eChapters

Introduction
Historian “Donald Worster” tells us that fertilizers are not a replacement for rich soil. The soil is a resource for which there is no substitute. Time and climate have an impact on how soils develop as well. In humid and warm climates, soils develop more
quickly than in excessively dry or cold regions. In 15 years, under perfect temperature circumstances, soft parent material may develop into 1 centimeter of soil. It could take hundreds of years for a hard parent material to turn into soil in unfavorable climate conditions.
Definition
The land’s thin layer of soil is made up of a combination of minerals, organic matter, living things, air, and water that work together to support the growth of plants. The source material’s transformation into soil was influenced by a number of elements.
The accumulation of persistent poisonous compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive elements, or disease-causing agents in soil that negatively impacts plant growth and animal health is known as soil pollution.

In modern aquaculture, specialized feeds and functional additives play a crucial role in addressing species-specific nutritional needs, enhancing immunity, improving growth rates, and ensuring efficient feed utilization—especially under intensive farming or environmentally challenging conditions. These feeds go beyond meeting basic dietary requirements and are formulated to offer specific benefits such as stress mitigation, disease resistance, enhanced coloration, reproductive performance, and superior product quality. Specialized feeds include larval and fry diets, broodstock feeds, pigmentenriched diets for ornamental and salmonid fish, and probiotic or prebioticinfused formulations. They are often used in systems like recirculating aquaculture (RAS) or high-density setups. For instance, larval feeds typically contain easily digestible ingredients like microalgae, fish protein hydrolysates

Abstract

Different algal taxa involved in the formation of lichen/s are presented. To-date 43 algal genera, comprising members of Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta and one genus each of families Phaeophyceae (brown algae) and Xanthophyceae (yellow-green algae) are recorded, based on personal observations coupled with literature. The various algal taxa forming different lichens belonging to various families is presented. The taxa Trebouxia de Puymaly and Trentepohlia Born. amongst green algae; Scytonema Ag. and Nostoc Vauch. Among blue-green algae are dominant genera involved in the formation of lichens. The yellow and brown algae are only of rare occurrence.

Abstract

A survey of various wheat milling units (atta chakki) available around Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi was conducted to study the performance of these. The mills of various sizes (12", 16", 18", 20", 24" and 30" stone disc diameter) with horsepower ranging between 2 to 20 are in operation. Both horizontal and vertical disc types of mills are in use. The capacity of these units ranges between 10 kg/h to 200 kg/h. The stationary sieve, hand sieve, pedestal/exhaust fan are used for cleaning. The average wheat cleaning cost is Rs. 200 per ton. A small room of 8' x 10', 10' x 10' and 10' x 12' size is used for running the mills and storage of wheat grains. The grinding charges (Rs./q) of wheat, coarse grains (maize, sorghum, millet etc) and spices are 100, 200 and 1000, respectively. Sample of 500 g of wheat and flour were collected from each chakki and were analysed for wheat grain and flour quality. Infested, damaged grains were observed to be in 2-10% range. Sieve analysis of the flour was done and the average particle size, fineness modulus and uniformity index of the flour were calculated. Average particle size, fineness modulus and uniformity index were found in the range 0.1875 to 0.2023 mm, 1.052 to 1.297 and 0:1:9, respectively. Average particle size of the flour obtained from horizontal mills was found to be higher than vertical mills. Temperature of the flour at the outlet was observed in between 45 and 50°C at room temperature of 18.5°C.

Introduction

The present world wide situation of food items calls for a broad range of poultry alternatives to meet increasing demand of quality protein. Besides, complication involved in managing chicken, emergence of new diseases, increase in feed cost and increasing demand of poultry meat bound us to search for alternative species of poultry. In this circumstance rearing of Guinea fowl framed for centuries to meet poultry production requirements of diversified agricultural milieu. The traditionally reared Guinea fowl could become a significant source of food and also a source for substantial supplement income.

History
 
Guinea fowl a bird of West African origin came to India during mediaeval age. Now guinea fowl are being raised in the districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh and in some parts of Tamilnadu. The birds are very popular with marginal farmers and poor classes and are being largely kept as foragers and insectivorous under semi-range and range conditions.

