eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] is a temperate origin crop but well adapted to sub-tropical regions. It is an important fruit crop of Rosaceae family and is the third most important temperate tree fruit species behind apples and pears. Trees of most peach cultivars require from 100–1000 hours of chilling.

NUTRITIVE AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

Peaches are good source of sugars, vitamins and minerals. It has a rich source of vitamins A and C and also contains potassium and fibre. The fruit has over 80% water and one average sized peach have 7% of the dietary fibre which is required each day. It helps in maintaining healthy vision, skin care, nervous system, healthy bones, and teeth. It has anti-aging properties and also helps in detoxification, as well as improving digestion and cellular health. It has a wealth of essential nutrients and antioxidants which are valuable during pregnancy and it helps in strengthening the immune system. Peaches contain carotenoids and anthocyanins which have antioxidant properties and act as a protective agent against various problems i.e inflammation, cancer, atherosclerosis, obesity, cholesterol and other circulatory problems (Prior and Cao 2000; Wargovich 2000).

INTRODUCTION

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), belongs to the family Rosaceae and is one of the most important fruit crop of mid hills and dry temperate regions of India. It was introduced in India by the European settlers and Missionaries in the late 19th century. Cultivated apricot has its origin in North-Eastern China, whereas wild apricot, popularly known as zardalu, appears to be indigenous to India. It grows wild in hills of Shimla and Kinnaur districts of Himachal Pradesh. Fruit is delicious, rich in vitamin A and contains more carbohydrates, proteins, phosphorous and niacin than many other common fruits. Besides its use as dessert, it is also canned and dried. Fruit is processed into jam, nectar and squash. The kernels are either sweet or bitter, depending upon the variety. The sweet kernels are used as a cheap substitute for almonds in pastries and confectionery. The bitter kernels are used for oil extraction. In India, apricot is grown commercially in the hills of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh and to a limited extent in north eastern hills. Some drying type apricots are being grown in the dry temperate areas of Kinnaur and Lahaul Spiti in Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir.

INTRODUCTION

Prunus avium, commonly called wild cherry, sweet cherry is a species of cherry, a flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae. Cherry is the fruit of many plants of the genus Prunus, and is a fleshy drupe (stone fruit) and packed with healthy nutrients and excellent antioxidants. Cherries are mostly eaten as dessert fruit or more conveniently in the brined, frozen or canned state. The cherry fruits of commerce usually are obtained from a limited number of species such as cultivars of the sweet cherry, Prunus avium. The name 'cherry' also refers to the cherry tree, and is sometimes applied to almonds and visually similar flowering trees in the genus Prunus, as in "ornamental cherry", "cherry blossom", etc. Wild cherry may refer to any of the cherry species growing outside of cultivation, although Prunus avium is often referred to specifically by the name "wild cherry" in the British Isles. Basically, cherries are native to Europe and Asia regions. De Candole reported that the cherry first grew wild in northern Persia and the Russian provinces south of the Caucasus. From there, it spread rapidly because they are attractive to birds; hence the name Prunus avium L. or bird cherry.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

During the last 30 years, India’s food production nearly doubled from 102 million tons. Almost all of this increase resulted from higher yield in all food grains rather than increase in area, particularly wheat, rice, maize and some extent in pulses and oil seed crops. This has contributed to a significant reduction in poverty from 55% to 26% (Dar, 2011). The increase in yield is the result of scientific innovations in India and other parts of the world and their adoption in India.

In 1871, the Government of India created Department of Agriculture. The impact of these departments in enhancement of crop productivity was not remarkable. Later, the Government of India established the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute in 1905 in Pusa, Bihar to enhance the agricultural research and education. Later, the headquarter of Imperial Agricultural Research Institute has been shifted to New Delhi in the year 1936. The name of the institute has been changed in 1946 as Indian Agricultural Research Institute. To boost the agricultural Research activities, Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was established in the year 1929, subsequently, the name of Imperial Council of Agricultural Research has been changed to its present form of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1946. Since then, ICAR playing significant role in all sphere of agricultural research, education and extension. A number of varieties and hybrids of different crops have been developed and released by the scientists of ICAR. To test the outcome of the agricultural research, ICAR has started All India Coordinated Crop Improvement Projects, which provide an efficient channel for multilocation testing of newly evolved strains.

Key facts
    
·    The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines food security as a ’situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’. There are four dimensions of food security: Food Availability (availability of sufficient food for all people at all times, i.e. production); Food Accessibility (physical and economic access to food at all times, i.e. affordability), Food Utilization (access to food that is nutritious, safe and produced in environmentally sustainable ways, i.e. nutrients in food and food safety); and Food Stability (reliability of adequate food supply).
    
·    Agriculture is important for food security since it provides food for the people and is the primary source of livelihood for 36% of the world’s total workforce. In the heavily populated countries such as Asia and the Pacific, about 40% to 50%, and in sub-Saharan Africa, about two-thirds of the working population make their living from agriculture.
    
·    Agriculture, livestock and fisheries production are all sensitive to climate and are affected by its changes. Climate change will increase hunger and malnutrition, emergence of new pests and diseases and will threaten fishing and aquaculture industries.

