eChapters

• Introduction
• Types of DSS
• Scope of DSS
• Benefits of DSS 
• Common Uses of Decision Support Systems
• Decision Support System for Farm Management

• What is Meant by the Term Expert?
• Building Blocks of Expert Systems
• Designing Expert Systems in Problem Solving 
• Applications of Expert System
• An Expert System for Decision Problem
• Advantages of Expert System
• Cases of Expert Systems in Agriculture

• What is a Neural Network?
• How does an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) work?
• Characteristics of Neural Networks 
• Architectures of Artificial Neural Networks
• Learning Process
• Classification of Learning Algorithms
• Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture -Intelligent Agent 
• Classes of Intelligent Agents
• Characteristic of Intelligent Agents

• What is Intelligence?
• What is Artificial Intelligence?
• Branches of AI
• Natural–Language
• Natural Language Processing 
• Natural Language Recognition
• Simple Natural Language Grammar
• Intelligent Technologies in Agriculture
• Intelligent Animal Houses
• Agricultural Robots

• Defining GIS
• Fundamentals of GIS
• Mapping Concepts, Features and Properties
• Geographical Data Sets
• Spatial & Non-spatial Data
• Attribute Data
• Remote Sensing in Agriculture
• Remote Sensing in Farm
• Principles of Remote Sensing
• How Does Remote Sensing Work?
• Global Positioning System
• Components of a GPS
• GPS Positioning Types
• GPS Applications
• Remote Sensing and GIS
• Use of GPS in Agriculture
• General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) Network 
• The GPRS Network
• Benefits

• Introduction
• Characteristics of Management Information System
• Management Information Systems Advantage
• Outputs of a Management Information System

• Introduction
• The Concept of a Farm Management System

• Agriculture Information Systems
• Major Trends
• Agriculture Information System
• Importance
• Internet Based Agriculture Information System
• Support Provided by Agriculture Information System
• AGRIS/CARIS
• AGROVOC
• Agriculture Research Information System (ARIS)
• Agriculture Research Information Center

• What is Agroinformatics?
• Agroinformatics
• Definitions 
• Objectives of Agroinformatics
• Information Systems Terminology
• Agroinformatics Tools

1. Basic Information and Agrarian Status

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa covering 39,037,000 hectares. It is bordered by Zambia, Mozambique, South Africa, Botswana and Namibia. It is situated between 15 and 22° south latitude and 26 and 34° east longitude. Climatic conditions are largely sub-tropical with one rainy season between November and March. In 1981, the country had 5 hectares per capita whilst it is estimated that the current population to land ratio has declined to 3.25 hectares per person and this is largely attributed to population increases that have taken place over the years. The national census conducted by the Central Statistics Office in 2002 showed that the country has a population of 1,20,00,000 people. About 80 per cent of the population resides in the rural areas, where they sustain their livelihoods through agriculture. When discussing agricultural production activities in the country, it is important to note that nearly all the soils (80 per cent) in the country are sandy from granite rocks or from schists.

1. Country Profile
 
Trinidad & Tobago comprises two islands with Trinidad being by far the larger of the two. They have a combined land area of 5,130 sq. km with Trinidad being 4,825 square kilometer. Over 95 per cent of the population of 1.3 million lives in Trinidad. Tobago’s affairs are, for the most part, administered separately through the Tobago House of Assembly, and therefore, the description of it’s extension system is reported separately.

The CSO report (CSO, 2004) listed Trinidad as having approximately 18,142 farmers who are mostly male (85 per cent) and average age of 52 years. These farmers farm on 84,900 hectares of arable land. The majority of this land (72.5 per cent) is under crop cultivation. While most of this land is dedicated to Sugarcane production, tree crops and vegetable cultivation are also important commodities. The rest of the farmland is used for Livestock (10.6 per cent), mixed farming (16.3 per cent) and some small amount of fisheries production. The majority of farms (63 per cent) are less than 5 hectare in size with 22  per cent being less than 0.5 hectare. Agriculture is mainly rain- fed but increasing amounts of farmland are being irrigated. Trinidad has six months of dry season (January-June) and an annual rainfall of 2010.9 mm of rain.

1. Basic Information

Philippines  is located between 4o23’N and 21o25’N latitude, and between 116oE and 127oE longitude. It is an archipelago of 7,107 islands with three major groups of islands: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. It is bounded by the Bashi Channel up north, Sulu and Celebes Seas in the south, the Pacific Ocean to its east, and the South China Sea to its west. The Philippines has a tropical climate with an average temperature range of 23° to 32°C. Populated by 88 million people, the country has a total land area of 3,00,000 square kilometers  (30 million hectares); where about one third is agricultural land (NSO, 2007).

Of the agricultural land, 31 per cent is used for cereals such as corn and rice, 52 per cent for food crops and 17 per cent for non-food crops (ITC, 2007). Majority of these are cultivated on small farms averaging about two hectares and are managed by single families ranging from subsistence to commercial production (NSCB, 2007).

