eChapters

(I) Digestion of Feed

In feed, carbohydrate is the main nutritive substance which is in the form of insoluble large particles. For intestinal absorption by blood and lymph, it is necessary to be digested as small and simple particles. For example, carbohydrate found in the form of starch or glycogen is not absorbed as such and is only absorbed when it is converted into the simple soluble monosaccharide form. Similarly, proteins present in the feed are also not absorbed untill they are digested into simple forms of aminoacids (Fig. 27, Fig. 28, Fig. 29, Fig. 30). Piglets are exceptions, as the newly born piglets obtain colostrum from their mother. Colostrum is rich in gamma immunoglobulins. This immunoglobulin is abosrbed as such without digestion by pinocytosis. It gives immunity to save the new piglets from many diseases. For this reason, colostrum suckling is necessary for new piglets. The process of pinocytosis occur only few days after birth and it  stops after some time. Fat occurs in the form of triglycerides in the feed. For absorption of the fat, it is necessary to be converted into its simple forms such as glycerol, free fatty acids or in the form of monoglycerides.

(I)  Breeds

Basically swine is a clean animal and in our country, mainly, poor people  are rearing them with the least available infrastructure and poor quality feed, usually garbage, and that is why swine  are forced to take garbage as a feed (Fig. 23). With good food and shelter, they can give birth twice a year with better productivity. Even 8000- 9000 years back swine stood at 3^rd position for being reared by humans after cattle and sheep. Swine comes under phylum Chordata as they have vertebral column and their class is mammalia. They come under Artiodactyla for being ungulate animals. Swine comes in Swede order and their species is swiss. They have 3 subspecies. The domesticated subspecies comes under Swede domesticus and wild pigs comes under Swede vitatus and Swede scrofa. In India there are 4 breeds of pigs. Wild, desi, exotic and crossbred.

(I)  Structure

The swine is an omnivorous animal because if can eat both vegelables and meat. But generally they prefer the vegetarian diet over the carnivorous diet. Pig is a simple stomach animal with double hoof. Different type of pigs are found as Sus indicus, Sus vittatus, Sus scrofa and  Suis domesticus.

            At the first instance, the skeleton of pig looks smaller than its original size. The main reason of this is feeding and nutrition of the animal. The pigs are kept indoor, provided less exercise and artificial feeding that leads to fattening of animals (pigs). The other reason for the undersized skeleton in pigs is that as compared to other animals the bone density of pig is more and they are very nicely arranged, that is why they are much stronger. The skull of the pig is triangular, long towards mouth, frontal bone is large and strong.

            The jaw has teeth, they use it for tearing and chewing of objects (feed). The temporary and permanent dental formula of pig is follows:

(I)  Management of Swine

Since early days, cattle, sheep and goats accompanied human beings where ever they migrated but it is not the same with swine because of its rearing in unhygenic conditions. Some communities started avoiding swine because of the foul smell from pigs and slowly it entered into the religious life of Muslims and Yashdies.

            In China since 4900 BC and in England before 800 BC swine production scripts are found in majority in these two countries and at present these countries are leading in swine production. Swine growth is very much influenced by the method of keeping and rearing them and that is why its managemental practices should always be given high priority.

Reproduction

The female piglet attain maturity in 6-7 months of age and has a weight of 60-80 kgs. Males take more time to attain adolesence. The breedable age of a female is 8-12 months when it has a weight above 100 kgs. Its heat period is for 2-3 days. It may conceive by artificial insemination after 2-3 days of heat. The gestation length is 114 days. Weighing may be done after one month of age. Females generally give birth to 6-10 young ones at a time. If more young ones are born, than there are increased chances of death of the young ones.

Introduction to Swine Farming

World pig population in the year 2007 was 918,278,000 when the pig population in India was 14,000,000. The per head agricultural land holding is decreasing continuously because of a high rate of increase in population leading to excessive pressure on land. This lower land holding per person leads to lowered production per person forcing people to move to urban areas for better incomes. Excessive population pressure on urban areas itselves has its own demerits and limitations. To prevent this drift of village people to the urban areas they should be encouraged to adopt agriculture based professions which give the villagers a good return in short time span. Swine industry provides the same opportunities to villagers who can get better income with a minimal investment in short time intervals. In India for varied reasons the swine industry is not much developed. The breeds yield less and also the littre size is small in comparision to the better breeds available in many parts of world. In India, the desi swine survives on garbage and looks very unhygienic. Thus, most of the people in India feel uncomfortable to consume swine. Indian swine industry has a great potential but needs attention with respect to raising of better productive breeds with lesser cost for hygienic feeding and management.

            Pig is mainly reared for meat, skin and manure. Growing pigs for meat is little different from other production processes because here the daily live weight gain relates to the daily feed supply and the efficiency of output production depends upon the total quantity of input (feed).

