eChapters

Fruit Flies and Economic Importance

Fruit flies belong to order Diptera (true flies) with one of the largest, most diversified and fascinating acalypterate family Tephritidae. These are commonly called as fruit flies due to their close association with fruits and vegetables and are also known as peacock flies because of their habit of strutting about and vibrating spotted and striped wings. Of the 4500 known species of fruit flies worldwide, nearly 200 are considered as pests but 70 species are regarded as agriculturally important throughout the world (Clarke et al., 2005, Schutz et al., 2012). David and Ramani (2011) reported 325 species in the Indian subcontinent of which 243 in 79 genera are from India alone. Important fruits flies damaging fruit crops in India include Oriental fruit fly or mango fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel); peach fruit fly, B. zonata (Saunders); guava fruit fly, 
B. correcta (Bezzi); melon fly, B. cucurbitae (Coquillett) and ber fruit fly, Carpomyia vesuviana Costa, whereas important fruit flies in Punjab include B. dorsalis and B. zonata. Important host plants of B. dorsalis are mango, guava, peach, citrus, pear, ber and loquat but most preferred host of B. dorsalis is guava while that of B. zonata are guava, peach, mango, pear, ber, citrus and loquat but C. vesuviana infests only ber (Mann 1990, Sharma et al., 2005, Singh 2008b, Singh 2012, Singh et al., 2014a,b and Singh et al., 2015). Bactrocera dorsalis is considered to be the most damaging and aggressive fruit flies in the world (Leblance and Putao 2000). They are strong fliers and can fly upto two kilometers in search of food (Butani 1979).

A systems approach to pest management based on an understanding of pest ecology is referred to as Biointensive Integrated Pest Management (BIPM). It is more dynamic and ecologically informed as compared to IPM that considers the farm as part of an agro ecosystem. Accurate diagnosis of the pest problem is the first step, which then relies on a range of preventive tactics and biological controls to keep pest populations within acceptable limits. It also considers ecological and economic factors into agricultural system design and decision - making and addresses public concern about environmental quality and food safety. As a last resort, the reduced – risk pesticides are used if other tactics have not been adequately effective.

The earlier concept of IPM has failed because of ease of applicability to easy availability of chemical pesticides. Hence, the present concept of BIPM, with more intensive use of biological and other biorational means has emerged. The flexibility and environmental compatibility of BIPM strategies make it useful in all types of cropping system. BIPM would likely decrease chemical use and costs entailing them. BIPM ultimately provides resistance / immunity to the entire system so that no foreign elements (insect pests or disease causing organisms) survive or gain upper hand. BIPM if followed for years shall enhance the natural control system, thus suppressing pest populations below those causing economic injury.

Solanaceous Vegetables

Solanaceous vegetables are also infested heavily by several major insect pests.

Brinjal Solanum melongena L.
 
Fruit and shoot borer Leucinodes orbonalis Gunnee (Lepidoptera: Pyraustidae)

Economic importance: Most destructive pest of brinjal, found throughout the country. Besides brinjal, the pest is also known to infest potato, bitter gourd, pea pods, cucurbits and other solanaceous etc. The infestation on brinjal can be as high as 70 per cent. The pest is active throughout the year, except in severe cold weather in North India.
 
Mark of identification and life cycle: Moths wings are white with pinkish or black tings and are ringed with small hair along the apical and anal margins. The fore wings are ornamented with a number of black, pale and light brown spots. Female lays 80-120 creamy white eggs, singly or in batches of 2-4 on the underside of leaves, on green stems, flower buds or the calyces of fruits. Caterpillars are creamy when young, but light pink when full-grown in 9-28 days. Pupate in tough silken cocoons among the fallen leaves with period of 6-17days and adult survive for 2-5days of its life cycle. A single life-cycle takes 22 - 25 days extending up to 74 days during winter and there may be 8 - 12 generations in a year.

Okra Abelmoschus esculentus L.

Cotton Jassid Amrasca biguttula Ishida (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

Economic importance: Sucking pest cause damage during May to September. Adults are also found on plants such as potato, brinjal, tomato, etc.

Mark of identification and life cycle: Adults are about 3 mm long and greenish yellow during the summer, acquiring a reddish tinge in the winter. The winged adults jump or fly away at the slightest disturbance and are also attracted to light at night. Females lay about 15-38 yellowish eggs on the underside of the leaves, embedding them into the leaf veins. The eggs hatch in 4-5 days. Nymphs are wedge-shaped and are very active and complete five instars with 3-5 days in each instars. Adult live for 11days.

Nature of damage: Damage to the crop is caused by the adults as well as by the nymphs, both of which are very agile and move briskly, forward and sideways. They suck cell-sap from the underside of the leaves and pass through six stages of growth in 7-21 days. They feed constantly on the plant juice. The pest completes seven generations in a year. Damage symptoms: Injury to plants is due to the loss of sap and probably also due to the injection of toxins. The attacked leaves turn pale and then rust-red. With change in appearance, the leaves also turn downwards, dry up and fall to the ground.