1. Brief Basic Information on Country and Agrarian Status

Peru is the third largest country in South America with 1,285,215 square-meters and in general, there are three well defined regions: the Coast (11 per cent of the territory), the highlands (30 per cent of the territory) and the jungle (59 per cent of the territory). Peru is characterized by the high variability of agro-ecosystems ranging from Deserts in the Coast, lowlands, hills, high mountains, and rainforest in the Jungle. Each region has different agro-climatic conditions, infrastructure and enterprise development. The total cultivable land area is 54,76,977 hectares that is equivalent to 4.3 per cent of the national territory. The coast has 8,70,200 hectares of irrigated land (no rain-fed land because of lack of rain in the coast) and has the best conditions for cultivation of export crops. The highlands have 28,33,800 hectares of cultivable land, 70 per cent of them is under rain-fed condition and the total of the 17,73,000 hectares of cultivated land under rain-fed conditions1 . Land property has undergone a process of changes in the last 40 years.

1. Introduction to Nepal and its Agriculture

1.1. Geography

Nepal is a country of enormous geographical diversity, and is situated in the southern slopes of the central Himalayas, which spreads over an area of 1,47,181 square kilometers. Sandwiched between India on three sides- east, west, and south – and China to the North, Nepal is a land-locked country (CBS,2003).
 
Geographically, the country is broadly divided into five roughly parallel east-west regions (ecological belts), which from north to south are known as High Mountains, Mountains, Hills, Siwaliks  and Tarai. With altitudes ranging from less than 100 m in the Tarai to 8,848 m in the High Mountains, there exist different climates and different types of farming systems within Nepal. As a result of these diversities, a wide variety of crops, vegetables and fruits are produced.
 
For administrative and developmental purposes, Nepal is divided  into 75 districts. Each district is further divided into Village Development Committees (VDCs) in rural areas and municipalities in urban areas. At present, there are 3,913 VDCs and 58 municipalities in Nepal.

1. Country Background

Mozambique is a country that is extremely dependent on agriculture, both for rural livelihoods and for overall economic growth. This importance is illustrated by the following:
    •    The agriculture sector accounts for about 20  per cent of GDP1.
    •    80  per cent of total employment and higher in rural areas.
    •    55  per cent of household incomes (national average) adding self-consumption and income from selling agricultural products2.
    •    40  per cent of export earnings (2003).
    •    The economy is not diversified and the average level of education is low, with few options for finding non-farm employment and incomes in rural zones.

1. Introduction

Jordan is an Arab country located in the heart of the Middle East. It is a highly centralized country in both political and economic terms, with a constitutional monarchy. The parliament consists of an upper-house appointed by the king and an elected lower-house. The king appoints the prime minister, who in turn, appoints a cabinet of ministers.

1.1. General Information

The country shares borders with Iraq to the east, Israel and the Palestinian Authority to the west, Syria to the north and Saudi Arabia to the south. In 2005, the population of Jordan was estimated at 5.5 million people with a population growth rate around 2.3 per cent, living in an area of about 89,300 sq. km. Most of the population is urbanized (82 per cent), with more than half living in the capital, Amman, and in the Zarqa governorate. About 60 per cent of the total population is under 25 and 38 per cent is under the age of 15 (United Nations, 2006). Jordan is classified as a lower-middle income country, with an economy that is severely affected by water scarcity and limited land resources. The capital Amman dominates over  80  per cent of the country’s economy.

1. Basic Information and Agrarian Status

1.1. Geography

Japan is a crescent-shaped archipelago consisting of four main islands named Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, and of a few thousand small islands, with a total area of 3,77,907 square kilometers. The country is mountainous, with forests accounting for 66 per cent of the total area, and arable land 13 per cent.

1.2. Climate

The archipelago is almost 3,000 km in length and stretches from north to south, and  includes subartic, temperate and subtropical zones.

In winter, the side of the country facing the Sea of Japan, include Niigata and Fukui, is known worldwide for its heavy snowfall, but the side facing the Pacific Ocean has little or no snowfall. From spring to fall, there is no big difference between these areas. The summer season starts with an almost one month long baiu (rainy season) around June. After the baiu, the temperature rises to more than 30 degree Celsius, and it become very humid. In the fall, a few typhoons hit Japan, occasionally causing a major disaster.

1. Introduction

Iran, with an area of 1648 thousand sq.kms.,  is situated in the eastern portion of the northern hemisphere, in the south west of Asia, and is considered as one of the Middle East countries. Iran is a mountainous country with a variety of climates. The average temperature and rainfall for the whole country are quoted as 18ºC and 240 mm respectively (CAPES, 1996). The country is also organized into 28 provinces. Over the past two decades, rapid rate of population growth has been a major source of concern in Islamic Republic of Iran. The population of the country passed the 60 million figures in 1993 and is projected to reach 86 million by the year 2010. In fact, the Iranian population has doubled in this period (CAPES, 1996). For example, according to the 1991 census, the female population of 15 years and above was 15 million (Anonymous, 1998). However, thanks to considerable investments and well-organized and directed national population planning program, population growth rate is now 1.5 percent in the urban and two percent in the rural areas. At the national level, the figure is 1.65 percent (CAPES, 1996).