INTRODUCTION

Adulteration of food consists of substituting it wholly or in part by any cheaper or inferior substance or of removing any of its constituents, wholly or in part, which affects adversely the nature, substance or quality of the food. According to the Indian Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) 1954, any ingredient which, when present in food, is injurious to health is an adulterant. Thus, according to the PFA definition, many of the food contaminants discussed in the previous section are adulterants and come under the purview of food adulteration.

Adulteration of foods was practised even in ancient times. It was not a serious problem then because business was on a small scale and the transactions involved a large measure of personal accountability. Later, with the increased centralization of food processing and distribution, and corresponding decline in personal accountability, intentional adulteration of food increased. Even in the early nineteenth century, many adulterants were used in articles like pepper, essential oils, vinegar, beverages (coffee, tea, beer, wines), butter, bread, etc. In recent years adulteration of foods has become a serious problem the world over. In western countries there is a rising concern over the safety of the food supply and many remedial actions, both voluntary and enforced, have been taken.

INTRODUCTION

Meat is the flesh of animals that is used for food and consists of muscle, fat and bone. If the muscle which is commonly known as the lean meat, is examined under the microscope, it is seen to be made up of bundles of fibers held together by a thin membrane called connective tissue. Further study reveals that these fibers are in readily hollow tubes that vary in length in different animals and in different muscles in the same animals that are filled with a fluid, sometimes called muscle juice, which is known to contain protein, minerals and extractives. The forms of protein in the muscles are myosin (a globulin) and myogen (an albumen) and in addition, on red meats, hemoglobin.

INTRODUCTION

Many people confuse fortification with the term enrichment. There is a big difference in between these two terms. Fortification means the addition of those ingredients not normally found in a food and it is added to achieve a particular dietary purpose. Lysine may be added to corn products to increase the biological value of the protein. Salt may be iodised to prevent the occurrence of goiter. Breakfast cereals may be fortified with an array of vitamins and minerals to ensure a completely balanced nutritional meal.

In enrichment, the amounts added are designed to meet specific legal standards of minimum and maximum levels of nutrients. It is recognised that in the processing of cereal products that the removal of bran and germ causes a large portion of the vitamins and minerals naturally found in the product to be lost. During World War II an effort was made to correct this deficiency by government endorsement of the enrichment of bread, flour, and cornmeal. Wheat flour, cornmeal, corn grits, bread, ready to eat and uncooked cereals, and macroni products have been enriched with thiamine, ribo-flavin, niacin, iron and in some cases, calcium and vitamin D.

W.H.O. has defined food fortification as “a process where by nutrients are added to foods to maintain or improve the quality of the diet of a group, community or population”.

INTRODUCTION

Pulses are edible fruits or seeds of food bearing plants belonging to the family of the leguminosae. The major pulses which find important place in our diet are redgram dhal, bengal gram dhal, black gram dhal, green gram dhal and masoor dhal. Some are used as whole grams cow pea, rajmah and dry peas also belong to leguminous family.

Legumes not only have dietary values but also play an important role in maintaining or even improving soil fertility through their ability to fix atomospheric nitrogen.

Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable sources. The principal animal fats are cream, butter, egg yolk, the fat of beef, mutton, pork, bone marrow, chicken fat, and codliver oil. Vegetable fats are those derived from fruits and seeds of plant, as olive oil, cottonsed oil, corn oil, peanut oil, soyabean oil and nut oils.

COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FATS

Fats and oils, the most concentrated of fuel foods, were the first of the organic compounds or foods to have their composition determined. They are made up of same three elements which go to produce the carbohydrates, but the oxygen is less in proportion to the carbon. This explains the fact that fat yields more energy per gram than carbohydrates do.

INTRODUCTION

Vegetables and fruits have many similarities with respect to their composition, methods of cultivation and harvesting, storage properties and processing. In fact many vegetables are considered fruits in the true botanical sense. But the difference between the two is that vegetables are derived from various parts of plants e.g. roots, leaves, stems, buds and so on whereas, fruits are the mature ovaries of plants with their seeds. The edible position of most fruits is the freshly part of the pericap or vessel surrounding the seeds. The other difference between the two is that those plant items that are generally eaten with the main course of a meal are often considered to be vegetables, whereas those that are eaten alone or as a dessert are considered as fruits. This is the distinction made by food processors, certain marketing laws, and the consuming publics.

INTRODUCTION

EGGS : Eggs and egg products constitute an important part of family meals. The economic importance of the egg to agriculture and industry, its multiple uses in the preparation of many food products, and its excellent nutritive value have stimulated scientific scrutiny into the nature of the egg.