Key facts

    
•    The climate change is likely to affect millions of people both directly (via increased deaths, disease and injury from heatwaves, floods, storms, fires and droughts) and indirectly (through changes in the water, air, food quality and quantity and ranges of vectors, such as mosquitoes, water-borne pathogens).
    
•    Recent observed climate change related effects include: (a) an increase in heat related deaths across the globe (Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal, Switzerland, UK and USA; (b) spread of vector- and rodent-borne diseases such as malaria (Africa, India) and dengue and (c) increase in food poisoning (New Zealand).
    
•    Heatwaves can cause adverse health effects such as heat cramps, fainting, heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Human deaths due to heatwaves are associated with cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and in 2003 in Europe 70,000 deaths were recorded from heatwaves alone.
    
•    Projections : (a) cold temperature is expected to become less frequent, while heat waves will become more frequent; (b) increases in heat related deaths and illness across the globe including Australia, Germany, Portugal, UK, and USA;  (c) malaria zone may expand in Australia, Africa (highlands), India and  260-320 million more people will be affected by malaria by 2080;  (d) dengue area is likely to increase as climate would be more suitable and by 2085, about 6 billion people will be at risk of contracting dengue fever including Australia and New Zealand; (e) diarrhoeal disease may increase with temperature increase; and (f) cholera outbreaks may rise as a result of more plankton blooms providing nutrients for Vibrio cholerae.

The District-wise weekly agroadvisory service based on medium range weather forecasting (3 to 10 days) has been made operational by the State Agricultural Universities in collaboration with National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), India Meteorological Department. The Agroadvisory Bulletin (AAB) contains three parts. The first part of AAB consists of weather events occurred during the past week and weather forecast for three days ahead. These forecasts provide expected weather on cloud amount, rainfall, average wind speed, wind direction, maximum and minimum temperatures and cumulative rainfall. The second part contains the factual information on the varieties of crops, their state and stage, ongoing agricultural operations and occurrence of insect pest and diseases of crops.

Introduction

Rainfed agro-ecosystems occupy a considerable place in Indian agriculture, covering 80 M ha in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid climatic zones; constituting nearly 57% of the net cultivated area. Rainfed areas contribute almost 100% of forest products, 84-87% of coarse-grain cereals and pulses, 80% of horticulture, 77% of oilseeds, 60% of cotton and 50% of fine cereals including rice, wheat, maize, sorghum etc (Srinivasarao et al., 2010; 2011). Rainfed regions support 60% of livestock, 40% of human population and contribute 40% of food grains and several special-attribute commodities such as seed spices, dyes, herbs, gums, etc. (Srinivasarao et al., 2011). It is estimated that even after achieving the full irrigation potential, barring for successful completion of river linking project, nearly 45 to 50% of the total cultivated area will remain dependent on rain. Undoubtedly, the rainfed agriculture would continue to occupy a prominent place in Indian agriculture for a long time to come (Venkateswarlu et al., 2011). Despite the progress made so far, rainfed agriculture in India encounters multiple risks and constraints relating to biophysical and socio-economic issues. Agricultural productivity in rainfed areas continues to remain low and unstable due to weather aberrations, nutrient disorder and poor socio-economic status of farmers.

In recent past, extreme weather events are causing great concern in different sectors contributing to Indian economy. India Meteorological Department is doing yeomen’s service by providing advance information including monitoring of the extreme events longs with proper advisories to the farming community by using state of art instruments & technology through efficient delivering mechanism of the information and ultimately help the farmers from incurring great loss. In many cases, the most severe impacts are felt when several extreme events occur together. The major extreme weather events related to agriculture are Tropical cyclones, floods, heavy rain and landslides, cold waves, fog, snow storms, Heat waves, Hailstorms, thunderstorms and dust storms, drought.

Introduction

Climate change is of great concern to India in view of food and nutritional security of its ever growing population. The impacts of climate change are global, but Indian subcontinent is more vulnerable due to dependence of its large population on agriculture. It can cause millions of deaths a year worldwide and costing more than a trillion of US dollar. Climate change has direct effect on agriculture due to 0.74°C average global increase in temperature in the last 100 years and atmospheric CO₂ concentration having increased from 280 ppm (1750) to 400 ppm (2013). These changes have direct effect on growth and multiplication/fecundity, spread and severity/infestation of many plant pathogens/insect pests, which in turn are affecting the pattern of incidence of pests (including diseases). Changing pest scenario due to climate change has warranted the need for future studies on such models which can predict the severity of important pathogens of major crops in real-field conditions. Simultaneously, pest management strategies may be reoriented to cope up with changing scenario for sustainable food production.