1. Country Background

India is one of the oldest civilisations in the world with rich cultural heritage. India has become self-sufficient in agricultural production, and is now the tenth industrialised country in the world. It covers an area of 32,87,263 sq km. Lying entirely in the northern hemisphere, the mainland extends between latitudes 8°4' and 37°6' north, longitudes 68°7' and 97°25' east, and measures about 3,214 km from north to south between the extreme latitudes and about 2,933 km from east to west between the extreme longitudes. 
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian economy, as it constitutes the backbone of the rural livelihood security system. It is the core of planned economic development in India, as the trickle-down effect of agriculture is significant in reducing poverty and regional inequality in the country. Growth in agriculture has a maximum cascading impact on other sectors, leading to the spread of benefits over the entire economy and the largest segment of population. 141 million hectares is the net sown area, while 190 million hectares is the gross cropped area. The net irrigated area is 57 million hectares with a cropping intensity of 134 per cent. Eighty-two per cent of farmers have small and marginal land holdings.

1. Basic Information

1.1. Location and Size
 
Ghana, lying between latitudes 4º 30’ to 11ºN and longitudes 1º 10’E to 3º15’W, shares common borders in the east, north and west with the Republics of Togo, Burkina Faso, and Cote d’Ivoire respectively.  The country covers a total area (including water bodies) of 238,537 square kilometres.  

1.2. Climate
 
Ghana has a tropical climate with temperatures ranging between 21ºC and 32ºC. Mean annual rainfall in Ghana is generally lower in the northern part of the country (800-900 mm) and increases southwards (2100-2200 mm) albeit a small part of the eastern coastal belt has low mean annual rainfall of 700-800 mm. Humidity figures range from 78 to 87 per cent across the country. Although Ghana cannot be described as a mountainous country, there are a number of highlands and steep escarpments in the middle portion and some parts of the northern zone. The land is generally flat with more than half of the country at an altitude of 200 m.

1. Basic Information on the Country and  Agricultural Status
 
1.1. Location of Côte d’Ivoire

Cote D’ivoire (Ivory Coast) is located in West Africa, between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer, with an area of 3, 22,462 km². It is bordered on the north by Mali and Burkina Faso, no the west by Liberia and Guinea, on the east by Ghana and on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, stretching across nearly 550 km. The economic capital Abidjan is with a population of more than 3 million people and Yamoussoukro, the political capital, has more than 1,50,000 inhabitants.

1.2. Population 
The Ivorian population is 1,53,66,672 people in 1998, of which 26 per cent are foreigners (4,000,047), with an annual population growth rate of 3.3 per cent and a density of 48 habitants/km². 53.8 per cent of the population is under the age of 20 years. The age group between 21 and 60 years is 41 per cent. These figures show the youthfulness of the Ivorian population. The average life expectancy is 65 years.

1. Basic Information

Benin is situated in West Africa at inter-tropical zone between the parallels 6°30 and 12°30 North and the meridian lines 1° and 3°40 East. The Republic of Benin is limited in the north by the Republic of Niger and to the North-West by Burkina Faso, in the south by the Atlantic Ocean, in the west by Togo and in the east by the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The Republic of Benin extends over 700 km length from the Atlantic Ocean to river Niger. Its width varies from 125 km, along the coast, to 325 km, in the northern part. It covers an area of 112.622 km².

With the third General Census of the Population and Habitat in February 2002, Benin counted 6,769,914 inhabitants thereby giving an average density of 60.11 inhabitants per km². Currently the population is estimated to nearly 8 million inhabitants with a natural rate of increase of 2.8 per cent. The average densities estimated from the last census of the population vary between 16 inhabitants per km² in the department of Borgou and 322 inhabitants per km² in the department of Atlantic.

1. Introduction

Afghanistan imperiled by decades of war, is  now a country on the rebound. With the days of relative peace up on the Afghan people, resources are being gathered and projects put onto place, in an effort to revitalize the previously stagnant economy. The rehabilitation of the agricultural economy in Afghanistan depends to a large extent on whether Afghanistan’s Agricultural Sector will be able to recover from the effects of war, serious consecutive droughts and a multitude of endemic crop/ livestock diseases. Afghanistan is a pastoral country with more than 85 per cent of the land area incapable of growing even a narrow range of crops, thus being largely rangeland.  Agriculture produces food, provides food security, enhances crop production, generates cash incomes for rural and urban populations, provides fuel and transport, and produces value added goods which can have multiplier effects and creates a need for services.  Furthermore, agricultural diversity production and income provide year-round employment, and spread risk. Livestock also form a major capital reserve of farming households.

1.    Introduction
    
2.    The Scenario in India
    
3.    The Concept of Hygiene in Indian Food Industry
    
4.    Food Safety- The Reality
    4.1      Food import inspection and certification
    4.2     Laboratories for export certification
    4.3      Food export inspection & certification
    
5.    What is HACCP? & What is in Practice?
    
6.    Where We Stand?

7.    Success of Application of Food Safety Management System
    7.1.    Pre-requisites for HACCP
    
8.    Logical Steps of HACCP
    8.1      Assemble HACCP team
    8.2     Describe product
    8.3     Identify intended use
    8.4     Construct flow diagram
    8.5     On site confirmation of flow diagram
    8.6     Principles of HACCP
    