STRUCTURE : The chief parts of the egg are the yolk, the albumin (the white), and the shell and the shell membranes. The yolk is more complex structurally than may be thought at first glance. At the very center is a light coloured structure called the white yolk. The vitelline membrane serves as the enclosure or sac for the yolk. The strength of this membrane is important when yolks and whites needs to be separated in cookery. Two important rather twisted membraneous structures extend from opposite sides of the yolk into the white.

Milk is the one food for which there seems to be no adequate substitute. It constitutes almost the entire diet for the young of all mammals. Each species produces milk that is especially adapted to the growth of its own young, but milk from one species may be used as food for others. Since animals were domesticated centuries ago, the milk from various species such as cow, buffalo, goat and camel, has been used in the diets of people throughout the world. Only cows milk is of commercial importance in the United States, although small amounts of goat’s milk are sold.

Whole cow’s milk is approximately 88 percent water, 5 percent carbohydrate, 3.5 percent protein and 3.3 percent fat. Its nutrient content varies from species to species, from breed to breed, seasonally and even from the beginning of the milking to the end of the process. In the United States it is cow’s milk that is used commonly as a beverage and in food preparation. Therefore the milk discussed throughout this chapter is cow’s milk.

STARCH : Starch is a complex carbohydrate that has been cursed by dieters in years past, but that now is praised by nutritionists as a particularly healthful source of energy. In food preparation at home starch is a very important as a thickening agent. However starch is but one of several polysaccharides that are used as thickners in the food industry.

STRUCTURE : Although starch is the name used by nutritionists this complex carbohydrate actually consists of two fractions amylose and amylopectin. The two fractions occur together in starch from most sources so the overall behaviour of starch is determined in large measure by the relative amounts of amylose and amylopectin. Each of the fraction has unique properties that contribute to the functionality of starch from various plant sources.

CARBOHYDRATES AND SUGARS

Carbohydrates which include sugars and starches are among the most important of the food stuffs as well as the simplest of organic foods. They may be divided into three groups.

Group – I

Monosaccharides  : These are simple sugars that cannot be split into any simpler forms. The principal ones are glucose or dextrose, fructose and galactose. Glucose sometimes known as dextrose or grape sugar is found widely distributed in nature, especially in fruits and vegetables, and is one of the main constuents of honey.

It is in the form of glucose that sugar appears in the blood and is being burned continuously to produce energy. A certain amount of surplus glucose is absorbed from the digestive tract and stored in the liver as glycogen, which can be converted back into glucose when the need for more fuel arises. In the presence of yeasts, glucose undergoes fermentation and changes into alcohol.

INTRODUCTION

COLLOIDS :  The word colloids has actually been derived from Greek language where it means glue like. The science of colloids was founded about 1861 when Thomas Graham published a summary of his work on the diffusion of substances in solution. He classified substances into two groups, viz: crystalloids and colloids, depending on their ability to diffuse through parchment membrane. According to Graham, crystalloids readily passed through parchment membranes while colloids did not. According to modern concept, colloidal solution contain substances whose molecular aggregates possess a diameter greater than 1 mu  and less than 100 mu. If the particle size is greater than 100 mu, a suspension is obtained (Table 1).

SENSORY EVALUATION OF FOOD

When the quality of a food is judged or evaluated by the senses (taste, smell, sight, touch and hearing), it is said to be a sensory evaluation. Since food is prepared for the primary purpose of being eaten and enjoyed through the senses, sensory evaluation is most appropriate. No machine has yet been devised that can totally substitute for the human senses in evaluating the quality of human food. However, the human instrument used in sensory evaluation is very complex and many problems need to be managed as data are collected and analysed. Computers are generally used to analyse data from sensory evaluations and may also be used to collect information firsthand.

Flavour perceptions are difficult to characterise verbally, for example, think about how a strawberry tastes, then try to describe it some one else. In food research small groups of trained individuals called juding panels or sensory panels are commonly used to determine differences among food samples. These panels often consist of from 5 to 15 individuals who have had training and experience in testing the particular food products being evaluated.

Applications of Remote Sensing

The era of satellite remote sensing was open in the 1960s when cameras and electronic sensors were mounted on spacecraft. Nowadays there is a big assortment of satellite systems actively recording information about the Earth. A wide variety of imagery is available from satellites. Both active and passive sensors, operating from the microwave to the ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum collect a large amount of information about the earth’s surface every day. Each of the systems vary in terms of their spatial, spectral, radiometic and temporal resolution. Those characteristics play an important role in defining which applications the sensor is best suited for. The main benefits of satellite remote sensing are the following:

Introduction

A geographic information system or geographical information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of spatial or geographical data. The acronym GIS is sometimes used for geographic information science (GIScience) to refer to the academic discipline that studies geographic information systems and is a large domain within the broader academic discipline of geoinformatics. What goes beyond a GIS is a spatial data infrastructure, a concept that has no such restrictive boundaries. In a general sense, the term describes any information system that integrates stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and present the results of all these operations. Geographic information science is the science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and systems.

