, which are cooked and eaten. Rhubarb refers to the entire plant, which is an herbaceous perennial with short, thick rhizomes. The big, triangular leaves are inedible due to high quantities of oxalic acid and throne glycosides. 

The word RHUS means red because its flowers and leaves are red in colour. TOXICODENDRON means poison tree.

The effects on the skin, rheumatic pains, mucous membrane affections, and a typhoid type of fever, make this remedy frequently indicated. It mainly affects fibrous tissues, joints, tendons, sheaths producing pain and stiffness. Ailments from strains, over lifting, getting wet while perspiring. Rheumatism in the cold season.

Rhus Tox is the first remedy one should think of in any muscular pain where the cutting pain and soreness are temporarily relieved by movement. This is in direct contrast to Bryonia where movement aggravates pain.

Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula (L) Roxb.) belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae is a well known vegetable variety in India. The seed production can be done in both summer and rainy season.
Method of seed production

Bitter gourd is a cross-pollinated crop which occurs through bees. Seeds should be allowed to set by open-pollination in isolation. The isolation distance maintained between the fields of other varieties and the fields of the same variety not conforming to the varietal purity requirements for certification is 1000 metres for foundation and 500 metres for certified seed production.

I. FILL UPS

1. The stigma receptivity of ribbedgourd is_____.
2. Ribbedgourd is a _____ pollinated crop.
   1. Isolation distance for foundation seed production of ribbedgourd is _____.

The field is ploughed once and harrowed twice or thrice until the soil becomes well puddle. Beds are made slightly raised of 1 – 1.5 m in width and conveniently large in size and drainage channels in between the beds. The total area of nursery required to plant one hectare of land is 20 cents (800 m2 ). This method is suited where assured irrigation facilities are available. The beds should not be allowed to dry because they develop cracks and the seedlings will get spoiled. This method keeps down the weeds in the nursery. Seedlings are transplanted at 21-25 and 25-30 days age for SDV and MDV, respectively. Sparse sowing is recommended in case of hybrid rice. One kg of hybrid seed is sown in one cent area of nursery. This helps in good tillering and robust seedlings and makes it possible to transplant single seedling per hill. Seedlings are planted at 20-25 days.

3.1. Introduction

Rice is grown in varying geographical locations and climatic situations. Most of the rice area lies between the equator and 400 N latitude and between 700 and 1400 E longitude. It grows well from tropical to sub-tropical warm and temperate climatic regions up to 400 S and 500 N of the equator. However, the highest yields are obtained in the region between 300 and 450 N of the equator. The average yield generally increases as the countries are situated further away from the equator (Chatterjee and Maiti, 1985). In India, rice grows in regions from 80 N to 350 N latitudes under widely varying conditions of the land, rainfall, altitude and climatic conditions. It is grown at the sea level in river deltas as in parts of Kerala, as deepwater in states of West Bengal, Assam and Bihar; at high altitudes of 914 to 1524 m or even more as in Kashmir, and in the slopes of the Himalayas. A temperature range of 200 C to 37.70 C is required throughout the life period of rice crop.

1. Introduction

Celiac disease (CD) is an immune-mediated enteropathy triggered by the ingestion of gluten in genetically susceptible individuals. Gluten is the protein component in wheat, rye and barley. In the last 10 years, cutting edge scientific developments in this disease have led to the formulation of new concepts of epidemiology, pathophysiology and clinical manifestations. At present, the only available treatment for CD is a strict gluten-free diet (GFD) (Mulder et al., 2013; Theethira and Kelly, 2014). Until recently, the geographical distribution of CD was mostly restricted to Europe and other developed countries, such as the United States, Canada and Australia. Celiac disease is not only frequent in developed countries, but it is increasingly found in areas of the developing world, such as North Africa (Malekzadeh et al., 2005), Middle East (Rostami et al., 2004) and India (Basu et al., 2014, Deora et al., 2014; Yachha and Poddar, 2007). New epidemiological studies have brought evidence that this disorder is common in many developing countries as well, showing that the ‘global village of celiac disease’ has indeed a worldwide distribution (Fasano and Catassi, 2001).