9.    Conclusion
    
References
    
Further References

Index
    
About the Editors

1    Biological Hazards
    1.1    Bacterial hazards
    
2.     Fungal Hazards
    
3.    Viral Hazards
    3.1     Hepatitis A virus
    3.2       Norwalk virus
    
4.    Parasitic Hazards
    4.1     Parasitic worms
    4.2    Protozoan parasites
    
5.    Aquatic Biotoxins
    5.1    Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)
    5.2    Diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP)
    5.3    Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP)
    5.4    Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP)
    5.5     Puffer fish (Tetrodotoxic) poisoning (PFP)
    
6.    Pathogen Survival Through Cooking
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Bacteria of Public Health Significance in Fish Handling
    
3.    Sanitary and Hygienic Precautions to be Followed in Fish Handling
    3.1    Requirements for the fishing vessels
    
4.    Requirements for the Landing Sites/Auction Centres
    
5.    Requirements for the Processing Centres
    5.1     Use only potable water or clean sea water for washing fish
    5.2     Never put fish on sand or any unclean surface
    5.3     Lighting and ventilation
    5.4     Water supply
    5.5     Ice
    5.6     Utensils for fish handling
    5.7     Washing of utensils and fish contact surfaces
    5.8     Workers’ hygiene and health
    5.9     Rodent control measures
    5.10     Fly control measures
    5.11     Waste disposal
    5.12     Storage of toxic substances
    5.13     Toilet facilities
    
Acknowledgement
    
References

1.    Modern Packaging Systems
    1.1    Modified atmosphere packaging
    1.2    Active packaging-principles and applications
    1.3    Aseptic packaging
    1.4    Shrink packaging
    1.5    Vacuum packaging
    1.6    Thermal processing
    1.7     Retort pouch packaging
    
2.    Packaging of Fish and Fishery Products
    2.1    Packaging materials used
    
3.    Packaging Requirements for Fish and Fishery Products
    3.1    Packaging of fresh fish
    3.2     Packaging of processed seafoods
    
Suggested Reading

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Different Forms of Value Added Products
    
3.    Production of Fish Steaks
    
4.    Battered and Breaded Products
    
5.    Minced Fish Based Products
    5.1    Fish cakes
    5.2    Fish cutlets
    5.3    Fish sausage
    5.4    Dehydrated salted fish cakes
    5.5    Fish fingers
    5.6    Fish burgers
    5.7    Fish balls
    5.8    Fish wafers
    5.9    Fish soup powder
    
6.    Surimi and Surimi Based Products
    6.1    Kamaboko
    6.2    Chikuwa
    6.3    Tempura
    6.4    Hampen
    
7.    Modern Seafood Analog Products
    7.1    Imitation crab meat
    
8.    Marinated Fish Products
    
9.    Fermented Fish Products
    9.1    Fish pickle
    
10.    Sous Vide Cook-Chill Products
    
11.    Precooked Seafood Entrees
    
12.    Future Needs
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Edible coatings used in Seafood Products
    2.1    Pre-dust
    2.2    Batter
    2.3    Breading
    
3.    The Coating Process
    3.1    Portioning
    3.2    Pre-dusting
    3.3    Application of batter
    3.4    Application of breading
    3.5    Pre-frying / Flash frying
    3.6    Freezing
    3.7    Packing and storage
    
4.    Coating Process Equipment
    4.1    Forming machine
    4.2    Pre-dusting machine
    4.3    Batter application equipment
    4.4    Breading application equipment
    4.5    Fryers
    4.6    Spiral freezers
    
5.    Coating Process Lines
    5.1     Single line breading system
    5.2     Tandem line breading system
    5.3     Tempura or batter-fry  Line breading system
    5.4     Tempura-Japanese Line breading system
    
6.    Coated Fishery Products
    6.1    Fish fingers
    6.2     Coated fish sillets
    6.3     Fish mince based coated products
    6.4     Coated shrimp products
    6.5     Coated squid products
    6.6     Coated bivalve products
    6.7     Crab claw balls
    
7.    Common Quality Problems Encountered during the Coating of Seafood
    7.1     Voids
    7.2     Blow off
    7.3     Pillowing
    7.4     Tailings
    
8.     Innovative Processes in the Production of Coated Products
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Dressing of Fish
    
3.    Preparation of Minced Meat
    
4.    Preparation of Flavor Ingredients
    
5.    Preparation of Colouring Ingredients
    
6.    Leaching of Minced Meat

7.    Ingredients Selected and their Role
    
8.    Preparation of Flavors
    
9.    Starch and its Role
    
10.    Extraction of Colours and its Application
    
11.    Taste Eenhancers
    
12.    Addition of Oil
    
13.    Standardized Preparation of Prawn Analogue from Bigeye Snapper
    
14.    Prawn Analogue Developed from Lizard Fish
    
15.    Cooking of the Shrimp Analogue
    
16.    Battering and Breading of the Analogue
    
17.    Freezing of the Product
    
18.    Frying of Prawn Analogue
    
19.    Packing of the Analogue
    
20.    Storage of Analogue
    
21.    Bacteriological Quality of Analogue
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Resources
    2.1    Crustacea
    2.2    Zooplankton
    2.3     Mollusca
    2.4     Insecta
    2.5     Thallophyta
    