GIS is a broad term that can refer to a number of different technologies, processes, and methods. It is attached to many operations and has many applications related to engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business. For that reason, GIS and location intelligence applications can be the foundation for many location-enabled services that rely on analysis and visualization. GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. Locations or extents in the Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation, respectively. All Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a “real” physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry.

Introduction

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based navigation system that provides location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver. The US began the GPS project in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including a number of classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites. It became fully operational in 1995. Roger L. Easton, Ivan A. Getting and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it.
 
Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block IIIA satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX). Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contem-poraneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s. There are also the planned European Union Galileo positioning system, China’s BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, the Japanese Quasi-Zenith Satellite System, and India’s Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System.

Digital image processing is the use of computer algorithms to perform image processing on digital images. As a subcategory or field of digital signal processing, digital image processing has many advantages over analog image processing. It allows a much wider range of algorithms to be applied to the input data and can avoid problems such as the buildup of noise and signal distortion during processing. Since images are defined over two dimensions (perhaps more) digital image processing may be modeled in the form of multidimensional systems. Introduction to image processing 
Image processing is a method to convert an image into digital form and perform some operations on it, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it. It is a type of signal dispensation in which input is image, like video frame or photograph and output may be image or characteristics associated with that image. Usually image processing system includes treating images as two dimensional signals while applying already set signal processing methods to them.
Image processing is a method to perform some operations on an image, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it. It is a type of signal processing in which input is an image and output may be image or characteristics/features associated with that image. Now-a-days, image processing is among rapidly growing technologies. It forms core research area within engineering and computer science disciplines too.

Introduction

Although both maps and aerial photos present a “bird’s-eye” view of the earth, aerial photographs are NOT maps. Maps are orthogonal representations of the earth’s surface, meaning that they are directionally and geometrically accurate (at least within the limitations imposed by projecting a 3-dimensional object onto 2 dimensions). Aerial photos, on the other hand, display a high degree of radial distortion. That is, the topography is distorted, and until corrections are made for the distortion, measurements made from a photograph are not accurate. Nevertheless, aerial photographs are a powerful tool for studying the earth’s environment. 

Because most GISs can correct for radial distortion, aerial photographs are an excellent data source for many types of projects, especially those that require spatial data from the same location at periodic intervals over a length of time. Typical applications include land use surveys and habitat analysis. 

This unit discusses benefits of aerial photography, applications, the different types of photography, and the integration of aerial photographs into GISs.

Introduction
Remote sensing is the art and science of recording, measuring, and analyzing information about a phenomenon from a distance. Humans with the aid of their eyes, noses, and ears are constantly seeing, smelling, and hearing things from a distance as they move through an environment. Thus, humans are naturally designed to be remote sensors. In order to study large areas of the Earth’s surface geographers use devices known as remote sensors. These sensors are mounted on platforms such as helicopters, planes, and satellites that make it possible for the sensors to observe the Earth from above.

Definition
Remote sensing can be defined as any process whereby information is gathered about an object, area or phenomenon without being in contact with it. Our eyes are an excellent example of a remote sensing device. We are able to gather information about our surroundings by gauging the amount and nature of the reflectance of visible light energy from some external source (such as the sun or a light bulb) as it reflects off objects in our field of view. Contrast this with a thermometer, which must be in contact with the phenomenon it measures, and thus is not a remote sensing device.

1. California mastitis test

The California mastitis test (CMT) is conducted during milking of lactating cows. The CMT paddle is used to collect about three to four ml of fore milk from each quarter of cows after discarding few streams to which an equal volume of CMT reagent (composition mentioned below) is mixed immediately by circular motion (Fig. 1). The reaction is graded by intensity of gel formation and color changes as follows:

    Q.1.    What are the common infectious diseases affect teat skin of mammary gland?
    Ans.    The common infectious diseases that affect teat skin of mammary gland are cowpox, buffalopox, pseudocowpox, bovine ulcerative mammillitis, black pox, foot and mouth disease, vesicular exanthema, swine vesicular diseases, contagious exanthyma, Staphylococcus sp., Pasteurella sp etc.

    Q.2.    What is thelitis?
    Ans.    Thelitis is the inflammation of tissues of teat wall caused by traumatic injury to the teat cistern. It is generally manifested with gangrenous mastitis.

    Q.3.    What is the main etiology of gangrenous mastitis?
    Ans.    Staphylococcus aureus

    Q.4.    What are the causes of coming blood in milk and mentions its treatment?

    Q.1.    How mastitis occurs in dogs? 
    Ans.    Mastitis in dogs initiates with the infection in the milk ducts of the dogs, where in the dog’s breast is enlarged as well as milk duct is blocked. The skin around the nipple might get cracked which might give a way to bacteria. In neglected cases it leads to cause gangrenous mastitis which is a severe form of mastitis in dogs.