Marburg virus (MV) disease was named after the West German town where the largest outbreaks of human infection was reported. It is also known as Vervet monkey or green monkey disease as monkey species introduced the disease in Europe. Marburg disease virus was reported in 1967 in Frankfurt-on-Main and Marburg, West Germany and Belgrade, Serbia in vaccine factory workers who came in contact with blood, organs or cell cultures of African green monkeys. Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fevers are severe zoonotic diseases seen not only in humans but also in non-human primates. Most species of Ebolavirus and the only known species of Marburg virus occur in Africa. Primates are infected sporadically from an unknown source probably bats. Humans seem to become infected directly from bats in caves, as well as when they, come in contact with tissues from infected apes and other species. Once the virus has entered the population, it can spread from person to person. Some epidemics affect hundreds of people. Although the mortality rate varies, 90% case fatalities have been reported in the most pathogenic viruses. No vaccine is available and the only treatment is supportive. Epizootics in gorillas and chimpanzees are equally serious, and appear to threaten the survival of these species in the wild. Other wild mammals including duikers also seem to be killed during outbreaks. One species of Ebolavirus, Reston Ebolavirus, occurs in the Philippines. Until 2008, this virus was known only as an infection of nonhuman primates. It does not appear to be a human pathogen; although some people in contact with this virus have seroconverted, they remained asymptomatic. In December 2008, Reston ebolavirus was discovered in pigs during an unusually severe outbreak of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) in the Philippines.

Etiology: Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever are caused by members of the genera Ebolavirus and Marburgvirus, respectively. These viruses are the only members of the family Filoviridae. The genus Ebolavirus contains four recognized species: Zaire ebolavirus (formerly Zaire Ebola virus), Sudan ebolavirus (formerly Sudan Ebola virus), Ivory Coast ebolavirus (formerly Cote d'Ivoire Ebola virus) and Reston ebolavirus (formerly Reston Ebola virus). At least 13 strains of these viruses have been identified. A fifth species, tentatively named Bundibugyo ebolavirus, was isolated from a recent outbreak in Uganda. Marburg virus contains a single species, Lake Victoria Marburgvirus (formerly Marburg virus). Six strains of Lake Victoria Marburgvirus had been recognized as of 1990; at least nine genetically distinct strains were identified from a more recent outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Marburg virus contains ssRNA as genome. The virion is highly pleomorphic and measures 80 nm in diameter and 700-1000 nm in length. Filoviruses can be destroyed by autoclaving. Treatment with sodium hypochlorite (1:100 dilution of household bleach) or standard hospital disinfectants can also be used. Ebolaviruses are reported to be susceptible to 2% sodium hypochlorite, 2% glutaraldehyde, 5% peracetic acid and 1% formalin. These viruses can also be inactivated by ultraviolet light, gamma irradiation, 0.3% betapropiolactone for 30 minutes at 37°C (98.6°F), or heating to 60°C (140°F) for 1 hour. Marburgvirus is susceptible to 1% sodium hypochlorite, 2% glutaraldehyde or formaldehyde, ultraviolet light and heat.

1. SEED INDUSTRY BEFORE INDEPENDENCE

The Royal Commission on Agriculture (RCA) constituted in 1925 suggested the following for seed improvement

There should be a separate organization within agriculture departments to deal with seed distribution and seed testing.

The seed distribution enterprise should be self-sustaining.

Seed distribution should be organized through co-operatives, other associations, seed merchants (whenever they are available), through seed agents, as well as through agricultural department staff and any other agency which could be considered suitable.

Seed merchants of proven enterprise should be given every encouragement.

Standard solutions

Standard solutions are solutions of accurately known concentration

Different standard solutions are

Aluminium is a ubiquitous metal and seen in an environment. Source of aluminium happens through dietary souce, food addivitives, packing materials, medications, environmental exposure as well as occupational exposure. Toxico kinetics is related to the interaction of aluminium with biological systems and toxicity also. Toxico dynamics of aluminium is related to the the oxidatve stress, neuro toxicity and bone toxicity. Diagnosis is based on MRI scan and measurement of serum as well as urine. Treatment is dependent on chelation therapy as well as avoidance of exposure. Finally it is concluded that aluminium toxicity leads to health risks in a significant manner along with potential adverse effects on neurological, gastro, intestinal, renal as well as skeletal systems.

Introduction

Aluminium is a ubiquitous metal observed naturally in the environment. It is widely used in various industrial and consumer products including cookware antacids, vaccines, and food additives. While aluminium is normally considered safe in low concentrations and exposure to high levels can lead to toxicity causing a range of adverse effects on human health. In this comprehensive article, authors will provide information regarding its toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics, clinical signs and symptoms, associated lesions, diagnosis and treatment strategies.