3.    Biosynthesis
    
4.    Structure
    
5.    Detection and Estimation of Chitosan
    
6.    Specification of Chitin and Chitosan
    
7.    Economics of Chitin Recovery and Production
    
8.    Social and Economic Value of Chitosan
    
9.    Production of  Chitosan from Chitin
    
10.    Production of Glucosamine Hydrochloride
    
11.    Recent Advances in Applications of Chitin and Chitosan
    11.1    Applications of chitin, chitosan and glucosamine hydrochloride
    
12.    Advantages of Chitosan
    12.1    Cholesterol and overweight lowering
    12.2    Cholesterol lowering in Human
    12.3    Osteoarthritis prevention and Treatment
    12.4    Carrier for nasal application of drugs
    
13.    Conclusion
    
References and Further Reading

    
1.    Introduction
    
2.    Containers
    2.1     Materials used for forming containers
    2.2    Types of cans
    2.3    Labeling and coding
    2.4    Can seam
    
3.    Microbilogical Aspects
    3.1     Organisms associated with non acid foods
    3.2     Heat resistance of bacteria
    3.3     Logarithmic order of destruction
    3.4     Thermal death time curve
    3.5     Determination of TDT and survivor number
    3.6     F-value
    3.7    12 D concept
    
4.    Heat Penetration Aspects
    4.1    Factors that influence heat penetration
    4.2    Measurement of cold spot temperature
    
5.    Thermal Process Calculation
    5.1    General method
    5.2    Formula method
    
6    Inoculated Pack Studies

7.    Effect of Thermal Processing on Food Quality
    7.1    Cook value
    
8.    Steps of Canning Fish
        
    8.1    Handling raw material
    8.2    Dressing and size cutting
    8.3    Salt treatment
    8.4    Precooking
    8.5    Smoking
    8.6    Packing/ Filling
    8.7    Exhausting and seaming
    8.8     Retorting and cooling
    8.9    Inspection and storage

References

1.    What is Surimi?
    
2.    Fisheries Resources for Surimi Production

    
3.    Historical Perspective of the Surimi Industry
    
4.    Present World Scenario of Surimi Industry

5.    Surimi Industry in India
    
6.    Processing Technology for Surimi from Light Muscle Fish 
    6.1     Types of fish used for surimi
    6.2     Heading, gutting, and deboning
    6.3     Mincing
    6.4     Washing and dewatering
    6.5     Stabilizing surimi with cryoprotectants
    6.6      Rapid freezing and packaging
    
7.    Surimi Processing from Dark Muscle Fish
    
8.    Quality Evaluation of Surimi
    
9.    Microbial Quality of Surimi
    
10.    Surimi based Products
    10.1     Fish cakes
    10.2     Fish balls
    10.3     Crab analogs (Crab leg meat analog)
    
11.    Scallop Analogs
    
12.    Moulded Products
    
13.    Important Considerations in Surimi and Surimi based Products
    13.1    Gelation
    
14.    Functional Properties of Surimi

15.    Cryoprotectants in Surimi
    15.1    Mechanism of action of cryoprotectants
    
16.    Future Development in Fish Protein Stabilization
    
References

1     Introduction

2     Bacterial Flora on Fish

3     Products of Bacterial Activity

4      Bacterial Flora of Fish Caught from Different Waters

5      Fish Spoilage and Bacterial Flora

6      Bacterial Contaminations
    
7      Bacterial Contamination of Harvested Fish
    
8      Growth of Spoilage Bacteria
    
9      Scombroid Poisoning
    
10      Microorganisms on Iced Fish
    10.1     Crustaceans
    10.2     Molluscs
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Structure of Protein
    2.1     Primary structure
    2.2     Secondary structure
    2.3     Turns and Bends in the Polypeptide Backbone
    2.4     Tertiary structure
    2.5     Quaternary structure
    
3.    Protein Denaturation
    
4.    Conditions Affecting Protein Structure
    
5.    Fish Proteins
    5.1    Sarcoplasmic proteins
    5.2    Myofbrillar protein
    5.3    Stroma proteins
    5.4    Functional properties of fish proteins
    
References
    
Further reading

1.       Introduction

2.    Lipid Storage in Fish
    
3.      Factors Influencing Nature of Lipids in Fish
    
4.    Composition of Fish Oils
    4.1    Nature and composition of fatty acids
    4.2     Triacyl glycerols
    4.3     Phospholipids
    4.4     Diacyl glycerol ethers
    4.5     Wax esters
    4.6     Hydrocarbons
    4.7     Sterols
    
5.    Autoxidation of Fish Lipids
        
    5.1    Mechanism of autoxidation
        
    5.2     Factors influencing lipid autoxidation
        
    5.3     Control and prevention of autoxidation
    
6.    Lipid Autolysis
    
7.    Rancidity Problem in Fish
    7.1     Indices of oxidative rancidity
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Indian Initiatives in Tuna Fishery
    
3.    Tuna Harvesting Techniques
    3.1    Locating tuna
    3.2    Fishing gear and machinery
    3.3    Post harvest catch handling and storage techniques
    