Vegetables constitute a substantial part of human diet supplying vitamins and minerals, in which other food materials are deficient. India has emerged out as the second largest producer of vegetables in the world. More than 25% of fruits and vegetables are damaged by the attack of insect-pests (Pradhan, 1964).Vegetable crop is damaged by both sucking as well as chewing insect-pests. Sucking pests are aphids, whitefly, jassids and bugs attacking in initial stage whereas chewing pests like borers, infesting in flowering and fruiting stage. Sucking pests may transmit the viral diseases which cause severe loss in yield in tomato and okra crops. About 13-14 % of total pesticides used in the country are applied on vegetables. Average pesticide consumption in vegetables in India around 0.678 a.i. kg/ha. Maximum pesticide usage in chilli followed by brinjal, cole crops and okra. Global agro-chemical consumption dominated by fruits and vegetables, accounting 25 % of total pesticide market. Major insect-pests of different vegetable crops and their management are as follows:
 
Cole crops

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var capitata) and Cauliflower (Brassica olercea var botrytis L) are grown in cold and moist climate. It is rich in minerals namely iron, magnesium, phosphorous and sodium. Cole crops were attacked by number of insect pests and cause heavy economic loss. The major insect pests are described below along with their management:

Vegetable is an important constituent of Indian diet. India is the second largest producer of vegetables which contributes 16.7% to global vegetable area with a production of 156.33 million tons (15.4%) (Table 1). The level of productivity of vegetable17.4 tons/ha is quite low (Rai et al., 2014). Majority of Indians are vegetarian, with a per capita consumption 135 g per day as against the recommended 300 g per day. It is still very less than recommended diet level. In near future, there is a need of around 5-6 million tons of food to feed our 1.3 billion Indian population expected by the year 2020 (Paroda 1999). The major biotic stress in vegetable production is due to increased insect pest. In many cases, there is 100 per cent yield loss due to viral diseases vectored by insects. Vegetables are more prone to insect pests and diseases mainly due to their tenderness and softness as compared to other crops and virtual absence of resistance characters because of intensive hybrid cultivation. The insect pests inflict crop losses to the tune of 10-30 per cent in vegetable production (Table 2). To overcome these losses farmers used indiscriminate doses of toxic chemical on vegetable. It accounts for 13-14 per cent of total pesticides consumption, as against 2.6 per cent of cropped area (Sardana, 2005). For the benefit of the farmer and other, application of BIPM is must. Bio intensive pest management involves every part of management that keeps pest below economic injury level so that pest does not cause any economic loss to the farmers or growers.

The oilseeds crop occupies an important position in agriculture economy in the world. Indian agriculture has made considerable progress, particularly in respect of food crops such as wheat and rice in irrigated areas; however, performance has not been so good in case of other crops particularly oilseeds, pulses, and coarse cereals. Therefore, after achieving self sufficiency in food grains the government is focusing attention on these agricultural commodities. On the oilseeds map of the world, India occupies a prominent position, both in regard to acreage and production. India is the 4th largest edible oil economy in the world and contributes about 10 percent of the world oilseeds production, 6-7% of the global production of vegetable oil, and nearly 7 percent of protein meal. This sector also has an important place in the Indian agricultural sector covering an area of about 26.5 million hectares, with total production of over 25.3 million tonnes in the triennium ending 2015-16 (GOI, 2016). This constitutes about 14.8 per cent of the gross cropped area in the country. A wide range of oilseed crops is produced in different agro-climatic regions of the country. Insects-pests are one of the limiting factors in the production of oilseed crops. Management of these pest problems by using possible control techniques could increase the quality and quantity of the products. These crops are damaged by a more number of insect pests, of which some are more serious. These pests can be effectively controlled by the integration of different techniques such as use of various safe insecticides/biopesticides, some modification in cultural practices and use of pest tolerant varieties. Integrated pest management approaches will help to increase the production and productivity of oilseed crops by reducing the pest damage without any adverse effect on the agro- system and erosion in the environment. 

Pest wise information of oilseed crop and management of major pests are described below.

India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world, accounting for 33 per cent area and 25 percent production. Pulses are mostly grown under rainfed conditions in marginal to sub-marginal lands. Once a net exporter it is presently one of the largest importer of pulses as our demand outstrips domestic production. While the traditional cropping pattern almost always included a pulse crop either as a mixed crop or in rotation, the commercialization of agriculture has encouraged the practice of sole-cropping. As a result, the annual import has increased from 0.50 million tonnes to 1.80 million tonnes during the last five years and contribution of pulses in the national food basket reduced from 17% to 7%. Pulses are generally grown on marginal and sub-marginal lands under rainfed conditions with low inputs and suffer heavily due to biotic and abiotic stresses, resulting into low productivity. Challenges for pulses in India are decline in area of pulses, low genetic yield potential, low realized yield, instability in production, climate change, biotic and abiotic stresses, poor seed replacement rate, post harvest losses, wide fluctuation in price, no regular MSP/procurement policy, poor availability of critical inputs in productivity zone and poor transfer of technology.

Cereal crops are interchangeably called grain crops. In many publications and correspondence, they are simply called grains or cereals. As of 2012, the top 5 cereals in the world ranked on the basis of production tonnage are rice (paddy), wheat, maize (corn), barley and sorghum. These crops are also among the top 50 agricultural commodities in the world with maize ranking second next to sugarcane. Rice (paddy) ranks third, wheat - 4th, barley - 12^th, and sorghum - 30^th. Another cereal, millet, ranks no. 42 (FAO Stat 2014, updated Aug. 18, 2014). According to Chapman and Carter (1976), “a cereal is generally defined as a grass grown for its small, edible seed.” They also explained that all cereals are angiosperms, monocots, and members of the grass family Gramineae. Similarly, Lantican (2001) defines cereal or grain crops as agronomic crops belonging to the grass family Gramineae or Poaceae which are utilized as staples; the word “cereal” is derived from the most important grain deity, the Roman Goddess Ceres. Among the food grains cereals occupies for most status in human food requirements. Cereals are grown under different agro-climatic (Upland, Low land & Rainfed) conditions and it is most important staple food of about 65% of Indian population. Cereals crop is attacked by a large number of insect pests right from initial to till the harvest of the crops. Brief descriptions of the major crops, major insect pest and appropriate control measures are given below:

Plants are exposed to a wide range of environmental stresses and have to adapt physiologically to these as the local environment changes. Unfavorable soil properties, fertility imbalances, moisture extremes, temperature extremes, chemical toxicity, physical injuries, and other problems are some of the most discussed examples of abiotic disorders that can hamper plant growth which ultimately lead to death of the plants under extreme conditions. Furthermore, many of these abiotic stresses can predispose plants to diseases caused by infectious microbes. These stresses in plants also lead to a series of physiological, biochemical and molecular changes. Impact of biotic stresses on agricultural plants such as wheat, rice, maize, groundnut and many others have been top listed area of interest for researchers but until now, ornamental plants have not been a major object of such studies even though these plants constitute a major part of horticultural production and play an important role in everyday human life.
 
Ornamental plants are an integral part of the urban public places and private gardens. However, these plants are highly sensitive to abiotic stresses, which are known as the most harmful factor concerning the growth and development of these plants. Plant stress implies some adverse effect on the physiology of a plant induced upon a sudden transition from some optimal environmental condition.

India is the second largest producer of vegetables after China with 14 % contribution in total World vegetable production (1160 million tonnes). After the advent of green revolution, more emphasis is laid on the quality of the agricultural product along with the quantity to meet the ever-growing food and nutritional requirements. Both these demands can be met when the environment for the plant growth is suitably controlled. Olericulture a vital component of Indian Horticulture, which includes science and management of vegetables, has made a rapid stride during the last decade, recording appreciable growth in production (162.90 million tonnes against 81.89 million tonnes in 2000-01) and productivity (17.4 t/ha against 12.2 t/ha in 2000-01), availability (210 g/capita/day against recommendations of 300 g/capita/day) and export (36,94,860 tonnes worth Rs. 14,36,487 lakhs.) during 2013-14. Vegetables play a major role in Indian agriculture by providing food, nutritional and economic security and more importantly, producing higher returns per unit area and time (Srivastava et al. 2013). In addition, vegetables have higher productivity, shorter maturity cycle, high value and provide greater income leading to improved livelihoods. The total production of vegetables during 2013-14 was 162.90 million tonnes compared to 21.19 million tonnes in 1960-61, 81.89 million tonnes in 2000-01 and 146.55 million tonnes in 2010-11. Although, olericulture has exhibited leadership role but challenges are much greater. Looking to the requirement, which is estimated to be 225 million tonnes by 2020 and 350 million tonnes by 2030, which has to be produced from declining land and water resources and in the scenario of climate change, the task to meet the needs of growing population would be difficult but not impossible (Singh et al. 2014).

Stress, is usually defined as an external factor that exerts disadvantageous influence on the plant. In most cases, stress is measured in relation to plant survival, crop yield, growth (biomass accumulation), or the primary assimilation processes (CO2 and mineral uptake), which are related to overall growth. Some environmental factors (such as air temperature) can become stressful in just a few minutes; other may take days to become stressful or even months (some mineral nutrients) to become stressful. Different types of abiotic stresses that affect fruit production are; water stress, heat stress, chilling and freezing stress, salinity stress, flooding stress. Although, it is convenient to examine each of these factors separately, many are interrelated. For example, water deficit is often associated with salinity in the root zone/ or with heat stress in the leaves. Plants often display cross resistance, or resistance to one stress induced by acclimatization to another. This behaviour implies that mechanism of resistance to various stresses share many common features.

Plants encounter adverse environmental stresses during their life cycle, which have negative impacts on growth and greatly affect crop productivity. As perennial crops, fruit trees are exposed to an array of stresses for a long time once they are planted. If the trees are severely injured by environmental stresses, it would be hard for them to recuperate, leading to retarded growth and reduced fruit production. Furthermore, the negative effects of the stresses are not limited to the fruit production in the current year but can also extend to the next year(s). Therefore, it is of critical importance to develop techniques for reducing stress injury and/or improving stress tolerance in fruit trees for sustainable cropping, which can be fulfilled by the cultivation method or genetic engineering (Holmberg and Bulow, 1998). 

Pulses belongs to the family Fabaceae (earlier known as leguminosae) comprises more than 600 genera and about 18,000 species of cultivated plants. It is the second largest family after Poaceae (earlier known as Gramineae), in terms of food and vegetable protein source and of fodder. The sub-family Papilionoideae consist of 480 genera and about 12,000 species, of which only a few species are cultivated for human nutrition. Endowed with excellent food and fodder qualities, these crops also restore soil fertility by scavenging atmospheric nitrogen, adding organic matter, enhancing phosphorous availability and improving physical, chemical and biological properties of soil (Graham and Vance, 2003; Dita et al., 2006).

The word ‘pulse’ is derived from latin word ‘puls’ meaning pottage i.e. seeds used to make porridge or thick soup. Pulses or grain legumes in general are indispensible source of supplementary proteins to daily vegetarian diets (Table 1) these are regarded as “poor man’s meat”. Pulse proteins are chiefly globulins and contain low concentrations of sulphur containing amino acids such as methionine and cysteine, but higher concentration of lysine than cereals, pulses provide a perfect mix of essential amino acids with high biological value and also contain higher calcium and iron than cereals.