The only available treatment for celiac disease is the strict, lifelong avoidance of gluten. When gluten is removed from the diet, the small intestine will start to heal and overall health should improve (Fasano and Catassi, 2001). Traditional substitutes for gluten-containing grains have been rice, tapioca, corn, and potato. However, more nutrient-dense grains, seeds, nut flours, and legumes are being incorporated into the diet to provide an enhanced palatability, variety, and nutritional quality. These include sorghum, millet, teff, quinoa, amaranth, flax seed, and buckwheat.

1. Blast
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Pathogen attacks the crop at all stages of crop growth.
• Symptoms appear on leaves, nodes, rachis, and glumes. On the leaves, the lesions appear as small bluish green flecks, which enlarge under moist weather to form the characteristic spindle shaped spots with grey centre and dark brown margin (Leaf blast).
• Spots coalesce as the disease progresses and large areas of the leaves dry up and wither. Severely infected nursery and field appear as burnt.• Black lesions appear on nodes girdling them. The affected nodes may break up and all the plant parts above the infected nodes may die (nodal blast).
• During flower emergence, the fungus attacks the peduncle and the lesion turns to brownish-black which is referred to as rotten neck / neck rot / panicle blast (neck blast).
• In early neck infection, grain filling does not occur while in late infection, partial grainfilling occurs (Fig.1).

Eastern India is frequently affected by weather hazards, such as drought, flood and heat wave. The region consists of Orissa, West Bengal, and Bihar. The coastal states of Orissa and West Bengal frequently face cyclones, while Bihar and eastern U.P. face cold wave. Due to unfavorable seasonal weather, crop productivity is poor. However, the recent change in climate induced by global warming has further threatened the agricultural productivity in the region. Rice is the principal crop of Eastern India and rice based cropping systems has long been practiced in the region. While rice-rice is the most dominant cropping system in Orissa and West Bengal, rice-wheat is in Bihar and eastern U.P. Besides, rice-groundnut occupies a considerable area in the region. It is now doubtful whether the resilience of these cropping systems would continue sustaining the productivity under the climate change. The major aim of the proposal was to identify suitable adaptation measures of crop production under projected climate change. Climate change is expected to alter precipitation pattern, increase temperature, change in humidity level and decrease sunshine. As a result it is like to influence right from land preparation to the harvest and post harvest process. Thus the project aim was to revisiting the existing package of practices of selected cropping systems by simulation modelling, deduce suitable adaptation measures and validate these by OTC experiments.

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a staple food of over half the world’s people and is grown on approximately 146 million hectares, more than 10 per cent of total available land. Ninety seven per cent of the world’s rice is grown by less developed countries, mostly in Asia. Post harvest losses are considered to be contributed by storage alone, and not much attention was paid to losses occurring during harvesting, transport, threshing, drying, milling and pre-milling treatments. Quantitative loss of food grains was the main concern of the producers and the consumers. Qualitative losses at various stages were not fully recognized, but systematic studies by different organizations revealed that these losses are enormous and should be prevented. These losses cumulatively could be as high as 40 per cent and are normally accompanied by loss of quality also. Quality loss of products can take place at all stages but more particularly during drying or curing of harvested crops, storage, and milling and pre-milling treatments. Post-harvest attention is essential if the grains of higher production are to be fully exploited. Also the quality loss occurring in food grains can be extremely serious if the farming community is not aware of them.

I. FILL UPS

1. The inflorescence of rice is _____.
2. The rice flower is called _____.
3. The stigma receptivity of rice crop is_____ period.
4. The pollen viability of rice is for _____.
5. The grain stem of rice is called_____.
6. Rice is _____ pollinated crop.

Cereal grain contains 60 to 70% of starch and is excellent energy rich foods for humans. In almost every country and region, cereals provide the staple food. In the world as a whole, only 5% of starchy staple food comes from root crops (mainly cassava, potato, and yams, depending on climate), whereas the rest is from cereal. Cereals are an excellent source of fat-soluble vitamin E, which is an essential antioxidant. Whole cereal grains contain 20 to 30% of the daily requirements of the minerals such as selenium, calcium, zinc and copper.