Increasing evidence over the past few decades indicate that significant changes in climate are taking place worldwide as a result of enhanced human activities. The inventions that were discovered during last few centuries, more so in the last century has altered the concentration of atmospheric constituents that lead to global warming. The major cause to climate change has been ascribed to the increased levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxides (NO₂), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) beyond their natural levels due to the uncontrolled activities such as burning of fossil fuels, increased use of refrigerants, and enhanced agricultural related practices. The temperature increase is widespread over the globe and is greater at higher northern latitudes. Land regions have warmed faster than the oceans. January 2000 to December 2009 was the warmest decade on recordreported by NASA. These activities accelerated the processes of climate change and increased the average global temperatures by about 0.8°C (1.5°F) since 1880 (NASA,2010). Global average sea level has risen since 1961 at an average rate of 1.8 [1.3 to 2.3] mm/yr and since 1993 at 3.1 [2.4 to 3.8] mm/yr, with contributions from thermal expansion, melting glaciers and ice caps, and the polar ice sheets. Satellite data since 1978 show that annual average Arctic sea ice extent has shrunk by 2.7 % [2.1 to 3.3%] per decade, with larger decreases in summer of 7.4% [5.0 to 9.8%] per decade. Mountain glaciers and snow cover on average have declined in both hemispheres. It has also induced increased climatic variability and occurrence of extreme weather events in many parts of the world.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour (L.) Moench) is one of the most nutritional and fifth most important cereal crop after maize, wheat, rice and barley as well as a major dietary staple food crop of more than 500 million people in various countries (Ashok Kumar et al., 2011). It is considered as the “King of Millets” that extensively grown in Semi-Arid Tropics (SAT). As a coarse grain, it is used not only for human food, but also for fodder and feed for animals, and building material etc. Its grain is used to make bread, biscuits, sugar, starch, syrups, and alcohol, beer and malt products. It is a good source of energy, protein, vitamin, minerals, and trace elements. Sorghum cultivation in India probably started in the first millennium BC (Dogget, 1988). In India, sorghum is commonly known as jowar and accounts 14% of total world’s sorghum cultivated area and 8% production. India stands first in area of cultivation and second major producer until the end of 20th century. Currently (2012-16). India stands second in cultivated area after Sudan and fourth in production after USA, Nigeria and Mexico. It is the fifth major cereal crop in India after rice, wheat, maize, and pearl millet (bajra), and accounts 6% of total cereal cultivated area and 3% of total cereal production (DES, 2016). Sorghum is cultivated in India majorly during kharif (rainy) season as a rainfed crop and in rabi (post-rainy) season under residual soil moisture/limited-irrigated conditions. Sorghum is gaining importance along the coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh as rice fallows during rabi season in place of maize due to water scarcity in recent years. Maize requires 4 to 6 irrigations while 2 to 3 irrigations in case of sorghum during the crop season for potential yields under field conditions. In this chapter,a glimpse of sorghum growing regions in India, interrelationship between climatic changes and yield of sorghum and adaptation strategies to sustain sorghum productivity in India during future climatic periods are discussed in detail.

Abstract

Watershed development and management programme appeared to an effective and integrated approach to manage all natural resources like land, water, vegetation, animal and human for sustainable benefit and maintaining balanced eco-system. The main principle of the programme is based on starting from its planning, making design outlay, formulation of technical works, execution and development of land along with creation of water resources developing a hydrological unit at downstream making a common drainage points for the purpose of sustainable development of agriculture. The present case study dealt with the integrated water resources management with specific guidelines to the farmers for clear understanding of installing small-scale irrigation system based on their own resources in accordance with actual land situations as well as judicious use of irrigation with adoption of water-saving technology for sustainable crop production through watershed approach. The work was carried out under National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Area (NWDPRA), one out of 21 watersheds was identified for development of rainfed agriculture with mobilization of all natural resources like soil-plant-water-animal-human to uplift socio-economic status of the farmers. 

Introduction

India is bestowed with wide range of climate and physic-geographical conditions and as such is most suitable for growing various kinds of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, nuts, spices and plantation crops (coconut, cashewnut and cocoa). Its horticulture production has increased significantly over the last two decades and as per the final estimates, by 2013-14, it has increased to about three times (2.87) since 1991-92 and to about twice (1.90) compared to the production in 2001-02. This has placed India among the foremost countries in horticulture production, just next to China. As per National Horticulture Database 2014, during 2013-14, India’s contribution in the world production of fruits & vegetables was 13.6% & 14%, respectively. Total production of fruits during 2013-14 was about 89 million tonnes while that of vegetables was 163 million tonnes.

Introduction

India is gifted with varied agro-climatic conditions for growing an array of vegetable crops to combat the present ill-balanced diet. The brinjal belongs to the family Solanaceous and to the genus Solanum, species melongena. The egg plant, Guinea squash are some synonyms to brinjal. It is a hardy crop and does best in worm and moist climate. The crop is generally grown twice or thrice in a year. The edible part, fruit is of high nutritive value and can well be compared with tomatoes. Insect pest constitute the major limiting factors in the successful production of brinjal. Pest comples of brinjal is very high and aphid (Aphis gossypii) causes heavy damage to the crop. Aphis gossypii (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is a tiny insect or greenfly in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants. It is a widely distributed pest of a variety of agricultural crops in the families Cucurbitaceae, Rutaceae and Malvaceae.

Introduction

Stress in physics is any force applied to an object. Stress in biology is any change in environmental conditions that might reduce or adversely change a plant’s growth or development. ‘Stress’ or ‘pressure’ was introduced into the theory of elasticity as an amount of force for a given unit area. When sufficient force is applied to material, the material bends and the change in length is termed ‘strain’. With increasing stress, the initially linear relationship between stress and strain becomes nonlinear until the proportionality limit, after which the material deforms elastically (it can bend back), then plastically (it cannot bend back) until it ruptures. Since the 1930s, biologists have attempted to apply this terminology to biological systems, albeit the nature of the stresses will vary between nonliving materials and organisms.