4.    Post Harvest Handling Techniques for the Production of Sashimi Quality Tuna
        
    4.1    Killing and cleaning tools
    4.2    The ten easy steps to sashimi quality tuna
    
Acknowledgements
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.     Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
    
3.     Technologies for Responsible Fishing
    3.1     Technology for bycatch reduction in trawl fisheries
    3.2     Technology for by catch reduction in purse seine fisheries
    3.3     Technology for by catch reduction in gillnet fisheries
    3.4     Technology for by catch reduction in hook and line fisheries
    3.5     Technology for by catch reduction in trap fisheries
    
4.     Environment-Friendly Fishing Gears
    4.1     Reducing bottom impact of towed gears
    4.2     Semi-pelagic trawl system
    4.3     Benthic release panels
    4.4     Remote controlled otter boards (smart trawling)
    4.5     Ground gear modifications
    4.6     Otter boards bridles and sweeps
    
5.     Energy Conservation in Fishing
    5.1     Fishing gear and methods
    5.2     Vessel technology
    5.3    Engines
    5.4    Reduction gear, propeller and nozzle
    5.5     Sail-assisted propulsion
    5.6     Adoption of advanced technology
    5.7    Conservation, management and enhancement of fishery resources
    
6.     Conclusion
    
References

1.    Introduction

2.    Materials for Boat Construction

3.    Engines and Propellers

4.    Fuel Saving

5.    Development of Computer Aided Designing (CAD)

6.    Type and Size of Boats
    
    6.1    Trawlers
    6.2    Otter trawlers
    6.3    Side trawlers
    6.4    Stern trawlers
    6.5    Freezer trawlers
    6.6    Purse seiners
    6.7    Long liners
    
7.    Fishing Equipment
    
    7.1    Echo sounders and sonars
    7.2    Global positioning system (GPS)
    
8.    Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS)
    
    8.1    Advantages of the GMDSS over the current system
    8.2    Implementation of the GMDSS requirements
    8.3    The main types of equipment used in GMDSS
    
9.    Distress Alert Transmitters (DAT)
    
10.    Automatic Identification System (AIS)
    
11.    Handling Equipments
    
    11.1    Advances in deck machinery
    11.2    Automated long line system
    11.3    Automated squid jigging machines
    11.4    Net haulers
    11.5    Net drums
    11.6    Gantries
    11.7    Stern ramp
    
12.    Side Thruster
    
13.    Satellites and Remote Sensing
    
14.    Vessel Monitoring System (VMS)
    
References

A. Bhattacharya
    
8.1.    Glycolysis in Plants
    
    8.1.1.    Oxidative Decarboxylation of Pyruvate
    
8.2.    Citric Acid Cycle
    
8.3.    Oxidative Phosphorylation
    
    8.3.1.    Efficiency of ATP Production
    
8.4.    Photorespiration
    
8.5.    Effect of Abiotic Stresses 
    
8.6.    Effect of Drought on Respiration
    
8.7.    Effect of Waterlogging on Respiration
    
    8.7.1.    Plant Metabolism and Energetic Alteration Under 
        Waterlogging
    
8.8.    Effect of Low Oxygen on Respiration
    
8.9.    Effect of Higher Day and Night Temperature on Respiration
    
8.10.    Respiration Under Low Temperature Stress
    
8.11.    Effect of Salt Stress on Respiration
    
    8.11.1.    Reactive Oxygen Species
    8.11.2.    Physiological and Biochemical Processes
    
8.12.    Effect of High CO2 Concentration on Respiration
        
References

7.1.    Single Action Gene
    
    7.1.1.    Osmoprotectants
    7.1.2.    Detoxifying Genes
    7.1.3.    Late Embryogenesis Abundant (LEA) Protein
    7.1.4.    Transporter Genes
    7.1.5.    Multifunctional Genes for Lipid Biosynthesis
    7.1.6.    Heat -shock Protein Genes
    
7.2.    Regulatory Gene
    
    7.2.1.    Transcription Factors
    7.2.2.    Signal Transduction Genes
    
7.3.    Choice of Promoters
    
7.4.    Physiological Evaluation of Stress Effect
    
7.5.    Conclusions
        
References

A. Bhattacharya

6.1.    Macronutrients (Primary)
    
6.2.    Macronutrients (Secondary and Tertiary)
    
6.3.    Micronutrients
    
6.4.    Inter-relationships Between Nutrient Elements
    
    6.4.1.    Synergism
    6.4.2.    Antagonism
    
6.5.    Potassium Inter-relationships with Macronutrients
    
    6.5.1.    Potassium Inter-relationships with Secondary Nutrients
    6.5.2.    Potassium Inter-relationships with Micronutrients
    
6.6.    Nutrient Deficiency
    
6.7.    Role of Mineral Nutrition Against Environmental Stress
    
6.8.    Role of Mineral Nutrition Against Drought Stress
    
6.9.    Role of Potassium in Abiotic Stress Resistance
    
    6.9.1.    Potassium and Drought Stress
    6.9.2.    Cell Elongation and Cell Membrane Stability
    6.9.3.    Aquaporins and Water Uptake
    6.9.4.    Osmotic Adjustment
    6.9.5.    Stomatal Regulation
    6.9.6.    Detoxification of Reactive Oxygen Species
    6.9.7.    Potassium and Salt Stress
    6.9.8.    Potassium and Low-Temperature Stress
    6.9.9.    Potassium and Waterlogging Stress
    