1.1. Introduction: India’s present population, growth rate & projections

India is the second-most populous country in the world after China with its population of about 1.38 billion in the year 2020. The Population Division under the Department of Economic and Social Affairs, of the United Nations, has projected the country’s population to be growing to about 1.50 billion by the year 2030, and 1.64 billion by 2050, of course with its decreasing annual growth rate from 1.04 to 0.25% or so during the period of next thirty years (Fig. 1.1; UNDESA, 2019). The projection says the Indian population will exceed China by the year 2030 even with its decreasing rate i.e. India will be the most populous country by then. As agriculture and allied sectors are the backbone of this country and the largest livelihood source, it support this growing human and livestock population with diversified natural resources and varied agro-climatic conditions. However, the sustainability of agricultural production should be maintained in the face of perturbation and stress on the agro-ecosystem especially the degraded natural resource base and changing climate.

Rice (Oryza sativa L., 2n = 2x = 24, monocot, family Poaceae formerly called as Gramineae, grass family, self-pollinated crop) is one of the Four Big Crops (rice, wheat, corn and soybean) globally and is the world’s most important food crop after wheat and corn. In crop year 2018, there was around 167 million hectares of paddy (rough, un-milled rice) cultivated area worldwide with production of 782 million tons resulting into a productivity of 4.68 tons/ha. The top ten countries in rice production during this period globally were China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, Philippines, Brazil and Pakistan. Chinese production was 212 million tones followed by India with 172 million tons (FAOSTAT). Indian production of 172 million tons of rough rice can be converted into milled rice by multiplying a conversion factor of 0.67 and this way it comes to 115 million tons.

Introduction

Rickettsial diseases in poultry are caused by various species of bacteria belonging to the genus Rickettsia. These diseases can have significant economic implications for the poultry industry due to decreased production, increased mortality, and trade restrictions. Rickettsial diseases affecting poultry are relatively uncommon compared to other pathogens but can still occur. Rickettsial organisms are tiny, pleomorphic, weakly gram-negative bacilli that multiply by binary fission. The Rickettsia requires an arthropod for transmission and to complete its life cycle. The organisms are non-motile and non-capsulated and possess both DNA and RNA. Some of the rickettsial diseases affecting poultry include:

1. Rocky Mountain spotted fever: Chickens can be infected with various species of Rickettsia, including Rickettsia rickettsia, which causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever in humans. In chickens, rickettsial infections can lead to symptoms such as fever, lethargy, decreased egg production, respiratory distress, and neurological signs.

History of Rickettsial infections went back to 16^th century and it has long been associated with famine and war. Thus Rickettsial infections played a significant role in the history of Western civilization. Epidemic typhus had major impact to decide over the outcome of several wars. This epidemic alone killed or caused great suffering to over 100,000 people in the two World Wars.  However, the causative agent was not determined until the early part of the 20^th century. Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF) was the first detected Rickettsial infection as early as in 1896 in Idaho Valley, USA.  It was originally known as ‘Black Measles’ because of its clinical appearance in the form of characteristic spotted rash appearance throughout the body of the patients. Howard Taylor Ricketts, an American pathologist for the first time described the causative agent of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and was able to isolate it in the laboratory animals during 1902-1909. He was a dedicated scientist and, on several occasions, injected himself with a pathogen for experiment. The causative pathogen of Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Rickettsia rickettsii was named after him. Later, the family Rickettsiaceae as well as the order Rickettsiales was named after him. Ernest William Goodpasture, an American pathologist and physician, invented the methods of isolation and culturing the rickettsial pathogens in chicken embryos and fertilized chicken eggs.