1    General post mortem examination and detection of date and time of death

2    Pathogenomonic lesions of different diseases

3    Livestock insurance

4    Pet-dog insurance

Ideas, materials, facilities, processes and labourare clubbed together to produce a worthwhile product-milksuccessfully and this may be the art and science of management. In otherwords, weput togethertheinputs-soil, labour, hay, fertility, silage into milk and such transformations are the result of a purposeful and pre-meditated action-management and not just by happenstance.

Decisionmaking role of dairy farm manager Manager of dairy farm decides :

• What to do !

• How to do !

• When to do !

For answeringtheabove, themanager mustplan to co-ordinate, organize, control and direct his supportive staff. For accomplishing his targets, the manager must gatherinformation about allresources available, applicationof newtechnologies, different options of market outlets and sources of capital credit needed. He should be able to establish targets to be achieved. Obstacles or ‘stumbling blocks’ are always there which hinder progress towards goals. Therefore, these have tobe identified.He shouldbe abletocomparealternative optionsof realizing targets, consideringtheeach one in terms of income potential, thecapital needed, the labour required. Then choosing the best plan of action and put that option into operation. The manager should be able to assume responsibility for the consequences of actions taken. Later, he should evaluate and measure results. His accomplishments maybe assessed in the light of standards of performance. Notonlythat, but alsoto keep a vigil on production level, labour efficiency, cost, investments etc. He must keep the operating system flexible so that he may take advantage of new developments to be applicable in his plans.

Introduction

Billions of chemical reactions are happening inside human body and that too with lightning speed. However, the same reactions if carried out in laboratory, they take a very long time. The reasons behind it are the biocatalysts, also known as enzymes, which are synthesized by living cells. Chemically, they are proteins(except ribonucleic acids: RNA), colloidal in nature, thermo-labile in character and very specific in their action. For example, hydrolysis of proteins by a strong acid at 100°C takes a couple of days; but same proteins can be digested within couple of hours inside human body at 37°C. Similarly, carbonic anhydrase is used as a catalyst by living cells to transfer carbon-di-oxide from cells to blood. This process is 107 times quicker than the same process if occurs without the help of enzymes. Therefore, enzymes can be defined as the biomolecules or biocatalysts which can speed up the rate of the chemical reactions. The substance upon which an enzyme acts is called as substrate and the one which is produced as the result of enzyme-substrate reaction is known as product.

ABSTRACT

In India agroforestry practices are ancient but the story of organized agroforestry research began in 1979 at Imphal. Considerable efforts have been expended towards promoting and implementing agroforestry practices in the country by establishing centers for agroforestry research in almost all agro-climatic zones. Though almost 30 years has passed since systematic research started however, adoption of agroforestry is still in patches. This is because of myths attached with integrating trees with crops, market condition, rules regarding timber movements, allelopathy, long duration and so on. This paper examines the various arguments for and against agroforestry practices in India and presents the opportunity and challenges in adopting agroforestry as a sustainable land use practice.

INTRODUCTION

In India the green revolution led to increase in production through enhanced productivity. Unfortunately the population growth is increasing at a rapid rate and there is an urgent need to accelerate agricultural growth to address issues on food security, nutrition adequacy, rural income generation, employment and poverty. Despite higher production, the per capita availability of food over time has not increased significantly. About 70 to 80 per cent of our people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Contribution of agriculture to GDP is declining; this affects the rural poor most. The urban – rural divide and regional disparities are on the increase. To achieve a desirable rate of 7 per cent growth in the economy, agriculture must register a growth not less then 4 per cent. Now it is around 2 per cent and is declining (Singh, 2002). These continuous improvements in productivity are essentials but these must be capable of being maintained in perpetuity. In other words, an evergreen revolution rooted in the principles of ecology, economics, social and gender equity, energy conservation, employment generation and social auditing, is essential in major farming systems of India. Land, water and vegetation care constitute the foundation for building up such an evergreen revolution movement.

What is Nanotechnology? Answers differ depending on who you ask, and their background. Broadly speaking however, nanotechnology is the act of purposefully manipulating matter at the atomic scale, otherwise known as the “nanoscale.” Coined as “nano-technology” in a 1974 paper by Norio Taniguchi at the University of Tokyo, and encompassing a multitude of rapidly emerging technologies, based upon the scaling down of existing technologies to the next level of precision and miniaturization. Taniguchi approached nanotechnology from the ‘top-down’ standpoint, from the viewpoint of a precision engineer.

Foresight Nanotech Institute Founder K. Eric Drexler introduced the term “nanotechnology” to the world in 1986, using it to describe a ‘bottom-up’ approach. Drexler approaches nanotechnology from the point-of-view of a physicist, and defines the term as “large-scale mechano synthesis based on positional control of chemically reactive molecules.” In the future,“ nanotechnology” will likely include building machines and mechanisms with nanoscale dimensions, referred to these days as Molecular Nanotechnology (MNT).