Introduction
The term “noise” originates from the Latin word “nausia.” There are negative repercussions of noise pollution on our bodies and minds. In general, the amount of noise and the length of exposure determine how much noise pollution there is. These
days, noise is a constant in our lives due to the advancements in industry, technology, and machinery.
Definition
Unwanted sound released into the atmosphere that poses a health risk is referred to as noise pollution.
The term “unwanted or unpleasant sound that causes discomfort” refers to nose pollution.
Another definition of noise pollution is “wrong sound, in wrong place at wrong time.”
Distinction Between Noise Pollution and Sound Pollution:
Sound is defined as the lowest level of 50 dB that is pleasant to listen to. Noise pollution is defined as any sound that is louder than 95 dB and bothersome to listen to.
Sources of Noise Pollution
1. Factories and industries, community and religious activities, and modes of transportation (air, train, and road) are the primary sources of noise pollution.
2. In metropolitan regions, automobiles, factories, industries, railroads, and airplanes are the main man-made sources.

In his classic book ‘The Ascent of Man’, Bronowski has written, “When I was a young man, we all thought that mastery came from man’s domination of his physical environment. Now we have learned that real mastery comes from understanding and moulding the living environment.” Our Biosphere, the living environment that supports us all, has problems and we humans are mainly responsible. We do not live ‘gently’ on the earth. The seven billion of us require air, water, food, energy, housing and amenities and we have developed the earth to provide them and have also created problems. That problems exist are serious is the bad news. That we are recognizing them and that man has shown ability to organize and grow in ascending order from time to time is the good news.
TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIMISTS OR TECHNOLOGICAL CRITICS
A barrier often divides environmentalists and industry. This is the result of a kind of polarization in the 1970s that forced people to define themselves as other technological optimists or technological critics. The environmental debates have usually advocated environmentally benign, small-scale, relatively “low’ technologies. The “soft path” based on conservation and simple renewable energy technologies was pitted against the “hard-path” based on largely on nuclear, fossil fuels etc. In farming Eco agriculture and Organic farming challenged the intensive use of energy, fertilizers, pesticides etc.
WHAT REALLY IS ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY
For the optimistic proponents of advanced technology, the main danger was that retrealist, anti-technology “prophets of doom” would be causing a collective loss of nerve. To them, it would mean missing an opportunity to get an affluent, supercritical society that would overshoot the limits to growth.

The economics surrounding fish feed production are crucial in determining the profitability and sustainability of aquaculture operations. With feed expenses making up 60 to 70 percent of total fish farming costs, optimizing feed manufacturing and management is essential for improving financial returns. The feed production cost structure encompasses raw material sourcing, processing, labor, equipment upkeep, quality control, packaging, and logistics. Among these, protein-rich ingredients such as fishmeal and soybean meal represent the highest expenditure, and fluctuations in their prices significantly affect overall feed costs. To address this, producers often explore affordable alternatives and substitute ingredients that maintain nutritional standards. Additionally, large-scale feed mills benefit from economies of scale, achieving lower production costs through bulk buying, mechanization, and efficient processes, whereas smaller units often struggle with higher expenses and limited market access. Feed formulation is designed for both nutritional efficiency and costeffectiveness. The use of advanced software allows for precise ingredient balancing to meet dietary needs while minimizing expenses, thereby improving feed conversion ratios (FCR) and reducing waste. Investments in processing innovations like extrusion and automated packaging enhance feed durability and quality, supporting premium pricing and minimizing spoilage. Effective branding, marketing, and customer service also contribute to the economic strength of feed businesses.

Introduction

Since six decades after independence, the existence of people in a state of social, economic, political and knowledge disempowerment is considered as major threat to overall development. There is an essential demand for the integrated development, which should cover up development in all aspects, specifically in status, equality, security, complete physical, mental and social well-being of the target group. One sided emphasis on economic achievements by policy makers has set in motion so for But the social cleavage in rural areas has deepened. The power to the people signifies a new movement, which has been born out of the realization that society’s traditional arrangements for voicing their problems are very meager. The economic growth does not mean that only creation of wealth, but also creation of people’s capacity to create wealth and this resides in their health, education, knowledge and skills. It has been proven fact that, the economic development in any country should be preceded by social development which is interdependent. To combat the poverty at present juncture, efforts should be through the group approach only. So the new paradigm like Self - Help Groups (SHGs) can attain sustainability because of the clear cut understanding among them. Almost failure of co-operatives to mitigate unemployment problems and combating rural poverty, it is essential to think over self help group approach to empowering the rural poor.

The X-ray film is the major element that record the image of part exposed with X-rays. Although the situation is changing with the introduction of new technologies in recent years. The film can be exposed by the direct action of X-rays, but more commonly the X-ray energy is converted into light by intensifying screens and this light is used to expose the film. The X-ray film is somewhat similar to photographic film in its basic composition. However unlike photographic film, the light (or radiation) sensitive emulsion is usually coated on both sides of the base of X- ray film so that it can be used with intensifying screens. Because of its importance to medicine, X-ray film is manufactured with consistent uniformity and quality, which facilitates standardization of exposure and processing.