Soils are the basis of food production. Ninety five percent of our food is directly or indirectly produced on our soil. A healthy soil maintain a diverse community of organisms that helps in controlling pests (insects, weeds, and fungus) but also form beneficial symbiotic association with plant roots, recycle essential plant nutrients and improve soil structure. A healthy soil can also be a strategic ally in mitigating and adapting to climate change, as soil sequesters CO₂ and prevent to escape into the atmosphere. Beside this, it contributes to mitigate climate change by maintaining or increasing its carbon content. This can be said that the proportion of organic carbon is available more in the soil than combining both atmosphere and ground vegetation. Most of the soil organic carbon (SOC) stored in the first metre of the soil in the form of organic matter. However, organic matter degrades due to deforestation; deplete soil biodiversity, loss of nutrients as consumed by crop plants, soil compaction due to excessive use of agricultural machineries, soil erosion, water logging conditions, and urbanization, which release greenhouse gases like CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O into the atmosphere causing global warming and climate change. One third of all CO₂ emissions come from changes in land use (deforestation, shifting cultivation, and intensification of agriculture) whereas two-thirds of CH₄ and majority of N₂O emitted through agricultural practices (Kotschi and Müller-Sämann, 2004).

Agricultural research has been primarily focused to assure food self-sufficiency and security, and little concern on nutritional value “nutritional security” or health promoting qualities of food being produced. Food security has three dimensions, namely: (1) endemic hunger caused by poverty-induced under-nutrition and malnutrition; (2) hidden hunger caused by the deficiency of micronutrients like iron, iodine, zinc and vitamin A in the diet; and (3) transient hunger caused by natural calamities or civilian conflicts. Micronutrient malnutrition is recognized as a massive and rapidly growing public health issue especially among poor people living on an unbalanced diet.
 
Although great progress has been made in reducing the prevalence of hunger, over 805 million people are undernourished in 2012-14, still unable to meet their daily calorie needs for living healthy lives. This number has fallen by 100 million over the last decade (Table: 1 & Table: 2; Source: FAO, 2014). Undernourishment refers to food intake that is insufficient to meet dietary energy requirements for an active and healthy life. About one in nine people go to bed daily on an empty stomach. In cases where food is available, often the quality of the food does not meet micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) needs. More than two billion people continue to suffer from nutritional deficiencies such as vitamin A, iron, zinc and iodine. Despite progress, the number is still high, and marked differences across regions persist. 

Environmental constraints that include abiotic stress factors such as salt, drought, cold, extreme temperatures and heavy metalsalready a major limitingfactor for crop productivity and will soon become even more severe due to climate change conditions.Together, these stresses constitute the primary causes of crop losses worldwide, reducing average yields of most major crop plants by more than 50% (Boyer, 1982; Bray et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2003). Current climate change scenarios predict an increase in mean surface temperatures and drought that will drastically affect global agriculture in the near future (Le Treut et al., 2007).
 
Abiotic stresses trigger many biochemical, molecular and physiological changes and responses that influence various cellular and wholeplant processes (Wang et al., 2001, 2003). For example, drought, salinityand low temperature stress lead to reduced availability of water (alsoknown as dehydration/osmotic stress) characterized by a decreasedturgor pressure and water loss (Dhariwal et al., 1998; Boudsocq and Lauriere, 2005). Osmotic stress promotes the synthesis of the phytohormoneabscisic acid (ABA)which then triggers a major change in gene expressionand adaptive physiological responses (Seki et al., 2002; Yamaguchi and Shinozaki, 2006; Shinozaki andYamaguchi-Shinozaki, 2007).

Crop yields are affected by a combination of abiotic stresses, biotic stresses, and nutritional factors but abiotic stresses (drought, heat, cold or salinity) are the major factors that prevent crops from realizing their full yield potential (Edmeades, 2009). In traditional approach, breeders grow and cross varieties and then evaluate how the progenies vary in their ability to deal with stresses. The best-adapted plants are then selected for growing in fields exposed to stresses. Biotechnologists have taken advantage of recent advances in biotechnology and functional genomics to genetically engineer crops which can give better yield in adverse conditions than the unmodified ones (Manavalan et al., 2009; Umezawa et al., 2006). Drought, extreme temperatures (high or low), high salinity and cold are the major abiotic stresses that affect plant growth and result in significant yield losses. Although plants have evolved a wide spectrum of programs for adaptation to changing environment, the current understanding of the mechanisms associated with the ability of crops to maintain yield under abiotic stress are poorly understood (Witcombe et al., 2008; Munns et al., 2008; Bartels et al., 2005). New advances in ‘omic’ technologies are providing opportunities for identification of transcriptional, translational and post-translational mechanisms and signaling pathways that regulate the plant response. This chapter describers several examples of how modern crop technologies may be applied to broaden crop tolerance of various abiotic stresses and to increase total biomass.

Food productivity is decreasing due to detrimental effects of various biotic and abiotic stresses; therefore minimizing these losses is a major area of concern to ensure food security under changing climate. Environmental abiotic stresses, such as drought, extreme temperature, cold, heavy metals, or high salinity, severely impair plant growth and productivity worldwide. Drought, being the most important environmental stress, severely impairs plant growth and development, limits plant production and the performance of crop plants, more than any other environmental factor (Shao et al., 2009). Plant experiences drought stress either when the water supply to roots becomes difficult or when the transpiration rate becomes very high. Available water resources for successful crop production have been decreasing in recent years. Furthermore, in view of various climatic change models scientists suggested that in many regions of world, crop losses due to increasing water shortage will further aggravate its impacts. Drought impacts include growth, yield, membrane integrity, pigment content, osmotic adjustment water relations, and photosynthetic activity (Praba et al., 2009). Drought stress is affected by climatic, edaphic and agronomic factors. The susceptibility of plants to drought stress varies in dependence of stress degree, different accompanying stress factors, plant species, and their developmental stages. Acclimation of plants to water deficit is the result of different events, which lead to adaptive changes in plant growth and physio-biochemical processes, such as changes in plant structure, growth rate, tissue osmotic potential and antioxidant defenses (Duan et al., 2007 and Shakeel et al., 2011).