Plant secondary metabolism produces products that aid in the growth and development of plants but are not required for the plant to survive. Secondary metabolism facilitates the primary metabolism in plants. This primary metabolism consists of chemical reactions that allow the plant to live. In order for the plants to stay healthy, secondary metabolism plays a pinnacle role in keeping all the of plants’systems working properly. A common role of secondary metabolites in plants is defense mechanisms. They are used to fight off herbivores, pests, and pathogens. Although researchers know that this trait is common in many plants it is still difficult to determine the precise role each secondary metabolite. Secondary metabolites are used in anti-feeding activity, toxicity or acting as precursors to physical defense systems.

6.1 Introduction

The change in climatic factors over the years is affecting the entire ecosystem. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007), the global surface temperature is predicted to increase between 1.4 and 5.8 ^oC by the year 2100. Microbial and plant metabolic processes are often dependent on environmental factors (for e.g. temperature and moisture), enzyme activity, and nutrient availability all of which are likely to be affected by climate change (IPCC, 2007). The global atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas (GHG) largely responsible for global warming, has increased from a pre-industrial value of about 280 ppm to 389 ppm at present. Similarly, the global atmospheric concentration of other important GHGs like methane and nitrous oxides has also increased considerably. The increase in GHGs was 70% between 1970 and 2004.

Rising atmospheric CO₂ is able to change the physiological activities of plants and soil micro organisms which in turn control the flow of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) in terrestrial ecosystems. The change in climatic factors also alters the beneficial plant-microbe interactions, which may be positive, negative, neutral or having variable effects. The survival and activity of microorganisms in the rhizosphere mainly depend on the flow of carbon in the root exudates. The composition of these root exudates is affected by various environmental factors such as soil type, pH, light intensity, oxygen status, soil temperature, soil moisture and nutrient availability. Diverse microbial activities pose a major challenge to predict the response of microbial community to global climate change. These changes in microbial activity have larger impacts on vital ecological processes such as nutrient cycling.

8.1 Introduction

Earth’s temperature has increased significantly due to the rise in concentration of greenhouse gases in its atmosphere. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water vapour (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and ozone (O₃). Prior to industrial revolution, the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere matched what could be absorbed by the natural sinks. Industrialization catapulted the addition of anthropogenically emitted gases to the environment, much beyond the natural levels. These greenhouse gases are building up, thus creating the effect of ‘global warming’. Global warming is a consequence of two major phenomena - depletion of the ozone layer and increase in greenhouse gas emission (Ishler, 2008).

Introduction

India is the largest consumer and second largest producer of sugar in the world next to Brazil. Among the sugar yielding crops like sugarcane, sugar beet, palms and sorghum, sugarcane is the second most important agro-industrial crop of the country. It is the only raw material for nearly 538 sugar mills (2014-15), producing about 28 million mt of sugar annually from a sugarcane production of 366 million tons in an area of 5.307 mh. Apart from this, it is the predominant source of potable alcohol, industrial alcohol and fuel-ethanol. In India, 35 million farmers are engaged in sugarcane cultivation and another 50 million depend on employment generated by these 538 sugar factories and other related industries using sugar. Sugarcane occupies a very prominent position in the agricultural crops of India covering large areas in UP, Punjab, Haryana and Bihar (sub tropical) and Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu (tropical). On an average, white sugar production accounts for 74% of total cane produced, 14-15% is utilized for jaggery and khandsari production and the rest is utilized for other purposes including seed.

Jaggery and khandsari, the traditional Indian sweeteners are the natural mixture of sugar and molasses. If pure clarified sugarcane juice is boiled, what is left as solid is jaggery, which contains 65-85% sucrose. Khandsari sugar is a finely granulated and crystallized which contains 94 to 98% sucrose. In the early 1930’s, nearly 2/3rd of sugarcane production was utilized to manufacture these two alternate sweeteners. With the introduction of sugar mills and their multiple growth and better standard of living and higher per capita income, the demand for sweetener has shifted to white sugar which contains purely sucrose (99.7%).

Introduction

Fish is a source of valuable animal protein and is considered a health food. This has resulted in increased consumer demand. Fish is now more expensive than meat and other animal foods. Being a highly perishable commodity, fish require immediate processing and various options are available for the value addition of fish. Fish processing, particularly seafood processing and marketing have become highly complex and competitive and exporters are trying to process more value added products to increase their profitability. Value can be added to fish and fishery products according to the requirements of different markets. These products range from live fish and shellfish to ready to serve convenience products. In general, value added food products are raw or pre-processed commodities whose value has been increased through the addition of ingredients or processes that make them more attractive to the buyer and/or more readily usable by the consumer.

Plants have played an important role in many mythologies and religions of the world and have been known for deep and sacred meanings throughout the ages. It is the symbolic representation of the old cultural traditions in the form of a tree across the world. Christmas tree in the Christianity and Bodhi tree in Buddhism are the example of tree featured in mythology. In most of the folklore, folktales and folk religion trees are often said to be homes of tree sprits. If history is traced, we will found that Druidism and Germanic paganism appear to have involved in religious conservational practices of sacred groves. Druidism is a nature based religion that was taught by Druids about 2000 years ago. The term druid itself possibly derives from the religeous word for oak. Therefore, the Druidism reconnects us with nature, our ancesters and ourselves by working with plants or trees.