Introduction

Biological-based crop protection against plant viruses aims to develop sustainable, non-chemical, crop management technologies that utilize natural-occurrants and phytotoxins to control economically important diseases. In this area the efforts were made since the realization that viruses can not be controlled directly unlike other pathogen.

At present in the absence of any direct control of the viruses, strategies so far have been adopted to control them indirectly; like controlling the vectors of viruses (insects, nematodes, fungi etc.), using barrier crops, and use of resistant cultivars. However, success had been very limited. As the biological sciences advanced, many biological systems were utilized to control the diseases in plants caused by viruses, promising among them is using apical-meristem culture techniques to produce virus free plantlets as starting material.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    WhyvitaminAdeficiencyis far common in captive carnivores than free rangingwildlife?

Ans: Because they are fed exclusively on carcass meat without liver, cod liver oil or synthetic sources of vitamin A and moreover, thay can not convert ?-carotene to vitamin A.

2.    Why weekly off day feeding is practiced in tiger in all Indian zoos?

Ans: This ispracticed tostimulatetheintermittentfeedingbehavior of tiger in wild condition.

3.    Why metabolic bone diseases are very common in captive carnivores?

And: As the carcass meat provided in captivecondition is deficient in Ca and ratio of Ca: P (1:20) is very highly imbalanced.

4.    Write the extreme specializations in GItract seen in vampire bats?

Ans: Like blood sucking parasites, their GI tract is reduced to a tube since it feeds only on blood.

Introduction

In the last two decades global climate change has perceptible and marked impact on the monsoon pattern in India. Delayed and inadequate monsoon has become a recurrent feature and the country is in the grip of drought-flood cycles. Right from the beginning of large scale irrigation that brought green revolution and food self sufficiency to the country, there is a strong feeling that full potential of rivers of the country is not tapped (Table 1).

The history of gardening dates back to the history of human civilization. In order to meet various utility purposes, primitive people used to grow plants initially. Some of them had beautiful flowers and drew attention. Gradually, the importance of growing flowers / ornamental plants for worshiping Gods and Goddesses came into existence. The need for growing plants for aesthetic purpose came much later. Development of formal gardens also initially confined to temples and, thereafter, attached to the residential places. Concept of developing parks and gardens for beautification purpose exclusively for public use came much later during 17^th century. With the influence of different regimes as prevailed in India time to time, the gardening styles and plants also changed a lot for fulfilling new taste and need of the people.

Gardens have played a very important role in development of nations of the world. In fact, humanity started its cultural development from a garden rememberd as ‘Garden of the Paradise’. Gardens always occupied a prime place in our social and cultural life. Every race has its own idea of gardening and the characters of the nation is expressed in its gardens and parks.

ABSTRACT

Biofertilizers can supplement the chemical nutrients and helps in reducing the production expenditure in agriculture. Crop biofertilization with microbial consortia is an important strategy to improve the physical, chemical and biological conditions of the soil. The facultative methylotrophs are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, besides it produces phytohormones viz; IAA, GA and cytokinin, vitamin B₁₂, polysaccharides, PHB, and siderophores. The essential nutrients are considered as the most important, among the factors limiting growth and yield of the tomato crop. The application of adequate amount of fertilizers is a pre-requisite for exploiting the genetic potential of tomato variety. Therefore, efficient and economic use of the fertilizer with microbial consortia would help in decreasing the input costs for raising bumper crop.

More number of studies carried out on the effect of facultative methylotrophs in different parts of the world and in India. The results confirmed that the facultative methylotrophs have a greater importance in increasing the growth and yield of various crop plants. Keeping this in view an experiment was conducted to find out the interaction effect of facultative methylotrophs with other bioinoculants viz., Azospirillum, Azotobacter, PSB and VAM (by seedling dip method followed by PPFM phyllosphere spray) on yield of tomato var Ruchi. The results showed that the treatment with above microbial consortia (50.71 t/ha) was found to increase the yield of the tomato crop by 62.73 percent over uninoculated control (18.90 t/ha) and individual treatments.

1. DEFINITION

Seed marketing is the one of the most vital components of seed technology. On it depends the size and scope of the seed industry. Broadly it includes such activities as production, processing, storage, quality control and marketing of seeds.

Seed marketing refers to the actual acquisition and selling of packed seeds, intermediate storage, delivery and sales promotional activities.