The reclassification of the order Rickettsiales was predicated upon comprehensive genetic analyses of 16S rRNA, groESL, and surface protein genes. Consequently, organisms within this order were systematically assigned to one of two families: Anaplasmataceae and Rickettsiaceae. Within the Anaplasmataceae family, phylogenetic analyses consistently delineated four genetically distinct clades: (1) Anaplasma, (2) Ehrlichia, (3) Wolbachia, and (4) Neorickettsia. Despite the obligate intracellular nature of rickettsial organisms in both families, those classified under Rickettsiaceae proliferate freely within
the host cell cytoplasm, whereas members of the Anaplasmataceae family are confined exclusively to membrane-bound vacuoles within the cytoplasm of host cells.
The first documented cases of anaplasmosis trace back to the late 19th century in South Africa. However, it wasn’t until 1910 that the causative agent of the disease was conclusively identified morphologically as “marginal points” within red blood cells by Max Theiler, later named it Anaplasma marginale. A year later, he identified another species, A. centrale, which caused a milder form of the disease in cattle. During the 1930s, Sanborn, Stiles, and Moc demonstrated the mechanical transmission of A. marginale by horse flies and stable flies. In the late 1980s, the life cycle of A. marginale was fully elucidated in ticks belonging to the genus Dermacentor.

Organisms in the order Rickettsiales form a diverse group of small (0.3 to 0.5 x 0.8 to 2.0 pm), non-motile, pleomorphic Gram-negative bacteria which replicate only in host cells. They can be cultured in the yolk sac of embryonated eggs or in selected tissue culture cell lines. Because they stain poorly with aniline dyes, these organisms should be stained by Romanowsky methods such as Giemsa or Leishman. In addition to host-cell dependence and poor affinity for basic dyes, a requirement for an invertebrate vector distinguishes them from conventional bacteria and the Chlamydiales.
Epidemiology
Animal hosts and arthropod vectors are the reservoirs for most rickettsiae. A number of rickettsia1 organisms, including Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma marginale and Haemobartonella felis produce latent infections. In arthropods, rickettsiae replicate in the epithelial cells of the gut before spreading to other organs, including the salivary glands and ovaries where further replication may occur.
Organisms are transmitted when the arthropod feeds on the animal host. Some organisms such as Rickettsia rickettsii are maintained in a tick population by transovarial transmission. Trans-stadial but not transovarial transmission of E. canis and E. phagocytophila occurs in ticks. With the exception of Coxiella burnetii, which produces endospore-like forms and can remain viable in dust for up to 50 days, most rickettsiae are labile outside host cells. Aerosol transmission of C.burnetii commonly occurs in domestic animals and humans. In addition, a silent cycle involving ticks and small wild mammals may constitute a possible source of infection for some domestic species.
Pathogenesis and Pathogenicity
Many Rickettsia species including the causal agents of typhus (R. prowuzekii), murine typhus (R. typhi) and scrub typhus (R. tsutsugamushi) are primarily human pathogens. Rocky Mountain spotted fever, caused by Rickettsia rickettsii, which is a common rickettsia1 disease of humans, also affects dogs.

Ridge gourd or Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula Rox b. L) and Sponge gourd or Smooth gourd (Luffa cylindrica) have diploid chromosome number  2n=2x=26. Luffa has old world origin in Subtropical Asian region including India (Kalloo, 1993). These two species are inter-crossable. F1 plants generally, intermediate between the parents and showed various irregularities like, univalants, rings and chains of 4 chromosomes, chromatids bridges and fragments at metaphase and thus the species are not easily crossable and the F1 plants appear to be of not much practical value. The genus is monoecious annual vine, tendrils are branched, flowers are yellow, anthers are free and pistil has three placentas with many ovules and stigma are three and bilobate. Fruits oblong or cylindrical and rind becomes dry on maturity.

Ridge gourd, Luffa acutangula and sponge gourd, Luffa cylindrica under the family Cucurbitaceae (Chromosome number: 2n = 2× = 26) is an important warm season fruit vegetable crop. Ridge gourd is widely cultivated in India, Southeast Asia, China, Japan, Egypt and other parts of Africa. Sponge gourd is now cultivated in all tropical regions of the world. It was an important crop used for industrial filters until World War II and Japan cultivated the best crop for this purpose. The main commercial production areas of sponge gourd today are China, Korea, India, Japan, Central America and Brazil. Immature fruits of ridge gourd and sponge gourd are eaten as a vegetable and at maturity both become very fibrous. The word luffa or ‘loofah’ is of Arabic origin and the sponge characteristic of the crop has been described in old Egyptian writings.
Fruits are good sources of vitamin C, riboflavin, zinc and antioxidants. It is effective in balancing blood sugar levels, help eliminate toxic waste and prevent fat accumulation. Ridge gourd also helps reduce excessive body heat during summers which can prevent many ailments.
 

