eChapters

Plants have to transport water and nutrients absorbed by the roots from the soil and photosynthetic products from the leaves to other plant parts and storage tissues through the stem tissues. Infection by fungal and bacterial pathogens interferes with the movement of the essential materials leading to the derangement of several physiological functions to varying degrees and even collapse of the aerial plant parts.

16.1 Fungal Pathogens causing Diseases Affecting Stems of Plants

Fungal pathogens cause blight, stem rot, rust, anthracnose, die-back and canker symptoms on the stem tissues of several crops. These pathogens may be soilborne or airborne generally, while some of them may spread through water also.

Introduction

The key factor of sustainability in the animal sector depends upon genetic improvement in domestic livestock. There are many reproductive and molecular biotechnologies used for the genetic improvement of domestic livestock and they are synergistically coupled with the breeding program in distinct breeding targets. With the help of gene editing techniques (e.g. CRISPR etc.). To improve the specific traits of interest scientists can add, delete or replace the nucleotides (e.g. milk production, meat production, disease resistance, etc.) in less than one generation. Gene editing with the conventional breeding program in livestock is an important factor for genetic improvement for increasing the rate of genetic gain. In the present topic, here, we delved into the most important reproductive and molecular technologies used in livestock genetic improvement, as well as the most effective ways for incorporating gene editing into existing genetic improvement programmes and targeting specific traits for enhancement. The improvement in genetic level is a most powerful part of sustainable animal development because it is permanent and the effects are long-lasting and cumulative. Genetic advancements produced in one generation are passed on to the following, unlike dietary and animal health treatments, which are a continuous process. The many livestock operations that involve chemical and mechanical methods such as dehorning requires time, worker, money, animal safety, etc., but their genetic alternation of the concerned gene for the polled or hornless condition can exclude the requirement of physical dehorning. (Gottardo et al. 2011; Tompson et al. 2017).

Introduction

Avian mycoplasmosis is caused by several pathogenic mycoplasma of which mycoplasmosis due to Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg), Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) and Mycoplasma meleagridis are important. The mycoplasma are group of bacteria that lack cell wall due to which the shape of bacteria is pleomorphic. Due to lack of cell wal, mycoplasma are resistant to those drug which act on cell wall and includes Penicillin and its derivatives. Mycoplasma primarily affects respiratory system and joints in birds and respiratory and urogenital system in humans. The avian mycoplasma are mainly transmitted by vertical route (egg transmission), but can also transmitted by horizontal route. Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg) causes chronic respiratory disease (CRD) in chicken, turkeys and game birds. Mycoplasma synoviae (Ms) causes infectious synovitis in chicken and turkeys whereas Mycoplasma meleagridis cause disease in turkey. The Mg and Ms belongs to class of Mollicutes (Molecutis: soft tissue), order Mycoplasmatales and family Mycoplasmataceae. The CRD caused by Mg affects respiratory system and air sac in presence of other respiratory pathogen/ stress or immunosuppression. Clinically, CRD affected birds show respiratory rales, gasping, nasal discharge, and rhinitis with mortality due to complication with other respiratory viral pathogens or E. coli infection. The Ms has affinity for tendon and ligaments of joint causing severe lameness due to tenosynovitis with mild lesions in respiratory system and air sac. The Ms affected birds show lameness, breast blister and increased culling of male breeder birds. The Mg and Ms causes significant losses in poultry industry due to decreased egg production, condemnation and downgrading of carcass and decreased hatchability. Mycoplasma meleagridis in turkey associated with air sacculitis and drop in egg production.

Abstract

A study on colloids in groundwater and its relationship with the geochemical parameters is reasonably essential because of its facilitating nature to transport radionuclides in groundwater. Colloid sampling has been carried out in the coastal aquifers of southeast coast of India. Two different bore wells were selected based on the distance from the coast to collect groundwater samples. On the basis of the result achieved from this study, a reliable representation is emerging. The values of pH and EC are governed by the different size fraction of colloids. In this study, the relation between different size fractions of groundwater colloids and its pH, TDS and EC were carried out. These parameters were analyzed in the lab and its influence with four fractions of colloid like 1.2, 0.8, 0.45 and 0.22 µm have been discovered by smooth scatter plot. The accumulation of particles weighting by normal weighing instrument. There is an higher accumulation of particles found in Kalpakkam than Anupuram in all the size fractions. For separation of particles high frequency pressure was used by ultrasonic cleaner had been carried out. This method is very simple and more reasonable than any other methods.

