eChapters

Biotechnology plays a very important role in agriculture as a result of its ability to modify microorganisms, plants, animals, and agricultural processes. The umbrella of microbial technology in agriculture covers numerous scientific activities, ranging from production of biofertilizers to that of microbial pesticides; from biological nitrogen fixation to lignocellulose degradation; from production of biomass and biofuels to transgenic plants. Terrestrial ecosystem contains an important dynamic living matrix termed soil, which is critical for agricultural production and food security. Soil forms the medium for growth and maintenance of a variety of plant species. Soil is considered a store house of microbial activity, though the space occupied by living microorganisms is estimated to be less than 5% of total space.

Proteins

Proteins are of central importance in the structure and function of all living organisms. Some proteins serve as structural components while others function in communication, defense, and cell regulation. Some proteins serve as enzymes that act as biological catalysts which control the pace and nature of essentially all biochemical events. Although DNA serves as the genetic blueprint of a cell, none of the life processes would be possible without the proteins.

Electrophoresis of Proteins

Proteins can be separated and purified. Methods for separating proteins take advantage of properties such as charge, size, and solubility, which vary from one protein to the next. Because many proteins bind to other biomolecules, proteins can also be separated on the basis of their binding properties. The source of a protein is generally tissue or microbial cells. The cell must be broken open and the protein must be released into a solution called a crude extract. If necessary, differential centrifugation can be used to prepare subcellular fractions or to isolate organelles. Once the extract or organelle preparation is ready, a variety of methods are available for separation of proteins. Ion-exchange chromatography can be used to separate proteins with different charges (similar to the way amino acids are separated). Other chromatographic methods take advantage of differences in size, binding affinity, and solubility. Nonchromatographic methods include the selective precipitation of proteins with salt, acid, or high temperatures. In addition to chromatography, another important set of methods is available for the separation of proteins, based on the migration of charged proteins in an electric field, a process called (gel) electrophoresis. Gel electrophoresis is especially useful as an analytical method. Its advantage is that proteins can be visualized as well as separated, permitting a researcher to estimate quickly the number of proteins in a mixture or the degree of purity of a particular protein preparation. Also, gel electrophoresis allows determination of crucial properties of a protein such as its isoelectric point and approximate molecular weight.

Soil Consistence Defined

Soil consistence is the strength with which soil materials are held together or the resistance of soils to deformation and rupture. Soil consistence is measured for wet, moist and dry soil samples. For wet soils, it is expressed in terms of both stickiness and plasticity. Stickiness is the ability of soil materials to adhere to other objects. Plasticity is the ability of the soil materials to change shape continuously under a constant pressure and to retain the impressed shape when the pressure is removed. Soil consistence may be estimated in the field using simple tests or may be measured more accurately in the laboratory.

Gravimetric analysis

Techniques – analyte is determined by quantitative isolation of substance by precipitation and weighing the precipitate

Diseases are caused by different kinds of microorganisms which may primarily attack specific plant organs initially. They may be either confined to the organs in which infection is successfully initiated and may spread to other organs to cause secondary infection. The plant organs initially affected may not show characteristic symptoms in certain cases as in root rot and wilt diseases. The root infection is recognized much later, when yellowing (chlorosis) of the leaves is observed. It may become very difficult to save the infected plants at this stage, since the pathogen is well established in the deeper tissues of the infected plants. However, the spread of the disease to the adjacent plants may be prevented by protective treatments. Integration of various principles of management of crop diseases has to be followed for successful crop cultivation. The combination of practices that can be applied varies with different types of diseases and the crops affected. Hence, the integrated management of crop diseases is discussed for different groups of diseases affecting primarily different plant organs/ tissues. Fungal and bacterial pathogens remaining in the soil or plant debris left over after harvest of previous crops infect the root system initially and crown or the basal portions of the stem may also be affected later.