    Q.2.    What are common pathogens responsible for mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp. and Escherichia coli.
 
    Q.3.    What are the characteristic features of milk cytology during mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    Milk cytology will show the presence of erythrocytes, degenerated neutrophils and bacterial agents.

    Q.4.    What characteristic physical changes of milk are seen during mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    The viscosity of milk is increased and the colour of milk will be yellow to brown depending on the amount of blood and purulent exudates present.

    Q.1.    What is the cause of mastitis in non-lactating mare?
    Ans.    Mastitis may develop in a non-lactating mare due to abnormally high estrogen levels in her system. This excess female hormone can result from a pituitary gland tumor or consumption of high estrogen containing hay. High estrogen concentrations can cause mammary gland enlargement and trigger the production and secretion of milk, even though the mare is not pregnant and has not foaled. If the non-lactating mare begins to secrete milk due to excess estrogen, she may become a candidate for mastitis.

    Q.2.    Why equine mammary glands are less prone to mastitis than bovines?
    Ans.    The possible reasons are as follows:
    a)    Mammary glands are relatively smaller in size
    b)    Concealed position of the glands
    c)    Small milk capacity of the glands
    d)    Greater resistance to infection in equine mammary glands because of differences in endocrine environment and local immunity

Fill in the blanks
    Q.1.    ………… organisms are the common isolates from clinically affected quarters.
    Ans.    Coagulase-negative staphylococci
    Q.2.    ………….is the most common cause of mastitis in goats.
    Ans.    Staphylococcus aureus
    Q.3.    Streptococcal zooepidermicus causes …………. in does.
    Ans.    Chronic suppurative mastitis.
 
Write True/ False about the statements
    Q.1.    Pseudomonas organism causes an acute mastitis characterized by extensive necrosis and fatal septicemia.
    Ans.    True.
    Q.2.    In summer mastitis, non-lactating goats develop severe mastitis whereas lactating goats suffer from moderate degree.
    Ans.    False

Fill in the blanks

    Q.1.    ---------- and -------------- are the synonyms of mastitis of sheep.
    Ans.    Bluebag, garget
    Q.2.    In gangrenous mastitis, besides Staphylococcus aureus, ----------- organism may also be involved.
    Ans.    Clostridium perfringens A
Answer the followings

    Q.1.    What are the characteristic symptoms of mastitis in sheep?
    Ans.    The important symptoms include severe necrotizing inflammation of mammary gland, severe systemic reaction and reduced milk production
    Q.2.    Classify the sheep mastitis based on etiology and clinical symptoms.
    Ans.    a) Gangrenous mastitis by Staphylococcus aurcus mastitis b) Herd mastitis by Pasteurella hemolytica
    Q.3.    When the risk of mastitis in sheep is high?
    Ans.    During summer month between parturition and weaning

    Q.1.    The mastitis-metritis-agalactia (MMA) is a disease syndrome of which animal species? 
    Ans.    Swine

    Q.2.    What is MMA syndrome?
    Ans.    MMA syndrome is post parturient disease of sows and manifested as fever, anorexia, lethargy, agalactia, mastitis, swollen udder and appearance of vulvar discharge due to development of metritis.
 
    Q.3.    What is the critical time of occurrence of MMA in sows?
    Ans.    The mastitis-metritis-agalactia (MMA) syndrome occurs between 12-48 hrs of farrowing in sows.

    Q.4.    What is the probable causes for the development of MMA syndrome?
    Ans.    The probable causes of MMA syndrome are infectious mastitis, metritis, more feeding at pregnant period, nutritional deficiency, endocrine disorders and constipation.

    Q.1.    What are the most common isolated environmental Streptococci from mastitis cases?
    Ans.    Streptococcus uberis and Streptococcus dysgalactiae.

    Q.2.    What are the common sources of environmental Streptococcus uberis in a herd?
    Ans.    The common sources are bedding materials, lips, nostrils and abdominal skin of cows.

    Q.3.    What are the common sources of environmental Streptococcus dysgalactiae?
    Ans.    The common sources are tonsils, mouth, vagina and mammary gland of cows.

    Q.4.    Why incidence of Streptococcus uberis is highest just prior to calving?
    Ans.    The important reasons are the excessive accumulation of milk due to lack of milking, lack of keratin plugs from the streak canal and immunosuppression at periparturient period.

    Q.5.    The cattle fly sometimes involves in persistent bacterial contamination on teat of a cow. Mention the name of the cattle fly.

Q.1.    Enumerate the etiological agents responsible for Coliform mastitis.
    Ans.    Different serotypes of E. coli, Klebsiella sp. and Enterobacter aerogens.