Trees are honored in Indian culture for their different beneficial characters like medicinal properties, food, fodder, maintaining hydrological cycle, moderate the climate etc. There are some trees that have attained more than a special benevolence in Hindu mythology. In Indian mythology number of plants have been given sacred value and worshipped by different cultures. Some important plants of sacred value have been discussed here.

8.1 Introduction

Interferometric or phase modulated sensors have received special attention because these are much more sensitive than intensity modulated sensors and can be used over a much larger dynamic range. The sensors rely on the interferometric technique. Generally, the sensor employs a coherent light source such as a laser and two single mode optical fibers. Light is split and coupled into both the fibers. If the measurand perturbs the optical properties of one of the fibers relative to the other, a phase shift occurs. The change in phase can be measured very precisely. For the measurement a sophisticated electronic processing equipment is needed. Thus the interferometric sensors are expensive compare to intensity modulated sensors. There are four kinds of interferometer configurations: Mach-Zehnder, Michelson, Fabry-Perot and Sagnac interferometers. The Mach-Zehnder, Michelson and Sagnac interferometers are the two beam interferometers while in the case of Fabry-Perot interferometer multiple beam interference occurs. In this chapter we shall first describe interference phenomenon and then different kinds of fiber optic interferometers. In the end we shall describe a number of sensors based on interference phenomenon or phase modulation.

Introduction

Pulse production in India has fluctuated widely with no long-term trend, leading to a steady decline in per capita availability per day, i.e. from 60.7 grams to 33.40 grams during 1951 to 2001, while its average requirement is about 65 gram per day per head. The pulses used to serve a low cost food to meet the protein requirement of a large sector of people in India. But, the pulses are becoming out of reach for the common people of country because of its continuing shoring prices. A Technology Mission on Pulse production was launched by Government of India in 1986-87 as a special drive to increase the pulse production in the country. The vision of Technology Mission of Pulse is attaining self reliance in pulses for household nutritional security and sustainability of the production system. The mission statement was to increase Pulse production from existing (IX plan) 131.4 lakh tonnes to 162 lakh tonnes; Productivity from 594 kg/ha to 702 kg/ha and per capita availability of pulses from 35 g to 40 g per day at affordable price. Unfortunately, the country has not been able to achieve self-sufficiency in the pulse production. During the last 40 years, the acreage under pulse crops and its production remained almost between 21-24 million hectares and 10-15 million tonnes, respectively. Consequently, the country has had to depend on import of pulses every year to meet the part of its shortage. The National Commission of Agriculture had estimated that the country should plan to produce about 25 million tonnes of pulses by the end of 2000, but we could achieve only about 14 million tonnes. Presently, the area and the production of pulse crops account for about 18.50 and 7.20 per cent (2003-04) of total area under foodgrains and total food grains production in the country, respectively.

Introduction

Research and development (R&D) is one of the main components to tackle the problems persisting or likely to take place in future. Priority areas of research are depending upon the overall situation and requirements of the problem under consideration. Under these broad areas, topic of interest for research may be varying at different geographical level from household to nation or global. If it is addressing vast geographical area like states, nations, regions and/or global, there may be many individuals/groups/institutions are working over similar type of problems. With the growing communication facilities and rising fund requirements, collaborative research programmes emerged to provide effective and economic solution to the problem with respect to time, money and manpower etc. Earlier, it was limited to high priority areas like defense and long run planning of the nations or kingdom at nation or state level. Declining environmental conditions and biological diversity became global concern in seventh decade of twentieth century. To tackle this problem, The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm) resolved to establish the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1972. Further, to speed up the progress, global community through world leaders had identified two burning priority areas during conference United Nations (U N) Environmental Programme Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, well known as Earth Summit. One of those two priority areas was Biological Diversity. To address the issues at global levels, The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed by party nations, which was later ratified by the 187 countries. India is also one of the signatory nations and need to fulfill some time bound commitments. Moreover, later, importance of biodiversity and germplasm has been underlined by different forum at regional and global level for its present and future values in the life of human kind. Countries and various geographical regions are now becoming more and more aware about its judicious exploitation, conservation and sustained higher output over period of time.

Abstract

In the present horticultural scenario of India, this is the burning issue as how best the underutilized horticultural crops can be exploited. There is tremendous potential for these crops especially for diversification. These plants can generate employment for millions especially to the natives ofdeveloping counties besides nutritional security. Traditional wisdom of Indian farmers if used properly can pave the path for transforming the economy of developing nations. There are great opportunities for the people to identify crops, explore their market, standardize their cultivation and processing techniques, document them and provide jobs to millions. This will salvage the people from exploitation by multinational companies of developed nations and can give a new direction to sustainable agriculture.

1.    Yoghurt usually contains total milk solids in the range of

(a) 12-15%

(b) 8.5 to 11.5%

(c) 15-19%

(d) 20-25 %

2.    Yoghurt is usually manufactured by heating the pre-mix to pasteurize it to

(a) 61-62°C for 20 minutes

(b) 80-85°C for 15 to 30 minutes

(c) 80-85°C for 15 sec

(d) 71-72°C for 15 sec

1.1. IMPORTANCE OF FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

Food may be defined as substances that provide nutrients, which when eaten and absorbed by the body, maintain life and growth. Food is basically energy stored in plant and animal foods in chemical form. On consumption, the stored form gets converted to physiological energy. Food is the prime necessity of life. Man has exhibited much thought and foresight in cultivating a variety of grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts and oilseeds and in rearing birds and animals for use as food.