6.10.    Partition of Photosynthates under Nutrient Deficiency
        
References

A. Bhattacharya
    
5.1.    Chlorophyll
    
5.2.    Response to Drought Stress
    
5.3.    CO2 Fixation Under Drought
    
5.4.    Response to High Temperature Stress
    
5.5.    Response to Low Temperature Stress
    
5.6.    Effect of Cold Stress on CO2 Fixation
    
5.7.    Cold Acclimation and its Role in Providing Freeze-tolerance
    
5.8.    Response to Salinity Stress
    
5.9.    CO2 Fixation Under Salinity Stress
    
5.10.    Response to High Light Intensity Stress
    
5.11.    Stress-induced Changes
         
    5.11.1.    Effects on Photosynthetic Pigments
    5.11.2.    Effects on Photosystems
    5.11.3.    Effects on Gas-exchange Characteristics        
    5.11.4.    Effects on Activities of key Photosynthetic Enzymes
    
5.12.    Improvement in Photosynthetic Capacity Under Stress by Engineering Photosynthesis-related Genes or Transcription Factors
    
    5.12.1.    Transfer of C4 genes/traits to C3 plants
    5.12.2.    Role of Transcription Factors in Regulation of Genes Involved in Photosynthesis
    
5.13    Role of Mitogen-activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs) in Photosynthesis
    
5.14    Conclusion and Future Prospects
        
References

A. Bhattacharya    
    
4.1.    Factors of Abiotic Stress
    
4.2.    Light
    
4.3.    Temperature
    
    4.3.1.    Heat-stress Threshold
    4.3.2.    Low Temperature Stress
    4.3.3.    Plant Responses to Heat Stress
    
4.4.    Water
    
    4.4.1.    Drought
    4.4.2.    Flooding
    
4.5.    Soil
    
    4.5.1.    Soil Type
    4.5.2.    Soil pH
    4.5.3.    Soil Fertility
    4.5.4.    Soil Salinity
    
4.6.    Growth and Development
    
    4.6.1.    Phases of Development Sensitive to Temperature or Photoperiod
    
4.7.    Phenology
    
    4.7.1.    Changes in Phenology of Cropping Systems
    4.7.2.    Effect of CO2 on Flowering
    4.7.3.    Temperature and Effects on Phenology
    4.7.4.    Effect of Salinity
    
4.8.    Molecular/Genetic Aspects of Flowering Response to Climate Change
    
4.9.    Simulation of Phenology for Future Climate
        
    References

Raj Bahadur
    
3.1.    Nitrogen Fixation in Saline Soil
    
3.2.    Legumes and Nitrogen Fixation
    
    3.2.1.    Legumes in Saline Agriculture; Nitrogen Fixation Capabilities
    3.2.2.    Legumes in Saline Agriculture; Salinity Tolerance of Legumes
    3.2.3.    Improvement of Salinity Tolerance of Legumes
    3.2.4.    Legumes of the HALOPH Database
    
3.3.    Perspective for Saline Agriculture
    
3.4.    Impacts of Agriculture and Global Climate Change Terrestrial Biogeochemical Cycle of Nitrogen
    
    3.4.1.    Nitrogen Chemistry and Terrestrial Life
    
3.5.    Nitrogen Fixation
    
    3.5.1.    Decomposition
    3.5.2.    Nitrification
    3.5.3.    Denitrification
    3.5.4.    Bio-geochemical Linkage of Nitrogen and Carbon
    3.5.5.    Soil Organic Matter
    3.5.6.    Perturbations and N and C Biogeochemistry
    3.5.7.    Organic Nitrogen
    3.5.8.    Mineralization
    
3.6.    Factors Influencing Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Legumes
    
    3.6.1.    Temperature
    3.6.2.    Soil Water Status
    3.6.3.    Nitrogen Concentration in the Root Zone
    3.6.4.    Carbon Demand for Fixation
    3.6.5.    Seasonal Regulation of Legume Biological Nitrogen Fixation
    
3.7.    Quantification of Biological Nitrogen Fixation
    
    3.7.1.    Estimation with Empirical Models
    3.7.2.    Potential N Fixation Rate
    3.7.3.    Impact of Soil Temperature
    3.7.4.    Impact of Soil Water Status
    3.7.5.    Effect of Soil Mineral N or Internal Substrate N
    3.7.6.    Influence of Plant Substrate C or C supply
    3.7.7.    Changes in N Fixation with Plant Growth Stage
        
    References

A. Bhattacharya

2.1.    Seed Germination
    
    2.1.1.        Drought Tolerance in Plants
    2.1.2.        Osmotic Adjustment
    2.1.3.        Cell membrane Stability
    2.1.4.        Epicuticular Wax
    2.1.5.        Partitioning and Stem Reserve Mobilization
    2.1.6.        Salt Stress and Seed Germination
    
2.2.    Seedling Drought Traits
    
2.3.    Seed Germination Under Abiotic Stress

2.4.    Salt Stress and Seed Germination

2.5.    Seedling Growth

2.6.    Stress Effects on Seedling Growth
    
    2.6.1.        Temperature
    2.6.2.        Nutrition, Salinity, and pH
    2.6.3.        Water
    2.6.4.        Under Flooding Condition
    