Q.2.    What is the primary reservoir of Coliform mastitis?
    Ans.    Primary reservoir of Coliform is the dairy cow’s environment as it is an environmental pathogen, however, infected mammary gland acts as reservoir of Coliform mastitis

Q.3.    What is the important factors of E. coli that affect the normal bactericidal activity of leukocytes?
    Ans.    Lipopolysaccharide-endotoxin, somatic and capsular factors. Similarly, fibronectin binding property of E. coli is also an important virulence factor which help to adhere to ductular epithelium.

    Q.1.    How many species of Mycoplasma are responsible for causing mastitis?
    Ans.    At least seven species like Mycoplasma bovis, Mycoplasma Canadensis, Mycoplasma bovigenitalium, Mycoplasma alkalensis, Mycoplasma capricolium, Mycoplasma californicum, Mycoplasma disper and Ureaplasma sp. are responsible for causing mastitis

    Q.2.    Which herds are more prone to such type of mastitis?
    Ans.    The herds where milking hygiene is very poor and when the cows are imported from other farms or from public sale yards.

    Q.3.    Which organs act as common habitat of the Mycoplasma organisms?

Fill in the blanks

    Q1.    …………… is a contagious pathogen in bovine mastitis
    Ans.    Streptococcus agalactiae

    Q.2.    Streptococcus agalactiae causes ……… (acute/chronic) mastitis if control procedure of mastitis is not used.
    Ans.    Chronic

Answer the following
    Q.1.    Mention the strategy to reduce the prevalence of Streptococcus agalactiae mastitis at herd level.
    Ans.    Good hygienic measures, proper disinfection and efficient treatment of clinical cases.

    Q.2.    What is the relation between SCC and Streptococcus agalactiae infection?
    Ans.    The possibility of Streptococcus agalactiae infection is high with high bulk milk somatic cell count.

    Q.3.    What are the common sources of Streptococcus agalactiae infection in a dairy herd?

Q1.    What is the etiology of Staphylococcus aureus mastitis?
    Ans.    Coagulase positive Staphylococcus aureus.

Q.2.    It causes contagious or environmental mastitis?
    Ans.    Contagious mastitis

Q3.    What are the important animal risk factors of S. aureus mastitis?
    Ans.
    (i)    Presence of coalgulase –ve Staphylococci and Corynebacterium bovis in the mammary gland act as protective factor for S. aureus mastitis.
    (ii)    Abrasion of teat orifice epithelium is a major risk factor of S. aureus mastitis.
    (iii)    Cows with increased parity are more prone to clinical and subclinical S. aureus mastitis.
    (iv)    Presence of different periparturient diseases like parturient peresis, retained placenta, dystocia, ketosis and ulcers in different organs are also risk    factors for S. aureus mastitis.
    (v)    Animals having very low SCC in milk are more prone to S. aureus mastitis.

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is the international organizations associated for making outline the mastitis control programme?
    Ans.    National Institute for Research on Dairying (NIRD) and National Mastitis Council (NMC).

    Q.2.    What is the important objective of dairy industry as regards to mastitis control?
    Ans.    The important objective is to achieve an excellent udder health for production of high quality of milk.

    Q.3.    What is the basic principles of mastitis control programme?
    Ans.    There three basic principles of mastitis control programme:
    a)    Elimination of existing infection
    b)    Prevention of new infection 
    c)    Monitoring of udder health status

Answer the followings.
    Q.1.    Which factors govern the efficacy of intramammary drug in mastitis therapy?
    Ans.    The important factors are spectrum of bacteria controlled, diffusibility through mammary tissue and cost of the drug.

    Q.2.    What should be line of emergency treatment when type of infection is not known?
    Ans.    Frequent removal of milk manually or by using oxytocin, broad spectrum antimicrobials parentrally as well as via intramammary route and non steroidal anti-inflammatory drug.

    Q.3.    Why therapy of mastitis often fails to respond in lactating cows in spite of intensive veterinary service?
    Ans.    The main reasons are as follows:
    a)    Ineffective drug diffusion
    b)    Inactivation of antibiotics by milk and tissue priteins
    c)    Formation of micro-abscesses which make inaccessible of drug to pathogens
    d)    Inefficient killing of bacteria and intracellular survival of bacteria

   Q.1.    How milk sample is collected for diagnosis of mastitis?
    Ans.    At first the end of teat is cleaned with a cotton swab dipped with 70% alcohol, then the dirt and wax are removed from the external sphincter by pressure. After this milk sample is collected in screw cap bottle.

    Q.2.    When milk sampling should be done in suspected cases of tubercular mastitis?
    Ans.    Last few streams of milking is crucial in cases of tubercular mastitis.

    Q.3.    What is the effect of freezing of milk sample on bacterial count?
    Ans.    On freezing of milk, Arcanobacter pyogenis and E. coli counts are decreased, coagulase negative bacteria counts increases whereas, Streptococcus and Staphylococcus spp. counts may be unaffected or increased.