Of the three primary needs of an individual, food, clothing and shelter, ‘food’ occupies the most important place. The biodiversity of foods- cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruits and vegetables is varied and high in India, where we have varied agro-climatic regions from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. All the fifteen major climates in the world exist in India. India is the second largest producer of food in the world. The impact of green revolution is remarkable in India with many fold increased food production in the last five decades. The full potential of Indian agriculture can not be realized unless India emerges as a major player in the World agriculture.

World population is set to go beyond nine billion by 2050 and demand for food is likely to increase further because of growing affluence and globalization. Food security is achieved when all people have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious value added food. India is emerging as a food power in the international trade of foods. The food processing industry in India has been identified as one of thrust areas for the development of the country. It has emerged as a highly perspective sector with immense potential in food processing. The future of Indian food processing industries is bright, provided it improves its quality of products as per international standards.The quality of food processing refers to the adherence of physical, chemical, biological, nutritional and sensory parameters required to achieve the wholesomeness of a food product. Quality control has become an important aspect for food processing industry for both domestic and export markets.

4.1 Introduction

A huge amount of waste in the form of liquid and solid is produced in the fruit and vegetable processing industry which causes pollution problem if not utilized or disposed off properly. Generally solid waste is dumped in local landfills, eaten and scattered by stray animals, which has now become a major cause of environmental pollution. The waste obtained from fruit processing industry is extremely diverse due to the use of wide variety of fruits and vegetables, the broad range of processes and the multiplicity of the product [79]. The solid waste from fruits and vegetables includes peel, stone, rag, seed, core etc is of economic value and can be used for manufacturing of various by-products [21]. The extent of the waste produced from processing industries of some of the important fruits and vegetables, is given in Table 1.

In India, utilization of fruits and vegetables for processing is hardly 1.8% of the total production. There were 5166 processing units till 1^st Jan, 2009 of fruits and vegetables products throughout the country. About 90% of these units are small scale units with annual production limit of 50-250 tonnes. These units have no organized methods of waste disposal. In certain places this waste is taken away by farmers for their disposal as cattle feed or field manure.

Key words : NRSA, Natural Resource and Disaster Management, Agricultural Drought, Ecosystems, Biodiversity Information System, Water Resources, Sea Surface Temperature.

Introduction

A few decades ago, paper maps were the principal means to synthesize and represent geographic information. Manipulating this information was limited to a manual, non-interactive process. Since then the rapid development of new technologies to collect and digitize geographic data, together with an increasing demand for both interactive manipulation and analysis of this data, has generated a need for dedicated software’s namely geographic information systems (GISs).

A GIS is more than a cartographic tool to produce maps. It stores geographic data, retrieves and combines this data to create new representations of geographic space, provides tools for spatial analysis, and performs simulations to help expert users to organize their work in many areas like public administration, transportation networks, military applications and environmental information systems. These above mentioned are few among many others where we are concerned with geographical locations, their present status, its potential for developmental activities, patterns of change over the years and the processes on the surface of the earth.

Geographic information technology is used to manipulate objects in geographic space, and to acquire knowledge from spatial facts. Spatial information theory provides a basis for GIS by bringing together fields that deal with spatial reasoning, the representation of space, and human understanding of space.

Over the past 12,000 years Homo sapiens have moved from the hunter–gatherer life-style to settled agriculture to advanced civilization in urban society with improved quality of life. Livestock has played an important role as an instrument of bringing out this change. Farmers all over the world, attach great importance to livestock ownership as a source of nutrition, as a mechanism for capital accumulation, and concomitantly, as a symbol of wealth and status in the community. Just as in today’s society, money is used to exchange goods and services, livestock including goats used to play the same role in times gone by. Most farmers consider livestock as a important resource for income generation. Livestock sector plays a significant role in supplementing family income and generating gainful employment in the rural sector, particularly among the landless, marginal and small farmers and women, besides providing cheap nutritional food to millions of people. History indicates that livestock has been not only a resource, but also an instrument of dominance and a source of conflict in the society. Livestock especially small ruminants have often served as a means for exchange of goods and services and thus becoming increasingly important in the growth of agriculture in developing economies.

Livestock species which man domesticated for improving the quality of human life include goat, sheep, cattle, buffalo, pig, poultry, horses and camels. Among these goats were the first among livestock species domesticated by man. Goats are among the smallest domesticated ruminants and have served mankind longer than cattle or sheep. Goat is an important source of meat, milk, skin, fiber and manure since then. Traditionally goats have been an important source of income generation among small households. Goats have been used to buy salt, cloth and groceries in many communities. Goats provide a large part of the cash income for smallholder farmers. Goats are friendly animals; with proper attention they maintain good health and can be managed easily even by children.

Sailors and other explorers out on the high seas kept goats as a ready stock of meat & milk on long voyages. Captain Cook’s goat had already sailed around the world before it entered on its first voyage with Cook, and helped save everyone on board the ship from scurvy. Goats are some times kept as pet or companion animal. Their use as pet is common in European countries especially U.K. Some owners keep goats for purpose of goat shows.