Growth and development of plants are dependent upon the temperature surrounding the plant and each species has a specific temperature range represented by a minimum, maximum, and optimum. These values were summarized by Hatfield et al. (2008, 2011) for a number of different species typical of grain and fruit production. The expected changes in temperature over the next 30 to 50 years are predicted to be in the range of 2 to 3°C Intergovernmental Panel Climate Change (IPCC) (2007). Heat waves or extreme temperature events are projected to become more intense, more frequent, and last longer than what is being currently been observed in recent years (Meehl et al., 2007). Extreme temperature events may have short-term durations of a few days with temperature increases of over 5°C above the normal temperatures. A recent review by Barlow et al. (2015) on the effect of temperature extremes, frost and heat, in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) revealed that frost caused sterility and abortion of formed grains while excessive heat caused reduction in grain number and reduced duration of the grain- filling period. Analysis by Meehl et al. (2007) revealed that daily minimum temperatures will increase more rapidly than daily maximum temperatures leading to the increase in the daily mean temperatures and a greater likelihood of extreme events and these changes could have detrimental effects on grain yield. If these changes in temperature are expected to occur over the next 30 years then understanding the potential impacts on plant growth and development will help develop adaptation strategies to offset these impacts.

Globally, agriculture productivity is challenged by abiotic and biotic stresses, but abiotic stresses in particular (Gong et al., 2013) affect spreading of plant species across different environmental zones (Chaves et al., 2003). The changing climate is expected to worsen abiotic factors globally and adaptation strategies need to be established for target crops to specific environments (Beebe et al., 2011). Connect between different stress factors will likely surge harm to crop yields (Beebe, 2012). Soil salinity is a major environmental constraint to agricultural productivity (Greenway and Munns, 1980; Rhoades and Loveday, 1990). High concentrations of different types of salts, including chlorides, carbonates, and sulfates of magnesium, calcium, potassium, and sodium, characterize different saline soil areas around the world. Moreover, for each type of naturally occurring salinity, constantly changing environmental conditions, such as temperature and precipitation, as well as agricultural practices cause rapid modifications in levels of salinity and salt distribution patterns. Sodium and chloride are the predominant ions in the vast majority of saline areas.

During evolution, various species of plants, known as halophytes, readapted to life in high-salinity environments, but a large majority of plant species grown in non-saline areas are salt-sensitive (referred to as glycophytes). These glycophytic plants, including the majority of crop species, differ greatly in their tolerance to salt stress (Greenway and Munns, 1980; Flowers and Colmer, 2008).

Plants are often exposed to various abiotic and biotic stresses and have developed specific mechanisms to adapt, survive and reproduce under these stresses (Pieterse et al., 2009). Abiotic stresses include drought, water logging, high temperature, cold(low temperature), salinity, chemical pollution (xenobiotics), uv radiation, heavy metal and oxidative and plants are also challenged by biotic stresses through microbial pathogens such as myco-plasma, nematodes, fungi bacteria (Tippmann et al., 2006). The biology of plant cell is more complicated with any foreign stimulus from the environment; multiple pathways of cellular signaling and their interactions are activated. These interactions mainly evolved as mechanism to enable the plant systems to respond to stress with minimum and appropriate physio- biochemical processes. Abiotic and biotic stress induces signals and theses signals are recognized by receptors, followed by generation of secondary messengers e.g. activation of ion channels, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) Xiong et al., 2002, accumulation of hormones (Bari and Jones, 2009; Peleg and Blumwald, 2011) such as salicylic acid (SA), ethylene (ET), jasmonic acid (JA) and abscisic acid (ABA). Secondary messengers are responsible for modulating intracellular level of calcium, often initiating protein phosphorylation cascade, which may leads to the activation of various proteins directly involved in cellular protection (Tippmann et al., 2006) Fig.1.

INTRODUCTION

High crop productivity depends on quality of seed as without good quality seed even if we apply manure, Plant protection measure and other cultural practices it is not possible to produce good quality seed. So the basic seed used for sowing must be healthy and good in quality. It is different from commercial production as it need proper care, good quality basic seed, timely cultural operations, thinning, roguing, timely application of pesticides and fertilizers and maintenance of seed quality through inspections. 
Seed production requires technical skill to achieve all the above advantages for which the best approaches Compact Area Approach or Seed Village Concept.
It is selection of compact area by organizing the seed farmers in the selected area. The selected area must be fertile and suitable for reproduction of good quality seed such areas can be organized for self and cross pollinated crops (Groundnut, Paddy, Pulses, Sorghum) especially for the varietal seed production. But the variety should be one another for whole of the selected area.

Advantages of Seed Village Concepts

1. Isolation and Roguing

For maintenance of genetic purity of the crop it requires isolation and proper rouging. This can be achieved in the compact area programme, as it will be the mutual benefit to the farmers who are concentrating growing on single variety on compact area.

