eChapters

Fagopyrum acutatum (Lehm.) Mansf. ex Hammer (syn. Fagopyrum cymosum (Trev.) Meissn (Polygonaceae): Eng.- Medicinal Buckwheat / Perennial Buckwheat; Hindi – Kutu; Kash.- Tsok Hakh [RC]. A tall branched, puberulous annual growing wild in Drasss, Kargil, Gurez areas at 2800 to 3300 m amsl. Leaves tri-angular; perianth white. Grains acutely 3- cornered.

Introduction

Apomixis is a phenomenon in which there is development of seed without fertilization or sexual fusion. Embryo develops without fertilization in apomixis. Hence, apomixis is an asexual means of reproduction therefore the genotype of plant will be same as of mother plant. Apomixis was first time discovered by Leuwenhock in 1719 in citrus whereas the term apomixis was first time used by Winker in 1908.The main benefit of apomixis over sexual reproduction is the selection of individual plant with superior characters and propagation of clonally through seeds. Higher plants commonly exhibit apomixis. There are more than 300 species belonging to 35 families that exhibit apomixis. Most commonly, it occurs in Gramineae, Compositae, Rosaceae, and Rutaceae.

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms or microbes. They are very small in size and hence cannot be seen with naked eyes. Microorganisms are excellent models for understanding cell function in higher organisms, including humans. Hence the science of microbiology is the foundation of all the biological sciences and microorganisms consist of bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and viruses. The fields according to the organisms studied are henceforth termed as:
Bacteriology - Bacteria (singular: bacterium)
Phycology (phyco, seaweed) - Algae (singular: alga)
Mycology (myco, a fungus) - Fungi (singular: fungus)
Protozoology (proto, first; zoo, animal) - Protozoa (singular: protozoan)
Virology - Viruses
Microbiology began when people learned to make lenses from glass and combine them to produce magnifications great enough to see microbes. The importance of bacteria in the lives of people, animals and the environment has been unfolded in the past 100 years. It was also believed that the incidence of the disease was due to divine reasons since man had no idea of microbes at this point of time. In the earlier days, leprosy was considered as a dangerous infectious disease and spread of the disease was attributed to direct contact with the affected persons. Hence, certain procedures were specified for
segregation of the affected persons. At this point of time various theories were also attributed to the genesis of disease. Some of the important theories are as follows:
1. Theurgical theory – Disease was attributed to the wrath of divine spirits as a punishment of individual sins.
2. Miasmatic theory – This theory was proposed by Hippocrates and further developed by his student Galen. It states that the disease was dueto the emanations from the

Synonyms: Splenic fever, wool sorter's disease, Tarka

It is an infectious disease of livestock and worldwide in distribution. This is a zoonotic disease. It is also known as splenic fever because of enlargement of the spleen (splenomegaly).

Etiology: It is caused by a rod shaped bacteria of 4-8 µm X 1-1.2 µm known as Bacillus anthracis. It is non-motile, capsulated, aerobic, spore bearing and Gm+ in nature. The organisms remain in chains. It was the first pathogenic bacterium to be observed under the microscope, the first communicable disease to be transmitted by inoculation of infected blood, the first bacillus to be isolated in pure culture and shown to possess spores and the first bacterium used for preparation of an attenuated vaccine.

The capsule is polypeptide in nature being composed of a polymer of d(-) glutamic acid. Capsules are not formed under ordinary conditions of culture but only if the media contain added bicarbonate or are incubated under 10-25% CO₂. Capsules are formed in the body of an infected animal.

Spores are formed in culture or in the soil, but never in the animal body during life. Spores are formed only in the presence of O₂. Spores are central, elliptical or oval in shape. The spores are very resistant to physical and chemical agents. They have been isolated from naturally infected soil for as long as 60 years. They resist dry heat at 140°C for 1-3 h and boiling for 10 min.

Anthrax bacilli is Gm + and non-acid fast. When blood films containing anthrax bacilli are stained with polychrome methylene blue for a few seconds and examined under the microscope, an amorphous purplish material (capsule) is noticed around the bacilli called M'Fadyean's reaction. On agar places, irregularly round colonies are formed 2-3 mm in diameter raised, dull opaque, grayish white with a frosted glass appearance. Under the low power microscope, the edge of the colony is composed of long, interlacing chain of bacilli, resembling locks of matted hair. This is called "Medusa head appearance." Virulent capsulated strains form rough colonies while avirulent or attenuated strains form smooth colonies. On gelatin stab culture, a characteristic 'inverted fir tree' appearance is seen with slow liquefaction commencing from the top.

Sequence Alignment

Sequence Alignment is the procedure of comparing two (Pair-wise Alignment) or more (Multiple Sequence Alignment) sequences by searching for a series of individual characters or character patterns that are in the same order in the sequences.

Significance: Discovering functional, structural and evolutionary information in biological sequences.