A Overview

Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with heredity and variation.

Genes are the unit of inheritance and are composed of DNA.

The effects of genes are noticeable at the molecular, cellular, family, and population levels.

Genes are DNA sequences that instruct cells to produce particular proteins, which in turn determine traits.

Genes can exist in more than one form and the variants of a gene arise by mutation.

An allele is a variant of a gene that alters its expression in a detectable way. Alleles can be dominant or recessive.

A polymorphism is a particular sequence of DNA that varies in one percent or more of the population.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms are single base pair sites that differ among individuals.

Chromosomes consist of genes and associated proteins.

The human genome consists of 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.

A karyotype is the photographic catalog of the human chromosomes.

Specialized cells and tissues arise by differentiation from the stem cells of the early embryo.

Pedigree diagrams enable recessive and dominant traits to be followed through multiple generations of a family.

A gene pool is the collection of alleles in a population.

Comparative genomics is leading to a more detailed and subtle understanding of evolutionary relationships among species

Uses of Microorganisms in Biotechnology

Somatostatin was the first human peptide hormone produced by recombinant bacteria

Many important medicines are produced by recombinant microorganisms

Bacterial species can be used as biological control agents

The release of recombinant microorganisms into the environment is sometimes controversial

Microorganisms can reduce environmental pollutants

1. ………… is the father of plant pathology.

   a) T J Burril

   c) Anton De Barry

   b) Needham

   d) E J Butler

2. ……… first time reported that plant diseases are caused by bacterium.

   a) Robert Koch

   c) Kuhn

   b) E F Smith

   d) T J Burril

DEFINITION OF VIRUS

Viruses are very small (submicroscopic) infectious particles (virions) composed of a protein coat and a nucleic acid core. They carry genetic information encoded in their nucleic acid, which typically specifies two or more proteins. Translation of the genome (to produce proteins) or transcription and replication (to produce more nucleic acid) takes place within the host cell and uses some of the host’s biochemical “machinery”. Viruses do not capture or store free energy and are not functionally active outside their host. They are therefore parasites (and usually pathogens) but are not usually regarded as genuine microorganisms.

Mathwas (1981) considers a virus as a set of one or more template molecules normally encased in a protective coat or coats of protein or lipoprotein, which is able to organize its own replication only within suitable host cells where its production is:

1. Dependent on hosts protein synthesizing machinery (ribosomes).
2. Organised from pools of required material rather than binary fission and
3. Located at sites which are not separated from the host cell contents by a lipoprotein bilayer membrane.

Bos (1983) defines virus as an infectious agent often causing disease, invisible with the light microscope (Sub-microscopic), small enough to pass through a bacterial filter, lacking a metabolism of its own and depending on a living host cell for multiplication. Viruses are small packages of host alien genetic information of one type. (RNA or DNA), either in one strand or in a few segment. Encapsulated together or separately and enclosed in a coat of one or more types of protein, some time with an extra coat (envelope) and some other constituents.

Plant diseases need to be controlled to maintain the quality and abundance of food, feed, and fiber produced by growers around the world. Different approaches may be used to prevent, mitigate or control plant diseases. Beyond good agronomic and horticultural practices, growers often rely heavily on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Such inputs to agriculture have contributed significantly to the spectacular improvements in crop productivity and quality over the past 100 years. However, the environmental pollution caused by excessive use and misuse of agrochemicals, as well as fear-mongering by some opponents of pesticides, has led to considerable changes in people’s attitudes towards the use of pesticides in agriculture. Today, there are strict regulations on chemical pesticide use, and there is political pressure to remove the most hazardous chemicals from the market. Additionally, the spread of plant diseases in natural ecosystems may preclude successful application of chemicals, because of the scale to which such applications might have to be applied. Consequently, some pest management researchers have focused their efforts on developing alternative inputs to synthetic chemicals for controlling pests and diseases. Among these alternatives are those referred to as biological controls.

7.1 Introduction

Evaporation is an unit operation which converts a liquid into a vapour, leaving behind a concentrated solution or a higher boiling liquid. In other words, the goal of evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a solution containing a desired product. Heat is the main tool in evaporation, and the process occurs more readily at high temperature and low pressures. Removal of water from foods provides microbiological stability, reduces deteriorative chemical reactions, and reduces transportation and storage costs. Evaporation can be distinguished from some other drying methods in that the final product of evaporation is a concentrated liquid, not a solid. It also differs from distillation, since the vapours produced in the evaporator are not further divided into fractions.

ABSTRACT

Over the last decade, hyperspectral remote sensing has become a powerful analysis tool for applications in environment and ecology, aquaculture, forestry, agriculture, and geoscience. A hyperspectral imagers advantage over broadband sensors, such as Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and the SPOT Haute Resolution Visible (HRV) sensor series, is its ability to detect molecular absorption and particle scattering signatures of constituents. The finer spectral resolution of a hyperspectral imager allows detection of surface materials and their abundances, as well as inferences of biological and chemical processes. This review highlights the vast extent to which hyperspectral technology and their application with special reference to ocean have been discussed.