    Q.4.    Which media is suitable for initial isolation of bacteria from milk samples?
    Ans.    Blood agar. However for isolation Streptococcus agalactiae selective media is required

Q.1.    What are the major clinical findings in mastitis?
    Ans.    These are abnormalities of secretions, abnormalities of udder related to size, consistency, temperature and sometimes systemic reactions.

Q.2.    How clinical forms of mastitis could be classified based of severity and duration?
    Ans.    Based on severity it is classified in four forms: Per acute mastitis, acute mastitis, subacute mastitis and subclinical mastitis. However, based on duration it is of three forms: Short term clinical or subclinical mastitis (Coliform mastitis), recurrent mastitis (Staphylococcus aureus mastitis, Streptococcal dysgalactiae mastitis) and persistent clinical or subclinical mastitis (Streptococcus agalactiae mastitis).

Q.3.    What is sub clinical mastitis?
    Ans.    In sub clinical mastitis there is evidence of inflammation which is evidenced by only raised SCC in milk without any visible abnormalities of milk and udder.

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is the different stage of pathogenesis in mastitis?
    Ans.    There are three stages in pathogenesis 
These are as follows:
Invasion: here pathogens move from the exterior of teat to milk inside the teat canal.
Infection: Here pathogens multiply rapidly and invade the mammary gland.
Inflammation: In this stage clinical mastitis occurs with varying degree of clinical abnormalities of milk and udder.
    Q.2.    Of these phases, which phase is important to reduce the incidence of mastitis in control program?
    Ans.    Invasive stage is very important. The incidence of mastitis can be reduced by taking preventive measures at invasive stage by good management and good hygiene practices.
    Q.3.    What are the common abnormalities encountered in udder during mastitis?

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is the relative incidence of  Streptococcus agalactiae, other Streptococci and Staphylococcus aureus
    Ans.    1:1: 2
    Q.2.    What are sources of contagious pathogen for mastitis?
    Ans.    Udder surfaces of infected quarters 
    Q.3.    What are sources of environmental pathogen for mastitis?
    Ans.    Bedding of cow’s environment
    Q.4.    When animal get infection from environmental pathogen?
    Ans.    Animal get infection at any time during the life such as milking time, between milking, during dry period and prior to first calving.
    Q.8.    What is the probable period of new infection from environmental pathogen?
    Ans.    Early part of dry period and first two months of lactation.
    Q.9.    What is the relation of growth of Corynebacterium bovis in milk and lactation?

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is mastitis?
    Ans.    It may be defined as inflammation of mammary parenchyma and characterized by physiochemical changes in the milk and pathological changes of the glandular tissue.
    Q.2.    What are the cardinal changes of milk and udder in mastitis?
    Ans.    Changes of milk includes discoloration, presence of clot, and presence of huge leukocytes whereas, mammary gland becomes hot painful swelling and induration.
    Q.3.    What is sub clinical mastitis?
    Ans.    In subclinical mastitis, normally mammary gland is normal by physical examination; however, cellular constitution only indicates presence of mastitis (i.e. increased somatic cell count).
    Q.4.    What is the basis of diagnosis of sub clinical mastitis?
    Ans.    Diagnosis sub clinical mastitis depends largely on indirect tests which are related to leukocyte content of milk.

  1.    Gender Sensitization: Change of Attitude of people towards gender equality, gender roles etc.

  2.    Public-Private Partnership: Involvement of private stakeholders with public entreprises

  3.    Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Use of computer. fax, video, telephones in information sharing & transfer of technology.

  4.    Cyber Extension: Use of computers in extension management.

  5.    Broad Based Extension: Farming system use for maximum use of all available resource to maximize profit

  6.    Bottom-up Approach: Planning from lowest level of society.

  7.    ITK (Indegenous Technological Knowledge): Use of farm community knowledge for development

  8.    Market Led Extension: Transfer of technology basing on assured & confirmed market of the product.

DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN RURAL AREAS (DWCRA)

Objectives

  1.    To raise the income level of women poor households.

  2.    Formation of groups of 10-15 women in rural poor for developing of services.

Salient features

  1.    Each group is given one time grant of Rs.25,000/-as revolving fund for infrastructure, purchase of raw materials, marketing, child care etc.

  2.    Fund is in ratio of 50:50 between Central and State government.

  3.    Provision of setting up of District Supply and Marketing Society for women producers.

DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (DRDA)

Objective

To professionalise the DRDA so that they are able to effectively manage the antipoverty programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development and interact effectively with other agencies.

Salient Features

•   The DRDA is visualized as a specialized agency capable of managing the anti-poverty programmes and to effectively relate these to the overall efforts of poverty eradication in the district.

•   The DRDA role will be to facilitate the implementation of the programmes, to supervise, oversee and monitor the progress, to receive and send progress reports and maintaining accounts of funds received for various rural development programmes.