Introduction

Sustainable agriculture is the production of food, fiber, or other plant or animal products using farming techniques (including agroforestry) that protect the environment, public health, human communities, and animal welfare. This form of agriculture enables us to produce healthy food without compromising future generations ability to do the same. Sustainable agriculture describes farming systems that are capable of maintaining their productivity and usefulness to society indefinitely. Such systems must be resource-conserving, socially supportive, commercially competitive and environmentally sound. It is a system of agriculture that will maintain its productivity over the long run. Sustainable farming could be organic farming, biodynamic, perma-culture, agro-ecological systems and low input. The goal of sustainable agriculture is to minimize adverse impacts to the immediate and off-farm environments while providing a sustained level of production and profit. Sustainable agriculture is influenced by environmental climate, soil types and the various crops and types of farm practices employed (Olorunfemi, 2013).

A. Multiple choices (you have to choose most appropriate answer among 4 alternatives)

1.    Which of the following bacteria in rumen is not cellulolytic

a. Bacteroides succinogenes

b. Ruminococcus flavefaciens

c. Ruminococcus albus

d. Succinivibrio dextrinosolvens

2.    Which of the following bacteria does not interact with anaerobic fungi

a. R. albus

b. R. flavifaciens

c. Butrivibrio fibrisolvens

d. Fibrobacter succinogenes

I. FILL UPS

1. The seed colour of cv COH₂ is _____.
2. The special appendage present in castor is called _____.
3. Modified phenol test was identified by _____ for pearl millet hybrids.
4. _____ test is for the varietal identification of sorghum.

Garden designing has also got certain principles like other subjects. These help proper designing by selecting right garden features, plant species besides their placement, allocation of space, colour scheme etc. Moreover, style, elevation, harmonization, type of the garden etc. are also to be taken into account while designing gardens. The main purpose is to achieve an aesthetic effect in totality.

Keeping these in mind, the main principles are categorized into following two groups.

ABSTRACT

Phytophthora rot is the most destructive disease of black pepper nursery inflicting heavy crop losses. Considering the seriousness of the disease, the present study was undertaken to isolate and select the efficient antagonists from pepper nurseries raised in Government farms at Chelakkara, Pazhayannur, Mannuthy and Pananchery of Thrissur district. A quantitative estimation of the rhizosphere microflora from different nurseries revealed more abundance of soil bacteria followed by fungi and actinomycetes. Based on cultural characters of the rhizosphere microflora, 22 fungi, 20 bacteria and five actinomycetes were selected for further studies. Antagonistic action of soil microflora against Phytophthora capsici was studied by dual culture method in comparison with that of standard culture of T. harzianum. The study revealed that all fungal isolates and five bacterial isolates were antagonistic towards the pathogen with varying degrees. Among the fungal isolates, 13 isolates including T.harzianum recorded cent per cent inhibition of P.capsici. From among the fungal isolates that showed antagonistic reaction in dual culture, further selection of efficient ones was carried out based on the antagonistic index (AI). The isolate 22 F₂ (Trichoderma sp.) showed the maximum AI of 3000 followed by isolate 34 F₂ (Trichoderma sp.) and T. harzianum with an AI of 1500 each. The cultural and morphological characters of the efficient native isolates (22 F₂ and 34 F) were studied and were identified as Trichoderma longibrachiatum Rifai aggr. and Trichoderma viride Pers. ex S.F. Gray aggr. The three antagonists were found parasitic on P.capsici as evidenced by excessive coiling, penetration and disintegration of the hyphae and thereby these Trichoderma spp. used in the study is found to have effective parasitic effect on the pathogen in addition to some degree of antibiosis and these fungi could be utilised for the management of Phytophthora rot in black pepper nursery.

2.1. Causes of pest outbreak

Activity of human beings which upsets biotic balance of ecosystem is prime cause for pest outbreak.

Gagea lutea (L) Ker Gawl (syn. Gagea elegans Wall ex G Don.): (Liliaceae): Kash.- Koker neeje [W]. A bulbous perennial herb inhabiting open subalpine slopes and forming groups. Leaves narrowly lanceolate. Basal leaf single, angular flat, exceeds the inflorescence, lanceolate linear, longitudinally furrowed at base. Flowers solitary on long pedicles, tepals yellow.