Ridge gourd also known as ribbed gourd or angled gourd or silky gourd or angled loofah or vegetable gourd (Luffa acutangula (Roxb. L., 2n = 2x, family Cucurbitaceae, mostly monoecious and cross-pollinated but behaving like self-pollinated crop in term of no inbreeding depression) is not a crop of global importance; rather it is grown and consumed primarily in India and the adjoining countries which used to be part of greater India. In India, estimated area is 50,000 ha spread over almost entire country but the leading states are UP, Bihar, West Bengal, MP, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and north east hill region.

Origin and Domestication

Ridge gourd has similar origin as that of sponge gourd (refer to page 428).

Ridge or ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula (Roxb.)L.) is grown commercially and in homesteads for its immature fruits which are used as cooked vegetable. It is a popular vegetable both as spring-summer and rainy season crops. It is grown in tropical and subtropical countries, especially in Asia and India as an important cucurbitaceous vegetable crop (Jansen et al., 1993). The immature fruit is a rich source of dietary fiber and minerals (Sheshadri, 1990). Apart from culinary properties, it has vast medicinal properties which are traditionally used for the curing of stomach ailments and fever (Burkill, 1985; Chakravarty, 1990). The genus derives its name from the byproduct 'loofah', which is used in bathing sponges, doormats, scrubber pads, mattresses, pillows and in cleaning utensils. The tender fruits are prescribed for people suffering from malaria and other seasonal fevers because it is easy to digest and act as an appetizer. Ridge gourd contains 0.5g protein, 3.4g carbohydrates, 37mg carotene and 18mg vitamin C per 100g of edible portion. Some round varieties of ridge gourd are also used for stuffing purposes.

Ridge gourd is originated from India and is grown throughout the country by many of the small and marginal farmers for their regular income. Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, West Bengal, Maharashtra and all southern states like Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu are the major states in India where ridge gourd is cultivated. It is grown in an area of 1.00 lakh ha in India with a productivity of about 10 12 t/ha which is very low.

(New duck disease, Duck septicemia, Anatipestifer syndrome, Infectious Serositis, the disease in goose is called “goose influenza”)

Etiology

The disease was first described in ducks from 3 farms in Long Island, N.Y. in 1932. R. anatipestifer (Pasteurella anatipestifer) is a gram negative, non- motile, non-spore-forming rod occurring singly, in pairs and occasionally in chains. To date, 19 serotypes are reported.

Natural and experimental hosts: primarily a disease of domestic ducks. Outbreaks also reported in turkeys. Bacteria have been isolated from pheasants, chickens, guinea fowl, quail, partridge and other waterfowl.

ILIUM

The ilium are almost parallel to each other and form a much smaller angle with the horizontal plane than in the horse. They are relatively small. The gluteal line is prominent and is nearly parallel to the lateral border; it join the ischiatic spine. A rounded ridge separates the two parts of the pelvic surface. The surface for articulation with the sacrum is triangular. The tuber sacrale is truncated, does not extend so high as the vertebral spines, and is separated from the opposite angle by a wider interval than in the horse. The tuber coxae is relatively large and prominent; it is not so oblique as in the horse, and is wide in the middle, smaller at either end. The shaft is short and compressed from side to side.