Introduction

In developing countries, ruminants thrive mainly on poor quality feeds and pastures, whose nutritive value is poor. They are having a low content of nitrogen, energy, minerals and vitamins and high content of lignin and silica, which limit their efficient utilization by ruminants. Therefore, these poor quality feeds and fodder needs to be upgraded in terms of their nutritive value using various treatments like physical, chemical, physico chemical and biological methods to improve intake and utilization of nutrients from poor quality roughages. However, supplementation of critical nutrients like energy, protein, minerals, vitamins also improved the productivity and health of the ruminants (Dass et al., 2011). Availability of oil cakes as protein supplement in developing countries is very poor and at a very high price, This has led to use of non-protein nitrogen source as urea, to compensate for the nitrogen deficiency of fibrous feeds (Dutta et al., 2009). Thus, enhancing intake, digestibility and availability of nutrients from poor quality roughages are only possible through optimization of rumen fermentation. The use of solid multi-nutrient block supplementation /urea-molasses blocks/ multi nutrients blocks/ pashu chocolates to provide optimum levels of various nutrients primarily for better growth of rumen micro organisms. They need rich sources of fermentable nitrogen, minerals and vitamins, which are lacking in the fibrous feeds like cereal straws (Sahoo et al, 2009). This offer several advantages such as easy transport, storage and handling, and reduced risks of poisoning as compared with other approaches, such as giving a small amount of urea in drinking water, sprinkling of urea solution on fibrous feeds before feeding, or urea-ammonization of crop residues (Dutta et al ., 2009).

Dried Cocoa Bean have chemical composition as: The shell (testa) represents 10-14% dry weight of the cocoa bean, while the kernel or cotyledon is made up of most of the remaining 86-90%. The cotyledon confers characteristic flavours and aromas of chocolate and is composed of two types of parenchyma storage cells.

Before processing, the quality ofbeans is evaluated for the following indicators:

1. Degree of fermentation
2. Moisture content (maximum 6%)
3. Number of defects
4. Number of broken beans
5. Bean count (number per 100 g)

Definition

• Aetiology is defined as study of causation of disease.

Classification of Causes

• There are several agents or factors that can produce diseases in animals and can originate from within the body (intrinsic) or outside the body. (extrinsic).

Causes are classified into two categories

1. Predisposing causes (Intrinsic/Endogenous factors)

2. Definitive causes (Extrinsic/Exogenous factors)

Predisposing Causes

• Make the animal susceptible to definitive causes.

1) Leaf Spot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Initially oblong brown spots having about 4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width with grey centres surrounded with yellow hallo are found on the leaves.
• Large number of spots may be found on a single leaf and as the disease advances, spots enlarge and cover a major portion of leaf blade.
• Severly affected plants dry and wilt.
• Black dots acervuli formed in concentric rings on spot.The grey centres become thin and get teared(Fig-1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota
Sub- division : Deuteromycotina

First discovered by Scottish surgeon sir Alexander ogston (1880) in infected tissues. He named it as staphylococcus” (Greek staphyle, bunch of grapes;
KOKKAS, berry).
Systematics
Domain : Bacteria
Phylum : Firmicutes
Class : Bacilli
Order : Bacillales
Family : Staphylococcaceae
Genus : Staphylococcus
Species : Staph. aureus
Staph. Intermedius
Staph. hyicus
Habitat and Ecology
Staphylococcus occurs worldwide in mammals although the spread of staphylococcal strains between different animal species is limited. They colonise the nasal cavity, skin and mucous membranes and can be transient in the intestinal tract. It is an opportunist type organism.

Introduction
A natural disaster refers to a significant and harmful occurrence caused by the Earth’s natural processes. Examples of natural disasters include floods, storms, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic phenomena. A natural calamity can result in fatalities or destruction of property, and usually leads to economic harm, the extent of which is determined by the afflicted population’sability to bounce back and the availability of infrastructure.
Categories of Natural Disasters/ Catastrophes
Floods
A flood is the result of water overflowing and covering land. According to the EU Floods Directive, a flood is defined as the temporary  inundation of territory that istypically not submerged in water. Flooding can occur when the amount of water in ariver or lake exceeds its  capacity, causing the water to overflow and breach its normal borders. The size of a lake or other body of water may alter due to seasonal variations in precipitation and snow melt. However, it is not considered a substantial flood unlessthe water submerges land that is utilized by humans, such as villages, cities, populated areas, highways, and farms.