The basic aim of seed legislation and its subsequent enforcement is to regulate the quality of seeds sold to farmers. So long as Agriculture remains tradition and static, there is little justification for regulating seed quality. However with technological advancement and the systematic application of science to Agriculture, it becomes compulsory to regulate the quality of seeds through seed legislation and its subsequent enforcement to ensure that seed buyers are not made to run undue risks.

TYPES OF SEED LEGISLATION

Seed legislation can be broadly divided into two groups.

1.    Sanctioning legislation

2.    Control legislation

Sanctioning Legislation

Which authorizes, establishes or otherwise legally sanctions such activities as formation/establishment of advisory bodies, seed certification agencies, seed testing Labouratories, foundation and certified seed programmes, recognition of seed certification agencies of foreign countries, appellate authority etc.

Seed multiplication and production was controlled by a legally sanctioned system called Seed Certification. Seed certification procedures and designed to ensure physical and genetic purity, freedom from weed seeds and diseases and good germinability of the certified seed. Seed certification is done by the Seed Certification Agency (SSCA) of the concerned state or by NSC.
 
Objectives of Seed Certification

The objective of seed certification programme was formulated by Douglas, 1971
 
i)    to ensure genuineness and quality of seed.
ii)    The identification and their rapid increase of new varieties under accepted names.
iii)    The systematic increase of superior varieties
iv)    Continuing supply of quality material and their maintenance.

Seed Storage is an essential process during seed production programme. The purpose of seed storage is to preserve planting stocks from one season to next planting season.Seed storage starts from the moment of maturity and extend until its planting, in the next season.
 
PRINCIPLES OF STORAGE

Primary aim of storage is simply to prevent deterioration of quality seed. The management objective during the storage period is to reduce metabolic activity to such a low level that the seed is sufficiently stable with minimal deterioration. The two alternative methods are

1.    Reduction of moisture content to a safe level and cooling of the seed.
2.    Modification of atmospheric condition of the storage system.

Types of storage

There are four types

1.    Storage of commercial,  truthfully labelled and certified seed.

2.    Storage of carry-over seeds.

3.    Storage of foundation seed stocks and enforcement seed samples.

4.    Storage for germplasm seeds.

Seed Testing
1.    Sampling

2.    Determination of Heterogeneity

3.    Purity analysis

4.    Germination Test

5.    Seedling Evaluation

6.    Quick Test for Viability

7.    Estimation of Seed Moisture

8.    Grow Out Test

9.    Seed Health Test

Seed processing, drying, cleaning and upgrading

Seed processing refers to all the steps necessary for preparation of harvested seed for marketing namely handling, drying, shelling, preconditioning, cleaning, size grading testing, and packaging etc.

Layout for seed processing plant

Layout plan for construction of seed processing plant should be carefully planned to ensure that thorough seed cleaning, upgrading, seed treatment and other seed processing operations are carried out efficiently without mixing and damaging seed lots with minimum equipment, personnel, time and at minimum cost.

The following factors should be considered while planning and designing the processing unit:

Need to know Physiological maturity (PM), Harvestable maturity (HM) and harvesting method

·    If these factors are considered, the harvest produce will have the maximum seed quality characters in terms of germination, vigour and storability.

 The maturity is of two types depending on the purpose. If the crop is for grain production it is enough to harvest the crop during harvestable maturity. But when the crop is meant for seed purpose it is advisable to harvest the crop during physiological maturity.

A hybrid is the first generation progeny of a cross between two genetically different identical inbred lines. The individual lines are known as inbreds.  Ineffective cross-pollination is a major constraint in a commercial production of hybrid seeds in many crop species. In such crops manual pollination is the way to produce hybrid seeds. Eg. Cotton. In the case of rice it is highly self-pollinated crop and cross-pollination is a big problem. The increased vigour, uniformity and yield of F1 hybrid have been exploited in most crops where the pollination system allows for convenient and economic cross hybridization.  This system is called breeding tool in exploiting the hybrid vigour.

The term heterosis from Greek means hetero different, osis-condition was coined by skull (1914).

Heterosis or hybrid vigour, refers to the increase or decrease in vigour of off spring (hybrid) over parents. Usually, theses two terms are used synonymous.   But hybrid vigour refers to increased vigour; Heterosis both increased and decreased vigour.

Superiority of the hybrid as hybrid vigour and the mechanism by which this superiority is developed is heterosis (Rangaswamy, 1998).

Seed Production Technology

1.    Paddy
2.    Sorghum
3.    Bajra        
4.    Maize              
5.    Blackgram    
6.    Soyabean                
7.    Cowpea             
8.    Redgram 
9.    Groundnut
10.    Sunflower
11.    Castor       
12.    Gingelly
13.    Tomato
14.    Brinjal
15.    Chilli
16.    Bhendi

The degree of excellence in regard to the physical and genetical characterstics of seeds is called as Seed quality. Seed lots having high genetic purity and high germination percentage and minimum inert, weed and other crop seed and are free from diseases and pest attack, it is said to be a high quality seeds. If it is lacking in any of these qualities, it is said to be low quality seed lots. Only good quality seeds expected to respond well for fertilizers and other inputs used.
 
Viability: It is the ability of embryo to live, grow and develop into a seedling under favorable conditions. The seeds attained maximum viability at physiological maturity stage. Later on seeds start to loss viability.

Multiplication and distribution of high quality seed of improved varieties is a crucial step in agricultural production of any country.