•   DRDAs also need to develop synergies among different agencies for the most effective results.

•   The Chairman Zilla Parishad would be the chairman of the governing body of the DRDA.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT (CD)

Meaning of Community Development

Community development is an exclusive term. It is used frequently to encompash every efforts towards the advance of community interest.

Community

A community is a group of people who live in a particular geographical area and have an interest on each other and have a purpose of making a living.

Development

It means growth or maturation. It is gradual and sequencial phases of changes. Example: Life from child to death

Definition of Community Development

1. It is bringing forth the potential abilities and qualities of a group of people who live together in a common territory or region and who have an interdependent relationship with each other.

2. Community Development is a continuous process of social action by which the people of community do the following things.

(a)   Define their common and group needs.

(b)   Organize themselves formally and informally for democratic planning and action.

(c)   Make group and individual plans to meet their need and solve their problems.

(d)   Execute their plans with maximum reliance upon their own resources.

(e)   Supplement their resources from outside community when necessary with services and materials.

3. Carl Taylor’s Definition

Community Development is a method by which people in villages are involved in helping to improve their own economy through their own effort. Thereby, they are effective working groups in the programme or national development.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Meaning

The word “Rural” comes from the word “Rurale” which means close to nature and environment, and “Development” means growth or maturation.

Rural development is utilization, protection and enhancement of the natural, physical and human resources to make long-term improvements in rural living conditions. It involves provision of jobs and income opportunities while maintaining and protecting the environment of rural areas.

General Definition

1)     It is based on an operational approach with practicalities with the people covering maximum end users for maximum economic return.

2) Definition by Axinn

R.D. is a process of change among the rural people through change in environment, technology institutions and attitude to eliminate the poverty and improve the way of life.

3) Definition by Miller

R.D. is based on the following components

a)     Development of human resource - It includes the development of rural people by providing education to the rural children and employment to rural youth, socio-economic condition of village can be improved.

b)     Expansion of physical resources - Construction of infrastructures like roads, schools, colleges, post office, bank etc will improve the rural condition.

c)     Extension of communit’s control over the resources.

OBJECTIVE OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

Objective

Objectives are expression of the ends towards which our efforts are directed.

The objective of extension is to develop the rural people economically, socially and culturaly by means of education. Overall, these objectives are divided into 4 types they are :

a)   Material objective

b)   Educational objective

c)   Social and cultural objective

d)   Developing leadership objective

a) Material objective

According to National Commission on Agriculture (1976). Agriculture extension aims at improving the efficiency of human capital, an effort to rapidly increase the rate of agricultural production. It also seeks to import necessary skill to farmer to understand the improved agricultural operation and improve the their own income, own resource and also the money value.

b) Educational objective

Extension education also aims at development of individual to change in behaviour by identifying their knowledge, skill, attitude and action. It aims at increasing the knowledge of people to analyse their past, present and expected future situation, to become aware of problem identification, solution and also realising their felt and unfelt need.

Extension

Extension is that type of education which is stretched out to people in rural areas far and near, beyond the limits of education institutions to which the formal type of education is usually confined.

Education

Education is a process of bringing about desirable changes in the behaviour of human being.

Formal education: The hierarchically structured, chronologically graded ‘education system’, running from primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialised programmes and institutions for full-time technical and professional training.

Informal education: The truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment - from family and neighbours, from work and play, from the market place, the library and the mass media.

Non-formal education: Any organised educational activity outside the established formal system - whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity - that is intended to serve identifiable learning clientele and learning objectives.

Adulteration in animal and human foods has become common feature in the country, therefore we should be cautious while selecting animal/human feed ingredients.

The author of this compendium has developed. “Animal Feed Testing Kit” based on novel cud liquor enzyme complex (innovation certified by ISA, International Search Authority - Patent office, Vienna), registered with WIPO (Geneva). This method is described in detail in this chapter and Patent application is field at Indian Patent Office Delhi.

Now-a-days, animal feed is being adulterated with extraneous materials viz, Saw dust, Ric hulls, sand and Silica, Castor husk, oat hulls and urea (higher than 01 percent limit on dry matter basis).

Preparation of Samples

Before withdrawing portions for analytical determinations, bring the sample to a temperature of 26 to 28ºC and mix throughly by pouring gently into a clean dry receptacle and back, until a homogenous mixture is assured. If lumps of cream do not completely disappear, warm the sample to about 40ºC, mix throughly, then cool to 26 to 28ºC. In case a measured volume is required in a determination, bring the temperature of the sample to about 27ºC before pipetting. All samples shall be allowed to stand for three to four minutes after mixing to allow air bubbles to rise ; the sample bottle shall then be inverted three or four times immediately prior to taking the milk for analysis. If a sample is curdled, excessively churned or decomposed, the sample should not be taken up for analysis.