INTRODUCTION

Promoting agroforestry is a major opportunity to deal with problems related to land-use and CO2-induced global warming (Albrecht and Kandji 2003). As per recent projections, the area of the world under agroforestry will increase substantially in the near future. Undoubtedly, this will have a great impact on the flux and long-term storage of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere (Dixon 1995). Several studies have shown that inclusion of trees in the agricultural landscapes often improves the productivity of systems while providing opportunities to create carbon sinks (Winjum et al. 1992; Dixon et al. 1993; Krankina and Dixon 1994; Dixon 1995). The amount of carbon sequestered largely depends on the structure and function of agroforestry systems - which to a great extent, are determined by environmental and socio-economic factors. Other factors influencing carbon storage in agroforestry systems include tree species and management system. The significance of agroforestry with regards to carbon sequestration and other CO2 mitigating effects is being widely recognized. There are sound reasons to believe that agroforestry can contribute significantly to carbon sequestration. It is important that research attention is focused on this aspect of agroforestry systems (Nair and Nair 2002).

Introduction

Agriculture is the base of Indian economy on which the fortunes of over 70 million families directly or indirectly rest. The women in these families are also partners in crop and food production as managers, decision makers and skilled farm workers. The socio economic advancement of a country can be best judged by the status and position, which is bestowed on its women. Women as a class, play a vital role in the process of economic development. According to census 2001, women constitute 48.26 per cent of the total population of India and 25.67 per cent of the female population are designated. Amongst the female workers, 32.50 per cent are identified as cultivators and 39.43 per cent as agricultural labourers.

Seed Germination Test

Germination is the process of emergence and development of seed embryo into a plant under favourable environmental conditions of water, soil, sunlight and temperature. The best example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm plant. It reflects the ability of seed to produce a normal plant under favourable environmental conditions. The germination rate of a particular seed lot is a key indicator of its performance in the field.

Livestock feeds have a variety of feed stuffs for feeding. Composition and characteristics differ even amongcloselyrelated feeds.Also, cost and availability of such feeds at a particular place, makes the farmer to choose for practical feeding. Therefore, it becomes imperative to learn about such classes. Feeds may generally be classified according to the amount of a specific nutrient they provide intheration. Theymayconvenientlybe divided intotwo general classes– roughages and concentrates. Roughages are bulky feeds containing more than 18 per cent crude fibre, but less than 60 per cent total digestible nutrients. Contrary to this, concentrates have less than 18 per cent fibre, but more than 60 per cent total digestible nutrients. Roughages may be further sub-divided intosucculent and drytypes.Whereas, concentratesare sub-dividedintoEnergy or basal feeds havingless than 20 percent crude protein and Protein supplements havingmorethan 20percent crude protein. Followingfeeds indicate theoutlines of classification [Flow chart 1] of the conventional feeds into broad categories with examples.

Lawn is the basic feature of garden without which a garden is seldom complete. All other features are selected and placed considering lawn as a first primary feature. A well spread out land planted with uniform lush green grass of particular type serves as a heart of all gardens. Lawn with systematic planting of shrubs and seasonal flower beds along with well placed specimen plants is the most striking feature of the garden.

Developing a good lawn is not an easy task. One has to consider many things like selection of site, preparation of the land and type of grass to be planted besides its maintenance. Following points need to be considered while developing a lawn.

Site and Soil

Selection of site is an important primary factor. Under full or partial shade, a good lawn can not be developed. The part of proposed garden which receives full sunlight at least four hours a day preferably in the morning should be selected as a site for lawn. Planting of tall trees is to be avoided at the south and south-eastern side of the lawn which obstructs sunlight and provides shade.

Chi-square test is a non-parametric test as the null hypothesis does not contain any assumption regarding the population parameter. Chi-square is also written as c₂. In this chapter two uses of chi-square test will be dealt with. They are the following :

Precipitation

An ionic phenomena wherein the product of the ionic concentrations of a substance in a solution exceeds the solubility product

Precipitate is often ignited before weighing to convert it into substance of definite chemical composition and chemical stability

Compound precipitated –– precipitated form

Example: Magnesium ammonium phosphate

6.1. Cotton

6.1.1. Leafhopper: Amrasca devastans (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)

Integrated plant nutrition system conceptualized by food and agriculture organization is the maintenance or adjustment of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrients viz. organic manures, fertilizers, crop residues, compost or nitrogen fixing crops etc. in an integrated manner.