When an entry is identified by the workshop of the concerned project, the breeder begins the seed multiplication of the strain in the following crop season. The seed produced by the breeder after a strain is identified, but before it is released as a variety is termed as the “stock seed”. This seed is known as breeder seed after it is released and notified. In the crop season following notification foundation seed of newly released variety is produced. In the second crop season following the release of variety, certified seed of the variety is produced. Thus the farmer is able to obtain certified seed of a newly released variety for commercial cultivation only in the third crop season following in the notification of the variety. However the seed of such variety reach the farmer even before its release through mini-kit trials. Many other farmers would obtain the seeds from those farmers who conducted the mini kit trials and so on in the next two years. Thus an outstanding variety is likely to reach many farmers even before its certified seeds have been put on sale.

Seed

A true seed is defined as a fertilized mature ovule consisting of embryo, stored material and protective coats. The seed strictly speaking is an embryo a living organism embedded in the supporting or the food storage tissue.

A seed stands for any of the following used for sowing or planting.

1.    Seeds of food crops including edible oil seeds and seeds of fruit and vegetables.
2.    Cotton seeds
3.    Seeds of cattle fodder
4.    Jute seeds
5.    Seedlings, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings, all type of grafts and other vegetative propagated material for food crops or cattle fodder.

Seed technology is defined as “that discipline of study having to do with seed production, maintenance quality and preservation (Cowan, 1973).

Feistritzer (1975) has defined seed technology as the method through which the genetic and physical characteristic of seeds could be improved. It involves such activities as variety development, evaluation and release, seed production, seed processing, seed storage, seed testing, seed certification, seed quality control and seed marketing etc.

So seed technology in widest sense, includes development of superior crop plant varieties, their evaluation and release, seed production, seed processing, seed storage, seed testing, seed certification, seed quality control, seed marketing, seed distribution and the related research on these aspects,

The major goal of seed technology is to increase agricultural production through the spread of good quality seeds of high yielding varieties. To achieve this goal, the quality seeds must be rapidly multiplied and supplied to the farmers at proper time with the reasonable price.

I. Dairy Farm Equipments

A. First Aid
1. Abscess
What to Do

    ·    Abscesses should be examined by a veterinarian as soon as possible and within 24 hours.
 
    ·    Fluid may normally drain from the site of an abscess. An abscess does not drain through the tube, but rather around the latex tubing. Therefore, it is important for you to clean the area around the drain twice daily with warm water.

    ·    Apply a hot compress to the affected site at least two times daily for 3 to 5 days after the animal leaves the hospital. Wet a clean washcloth with very warm water and place it directly over the affected site, and then apply gentle pressure ideally for 5 to 10 minutes.

General Signs of Healthy and Ill Animals

Health

It is a state of freedom from disease. It may also be stated as a condition of an animal in which all the body organs are normal and are functioning to their optimum capacity in relation to animal’s age, sex, work, and production with optimum pulse, temperature and respiration rates appropriate to the species, sex and environment.

Disease

Disease may be any deterioration from normal health or normal functioning of any or all the tissues or organs of animal body. Thus, it shuns animal to perform its normal physiological functions though the nutritional and environmental parameters are maintained normal.

Milk

Importance

Milk contains approximately 86% water, 4.7% sugar (lactose), 4.1% fat, 4.2% protein and 1% minerals. It supports the growth of micro-organisms and thus is prone to contamination. The purpose of milking a dairy cow is to obtain milk that is fit for human consumption. Milk from the udder of a healthy cow contains very few bacteria and to ensure that it remains fresh for long it should be handled under conditions of good hygiene. Unclean milk can be a source of disease to the consumer, rejected at the market and so is a loss to the farmer, does not keep for long and is not good for processing.

Breeding of Heifers

    ·    Regardless of age, puberty is reached when a heifer weighs approximately 40% of her mature body weight.
 
    ·    Breeding however, is recommended when a heifer has reached 60% of her expected mature body weight. This is normally achieved when the heifer is 14 to 16 months old.
 
    ·    Smaller breeds may be bred one or two months earlier than large breeds because they mature faster.
 
    ·    Heifers in good condition and gaining weight at breeding time generally show more definite signs of estrus and have improved conception rates over heifers in poor condition and/or losing weight.
 
    ·    Over-conditioned or fat heifers have been reported to require more services per conception than heifers of normal size and weight.

Management of Calf

Management before birth

    ·    As calf management begins before birth, a few days before the calf is born, the pregnant cow is transferred to a maternity paddock, which should be near the homestead (for closer observation), well watered and free from physical objects.
 
    ·    The signs of imminent parturition (calving) include filling of udder with milk and is turgid, vulva swollen with a string of mucus hanging from vagina.
 
    ·    Insemination records can also be used to estimate the expected calving date.

Introduction

The dairy farmers mostly keep cows (indigenous and crossbred) along with few buffaloes for milk production. However, the genetic potential of the dairy animals is exploited fully, when they are fed with well balanced ration. Further, as feed cost is around 75% of the total cost of production, the success of the dairy farming depends not only on the quality of the ration, but also on the economy of the ration. Therefore, knowledge on the feeds and feeding of dairy animals is highly essential.

What is Feed?

Feed may be defined as supplementation of nutrients for development, maintenance and operation of day to day activities by animals.

An efficient management of animals will be incomplete without a well planned and adequate housing of animals. Improper planning of animal housing leads to additional labor charges. The housing should have proper sanitation, durability, arrangements for the production of clean milk under convenient and economic conditions.

a) General Housing Requirements

Dairy animals will be more efficient in the production of milk and in reproduction if they are protected from extreme heat, and particularly from direct sunshine. This can be achieved through provision of shade in tropical and subtropical climates. If dairy animals are confined, the area should be free of mud and manure in order to reduce hoof infection to a minimum. Concrete floors or pavements are ideal where the area per animal is limited. However, where ample space is available, an earth yard, properly sloped for good drainage is adequate.