I. INTRODUCTION

Over the last few decades, protection of intellectual property rights (IPRs) has become a global issue. The existing international intellectual property rights regime has been governed by the Trade- Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement.1 Inspite of maturity of intellectual property laws in post TRIPS era it still desiderate to established coherence with human rights laws particularly right to health and maintain a distance with the socio-economic dimension of intellectual property protection. On the other hand the international human rights instruments from the very beginning appear to be considerable to make certain links with intellectual property rights.2 The issue that is now debated that the adoption of the TRIPS Agreement provisions have serious impact on the realization of certain basic human rights such as the right to health because of non availability and affordability of much needed medicines for the poorer populations of the world particularly in majority of developing countries. Meanwhile TRIPS flexibilities as confirmed by the Doha Declaration on Public Health were adopted in 2001 by the global community to address medicines as public health issue.3 Keeping in view the above developments the problem of right to health and the relationship between medical patents and access to medicine in the case of the HIV/ AIDS and T.B epidemics is complex challenge in the context of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 adopted by Member States of the United Nations in Sep, 2015. One of the aims of the agenda is to ensure healthy lives and promote the well-being of people of ages.4 In such a situation it is high time to revisit the existing intellectual property regime in the broader context to protect everyone who is likely to be negatively affected by intellectual property standards imposed by developed nations. Under this backdrop the present paper wishes to examine the various kinds of potential impacts of intellectual property regime on the realization of access to medicine as part of human right to health as universal entitlements amongst the most disadvantaged and marginalized peoples and communities in the broader context of sustainable development goals.

Ripe

This word is derived from Saxon word ‘Ripi’, which means gather or reap. This is the condition of maximum edible quality attained by the fruit following harvest. Only fruit which becomes mature before harvest can become ripe.

Ripening

Ripening involves a series of changes occurring during early stages of senescence of fruits in which structure and composition of unripe fruit is so altered that it becomes acceptable to eat. Ripening is a complex physiological process resulting in softening, colouring, sweetening and increases in aroma compounds so that ripening fruits are ready to eat or process. The associated physiological or biochemical changes are increased rate of respiration and ethylene production, loss of chlorophyll and continued expansion of cells and conversion of complex metabolities into simple molecules.

There is loosening of cell wall of climacteric fruits during ripening. The enzyme pectin methyl esterase (PME), is responsible for the de-esterification of pectin (major constituent of cell wall) into pectic acid (or Polygalacturonic acid) and methanol. Polygalacturonic acid serves as a substrate for PG (Polygalacturonase) enzyme. This enzyme (PG) starts depolymerization of pectic acid leading to the formation of small chains of tri, di and monogalacturonic acids.

A large number of pathogens also have been reported to produce pectic enzymes to macerate the plant tissue. Hence, in addition to its role in ripening process and shelf life of fruits, the enzyme PG is also studied in relation to the diseases of the plants.

A healthy life is ensured by having access to safe, nutritious and balanced food. World health organisation (WHO) ensures its contribution in developing food safety systems that are sustainable to reduce health risks from farm to consumer. Thus, safe food, its quality and consumer protection are the priorities of this organisation (FAO and WHO, 2021)

Introduction

Biological, physical, chemical and other hazards associated with food have been detailed in Chapter 4. This chapter would address the risks associated with these hazards as well the scientific approach is assessing them. Risk analysis is an inevitable platform for food safety assurance which measures the impact of hazards on the health of consumers. To improve public health and maintain consumer trust in the food supply and to provide a sound regulatory foundation for national and international trade in food, an efficient food safety management system is essential. Therefore, World Trade Organization (WTO) developed food regulations governing international trade in foods based on science and risk assessment. A sound knowledge of food hazards and risks they pose to consumers, along with the capacity to take appropriate interventions, deserve top priority of a responsible authority and industry.

Risk

The word ‘risk’ is used to describe a situation that involves a possibility of something undesired to happen (Rowe, 1977). In food processing, hazards are considered as risks. Hazards are often thought of as synonyms of risks, however, hazards are quite different from risks.

A food borne hazard is defined by Codex as “a biological, chemical or physical agent in or condition of food, with the potential to cause an adverse health effect”. A risk is the chance, low or high, that any hazard will actually cause harm. Some of the emerging food hazards that must be assessed and managed are listed in table 1. Assessment and management of risks posed by these hazards is the responsibility to be urgently addressed by the scientific community.