2.7.    Drought Stress and Abscisic acid (ABA)
    
2.8.    Salt Stress on Seedling Length
    
    2.8.1.        Salt Stress on Seedling Dry Weight
    2.8.2.        Mechanism of Salt Stress on Germination
    2.8.3.        Root Establishment Methods
    
2.9.    Root Development
    
    2.9.1.        Root System Development and Abiotic Stress
    
2.10.    Root Development Under Abiotic Stress
    
    2.10.1.        Drought Stress
    2.10.2.        Regulation of Root System Architecture by Water Availability and Salinity Stress
    2.10.3.        Regulation of Root System Architecture by Nutrients
    2.10.4.        Phosphate Starvation
    2.10.5.        Nitrogen
    2.10.6.        Potasium and Iron
    2.10.7.        Meristematic Activity Regulation by Abiotic Stress
    2.10.8.        Waterlogging Stress
    2.10.9.        Salt Stress
    2.10.10.    Temperature Stress
    2.10.11.    Illumination Stress
    2.10.12.    Nutrient Deficiency or Excess
    2.10.13.    Heavy Metal Stress
    2.10.14.    Elevated Atmospheric Levels of CO2
    2.10.15.    Mechanical Stress
    
2.11.    Biochemical Regulation of Root
        
References

A. Bhattacharya
1.1.    Specific and Unspecific Reactions to Stress

Nematodes are the most numerous metazoa on earth. They are either free living or parasites of plants and animals. Although currently only about 4100 species of plant parasitic nematodes have been described (i.e. 15 % of the total number of nematode species known), their impact on humans by inflicting heavy losses in agriculture is substantial. Most of the developing countries including India lie in tropical or sub tropical regions where climate is suitable for activity and multiplication of nematodes almost throughout the year. Sandy and warm soils such as found in India other developing countries in the arid zone are very favorable for nematode infection, especially in irrigated areas which are used for crop production continuously. The percentage of crop losses caused by plant pathogens, insect pests and weeds world wide has been estimated to 42% according for $500 billion worth of damage. The estimated overall annual yield loss of world’s major crops due to damage by plant parasitic nematodes has been reported to the extent of 12.3% (Sasser & Freckman, 1987). Estimated losses due to nematodes attack on different cultivated crops all over the world by FAO are around 400 million dollars. Annual crop losses in India is Rs. 242.1 billion. A large number of plant parasitic nematodes have been found associated with pulse crops in allover India but pathogenicity has not been proved for all. Plant parasitic nematodes are one of the most unwanted organisms in agricultural soils. They parasitize the roots of our carefully nurtured crops, reduce their ability to produce yields, make them weak and perhaps vulnerable to many pests and diseases. They reduce the crop yields that may equal those associated with more severe and easily identifiable plant diseases and we do not even realize their presence. Damage to crops by nematodes often goes unnoticed or attributed to other causes such as lack of fertility, deficient soil moisture. Sandy and warm soils such as found in India other developing countries in the arid zone are very favourable for nematode infection, especially in irrigated areas which are used for crop production continuously (Taylor, 1967).

A large number of insect pests are associated with stored grains which are directly related to geographical and climatic conditions. There are different estimates on post harvest losses in food. During storage both quantitative and qualitative losses occur due to insects, rodents, and microorganisms. Almost all the insect species may destroy 10.0 - 15.0 % of grain and contaminate with undesirable odour. These pests also helps in transportation of fungi. Some insect pests initiate damage at the ripening stage of crops and continue during storage. Major sources of infestations are old gunny bags, storage structure and old containers (Pruthi and Singh, 1950). The spread and distribution of stored product pests are facilitated by movement of grains from one area to another and by flight of insect pests as some of the adult insects are strong fliers. The cracks and crevices are probable sites for cross infestation. Nearly one thousand species of insects have been associated with stored products in different part of the world. Majority of insect pests belong to the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera (Khare, 1994).

Inorganic pest management systems using external inputs such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, high yielding varieties have resulted in increased yields in certain areas, but resulted in ecological degradation hence a decrease in productivity. Under organic farming systems, the fundamental components and natural processes of ecosystems, such as soil organism activities, nutrient cycling, and species distribution and competition are used to work directly and indirectly as farm management tools. For example, crops are rotated, planting and harvesting dates are carefully planned, and habitat that supplies resources for beneficial organisms are provided. Soil fertility and crop nutrients are managed through tillage and cultivation practices, crop rotations, cover crops, and supplemented with manure, composts, crop waste material and allowed substances.
 
Bio intensive IPM incorporates ecological and economic factors into agricultural system design and decision making and addresses public concerns about environmental quality and food safety. The benefits of implementing bio intensive IPM can include reduced chemical input costs, reduced on-farm and off-farm environmental impacts, and more effective and sustainable pest management. An ecology-based IPM has the potential of decreasing inputs of fuel, machinery, and synthetic chemicals—all of which are energy intensive and increasingly costly in terms of financial and environmental impact. Such reductions will benefit the grower and society.