A) Selection of Dairy Cattle

Proper selection is the first and the most important step to be adopted in dairying. Records are the basis of selection and hence proper identification of animals and record keeping is essential. Cross-breed animals with exotic inheritance of about 50 percent are preferable.
 
Bringing animals from different agro-climatic conditions causes problems due to non-adjustment in many cases. In case, purchase becomes absolutely essential it should be from similar environmental conditions as far as possible.

General selection procedures for dairy breeds

Selecting a calf in calf show, a cow in cattle show by judging is an art. A dairy farmer should build up his own herd by breeding his own herd. Following guidelines will be useful for selection of a dairy cow.

Interest Rate : Provisional Interest rate @ 14.50% p.a. has been taken for evaluation of the project report. However, the sanctioning authority may consider the exact rate of interest applicable, on the date of sanction. Development of farm should be completed within 3 months from first disbursement.
 
Repayment of loan : A five-year repayment programme has been drawn with six months moratorium period, the installments will be monthly starting from 6th month onwards. The applicant has to make tie-up with the local MPCS and the repayment should be routed through the MPCS.

Interest Rate: Provisional Interest rate @ 15.75% p.a. has been taken for evaluation of the project report. However, the exact interest rate will be decided by the sanctioning authority on the date of sanction.

Disbursement of loan: Funds for fodder cultivation and civil construction should be disbursed first. Development of sheds and fodder plots should be completed within 3 months from first disbursement. Then disbursement of 1^st Batch cow (10 animals) will be done. Last disbursement for 2^nd Batch cows (10 animals) should be done after 5-6 months of purchase of 1^st batch cows.

Insurance: The animals and other assets (sheds, equipment) must be insured. Wherever necessary, Risk / Mortality fund may be considered in lieu of dairy insurance.

Assumptions

    ·    Freshly calved animals in 1st or 2nd lactation are purchased in two batches of five animals each at an interval of 5 to 6 months.

    ·    Cost of rearing calves not considered as it will be nullified by their sale value or retention value.

    ·    Fodder cultivation considered in two acres and working capital for one crop / season considered. Two crops considered per year.
 
    ·    Manure is utilized for fodder cultivation.

Model Project for Setting Up 10 & 20 Cow Dairy Farm (Indicative)

    ·    The models are only indicative and in no way designed to provide exact economics. Following guidelines may be used by the interested persons to work out the details of their project, depending upon the local market and conditions.

    ·    An interactive module considering the land availability for fodder cultivation, willingness to opt for silage bunkers, type of chaff cutter (manual or machine operated), milking machine, mister set, etc. is under preparation.

    ·    The proposed interactive module would require preference for set of inputs and intended herd size and accordingly generate output outlining the estimated investment, cost and return.

Introduction

Dairy is vital to the economics of many developing countries. Animals are a source of food, more specifically protein for human diets, income, employment and possibly foreign exchange. For low income producers, dairy can serve as a store of wealth; provide draught power and organic fertilizer for crop production and a means of transport. Consumption of dairy and dairy products in developing countries, though starting from a low base, is growing rapidly. Dairying has become an important secondary source of income for millions of rural families and has assumed a most important role in providing employment and income generating opportunity. Indian Dairying is unique in more than one ways. It ranks first with its 199.1 million cattle & 105.3 million buffaloes accounting for about 51 percent of Asia’s and about 19 per cent of world’s bovine population. It also ranks first in milk production with a production of 121.8 million tones in 2010-11 and the demand is expected to be 180 million tones by 2020. To achieve this demand annual growth rate in milk production has to be increased from the present 2.5 % to 5%. Thus, there is a tremendous scope/potential for increasing the milk production through profitable dairy farming. Besides milk, the manure from animals provides a good source of organic matter for improving soil fertility and crop yields.

Dairy rearing is central to livelihoods and survival of millions of people of India. It is estimated that approximately 100 million people derive their live hood from dairy rearing as primary or secondary source of income. Dairy related activities help to maintain regular in flow of income for these households. Small farmers in India generate nearly half of their income from dairy and the value of cattle represents a significant part of their wealth, so the death of cattle poses a significant risk and affects farmers’ net worth and income.

a. Type of risks to dairy based livelihoods

Large animal’s are expensive and thus carry higher risk exposure. Dairy losses due to the disease, accident, theft, natural calamity can cause significant losses to these household. Sometimes owners are forced to sell their animals due to loss due to incurable disease/ disorder/ fodder and water scarcity and they are unable to rebuild their stock. Many times animal losses force them into poverty trap from where they are unable to recover.

Risks faced by dairy owner’s dairy dependent livelihoods can be classified into two broad categories

    a.    General Principles and practices
    b.    Analyzing project appraisals and reports
    c.    Capital Expenditure decisions, reinvestment and payback
    d.    Assessing project profits.

a. Financing the dairy enterprise

Dairy rearing provides triple benefits of income, employment and nutritional security to the society and is important source of subsidiary income to small/marginal farmers and agricultural laborers. Finance is a prerequisite and of paramount importance for setting up of a dairy enterprise whether a dairy farming unit for milk production, sheep or goat unit/piggery unit, dairy/poultry processing unit etc. Decisions about credit are often most important judgments that people in the agricultural industry must make. These decisions often determine whether individuals operating in input, production, processing, and services based dairy enterprise would succeed in making profit.