Theories of entrepreneurship
1. An economic theory
2. Leibensteon’s X-efficiency theory
3. Dynamic entrepreneurship innovation theory
4. Harvard School theory
5. Theory of high achievement
6. Theory of change
7. Theory of profit
8. Theory of adjustment of price
9. Theory of market
10. Theory of social change
11. Theory of entrepreneurial supply
12. Theory of personal resourcefulness
13. Theory of cultural values 

Cadmium, a roxic heavy metal, poses risk in a significant manner especially to human health and the environment. It's wide spread industrial use and presence in various products make exposure a concern particularly for both environmental and occupational settings. Understanding the source, toxico dynamics, toxico kinetics, clinical manifestations, diagnosis as well as treatment of cadmium poisoning is critical in mitigating it's adverse effects especially on human health. Cadmium gains an entry into the environment through natural processes namely volcanic activity as well as weathering of rocks. Whatever it may be, human activities along with mining, smelting, refining of metals and manufacturing of batteries, plastics as well as pigments, are major contributors to cadmium release especially into the environment. Additionally, cadmium is seen in tobacco smoke, resulting in exposure among smokers as well as passive smokers. Once released into the environment, cadmium gains entry into the human body through many routes such as inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact An inhalation of cadmium containing dust or fumes is a prominent route of exposure in an occupational settings especially in industries namely mining, smelting as well as welding. The consumption of contaminated water and food is another general route of exposure especially for the general population. After consumption, cadmium in essential manner accumulates especially in the kidneys as well as liver with a half life of approximately 10 - 30 years in the organs. It also accumulates particularly in bones, where it consists of half life of several decades.

The Indian agriculture is characterized by agro-ecological diversities in soil, rainfall, temperature and cropping system. Besides favorable solar energy, the country receives about three trillion cubic meter of water from rainfall. Of the total geographical area of 329 million hectares the net sown area has remained at about 140-142 million hectares during the last 40 years. The gross cropped area however has increased to about 200 million hectare in 2011-2012 (Anonymous, 2013). The total operational holding is estimated at 105 million with average size of the holdings of 1.6 ha. The Indian agriculture is not only characterized by small fragmented land, but also hill farming and shifting cultivation are also practiced. Out of an estimated 142 m ha net cultivated area around 40% is irrigated and rest is rain fed. About 65% of the population depend upon agriculture for their livelihood.

Motif

1.    A nucleotide/amino acid sequence pattern having biological significance.

2.    Occurs repeatedly, either in same molecule or in many molecules. Found in upstream intergenic region.

3.    Functionally important regions of genome (gene) can be recognized by searching such patterns.

4.    Used for locating binding sites, regulatory signals, to control gene expression.

5.    Identifying potential drug target sites.

The usage of different pure chemicals and their combinations in treating various disorders of the livestock has been listed in this chapter.

ABSTRACT

Studies on the impact of bio-fertilizers with levels of NPK on bulb yield, dry matter production, nutrient uptake and cost: benefit ratio in onion (cv. Bellary Red) were conducted in medium black soils during kharif and rabi seasons of 1999 and 2000 both under irrigated and rainfed conditions at the Agricultural Research Station, Hiriyur located under Central Dry Zone of Karnataka. The treatments were; T₁-Control, T₂-Azotobacter, T₃-Azotobacter+75% N+PK, T₄-Azotobacter +100%N+PK, T₅-Azospirillum, T₆-Azospirillum+75% N+PK, T₇-Azospirillum+100%N+PK, T₈-VAM, T₉-VAM 75% P+NK, T₁₀- VAM+100%P+NK, T₁₁ ? recommended NPK(125:50:125 kgha-1) and T₁₂-75% recommended NPK. The experiments were laid out in RBD in three replications.

The bio-fertilizers Azospirillum brasilence (500g ha-1) and Azotobacter vinelandii(500g ha-1) were applied to seedlings at transplanting separately by dipping the roots in the slurry for 15 minutes. The VAM fungi - Glomus mossae was applied to soil @ 1 kilogram per square meter area of nursery bed. The recommended dose of FYM @ 25 t ha-1 was applied to all the treatments as basal dose.

The results of the investigations revealed that the plants provided with Azospirillum + 100% N+PK (T₇) produced highest bulb yield (250.29;339.02;232.98 q/ha), highest total dry matter production (7053.96;8992.78;6287.03 kg/ha), maximum uptake of N, P a nd K ( 1 5 7 . 8 8 : 7 3 . 5 6 ; 7 0 . 4 6 N PK k g / ha ) , ( 2 0 6 . 8 6 : 9 6 . 2 5 : 9 1 . 1 0 N PK k g / ha ) , (131.81:50.25:71.24 NPK kg/ha) and also the maximum cost:benefit ratio of 4.00 (1:400), 5.42 (1:5.42), 3.94 (1:3.94) under irrigated condition during kharif and rabi seasons and under rainfed situation during kharif season respectively.

Thus, among all the treatments, application of Azospirillum + 100% N + PK (Azospirillum + 125:50:125 NPK kg/ha) was found to be most remunerative considering the nutrient uptake, bulb yield and total dry matter production and cost:benefit ratio, which gave the highest returns. This level can be followed for Bellary Red onion irrespective of seasons both under irrigated and rainfed conditions in the Central Dry Zone of Karnataka.

Physical properties of a soil greatly influence plant growth. The plant support, root penetration, drainage, aeration, retention of moisture and availability of plant nutrients are all linked with the physical condition ofthe soil. The physical properties of a soil which depend on the amount, size, shape, arrangement and mineral composition of its particles, also influence its chemical and biological behaviour.