ABSTRACT

This paper attempts to portray prevailing scenario of IPR in the light of globalization with special emphasis on harmonization of IPR systems and laws of different countries. 

INTRODUCTION

The globalization of information, facilitated by the Internet, has significant implications for intellectual property regimes of national and international levels. Assessment of these implications and their probable outcomes is unavoidably value-driven. Globalization represents ever-increasing influence of developed nations and transnational entities over developing and less developed nations. The process has also brought in significant changes in understandings of sovergenity. An analysis of the implications of globalization of information on international and domestic intellectual property rights and legal regimes is a complex endeavor.

The genetic code uses 64 codons to represent the 20 standard amino acids and the translation termination signal. Each codon is recognised by a subset of a cell’s transfer ribonucleotide acid molecules (tRNAs) and with the exception of a few codons that have been reassigned in some lineages (Osawa and Jukes 1989; Osawa et al., 1990) the genetic code is remarkably conserved, although it is still in a state of evolution (Osawa et al.,1992). The genetic code uses 64 codons to represent the 20 standard amino acids and the translation termination signal. Each codon is recognised by a subset of a cell’s transfer ribonucleotide acid molecules (tRNAs) and with the exception of a few codons that have been reassigned in some lineages (Osawa and Jukes 1989; Osawa et al., 1990) the genetic code is remarkably conserved, although it is still in a state of evolution (Osawa et al., 1992).

Introduction

In order to define climate it is important to distinguish it from weather. The weather that we experience on a day-to-day basis is a momentary atmospheric state characterized by temperature, precipitation, wind, and so on, and seems to vary in an irregular way, not following any particular pattern. Climate is a very general term that has a variety of closely related meanings. Usually, climate refers to the average weather conditions observed over a long period of time for a given area. In contrast to the instantaneous conditions described by weather, the timescale upon which climate statistics are calculated is typically thirty years. There can be variations in climate from year to year, or one decade to another, one century to another, or any longer time scale. The climate of a region depends on many factors including the amount of sunlight it receives, its height above sea level, the shape of the land, distance from the equator and how close it is to oceans. Generally speaking, the climate remains stable over long periods of time if the various elements within the system remain stable. However, if one or more of the components of the system is altered, the stability of the whole system is compromised and can lead to uncharacteristic behaviour and give rise to weather, which is outside the usual range of expectations. This situation can be described as climate change.

ABSTRACT

Brinjal is an important solanaceous vegetable, which holds coveted position among the different vegetables. Developing hybrids with high yield and resistance to borer would be highly beneficial. The biochemical parameters are used to study the mechanism of resistance to pests and diseases. With this aim, the biochemical constituents were estimated in five intervarietal hybrids and their parents with susceptible variety. The study on biochemical basis of resistance to shoot and fruit borer showed that among the parents of intervarietal crosses, EP 65 had the highest level of peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase and total phenol content in both shoot and fruit and it also recorded high content of solasodine next to APAU Bagmathi. Among the hybrids, the cross EP 65 x Pusa Uttam had the highest level of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase activity in both shoot and fruit and high level of total phenols and solasodine content next to EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi . The susceptible check (CO 2) registered the lowest value for all the biochemical constituents .The study revealed that the genotypes with high or moderate level of these biochemical constituents suffered less for shoot and fruit borer infestation.

The native gel electrophoretic study showed that for peroxidase enzyme, the intervarietal hybrids EP 65 x Pusa Uttam, EP 12 x MDU 1 and EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi and the susceptible variety CO 2 did not show difference in the induction of isoform (PO-1) and all were single and thick. For polyphenol oxidase (PPO), the intervarietal hybrids and the variety CO 2 showed single and strong band induction

The evaluation of genotypes based on biochemical constituents and isozyme studies revealed the superiority of the parents EP 65, APAU Bagmathi and MDU 1and the hybrids EP 65 x Pusa Uttam, EP 12 x MDU 1 and EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi. The identified hybrids with high yield and resistance to shoot and fruit borer could be exploited for commercial cultivation.

There are many different methods of extracting DNA bands from an agarose gel. Which one you choose will probably depend on the consumables you have available in your lab. Another important consideration is the yield/ purity of the DNA after extraction. Agarose contains various impurities which may inhibit downstream reactions if not efficiently removed from the DNA. We used to give the generic term ‘hoonose’ to the unspecified carbohydrates that co-purified along with the DNA and inhibited enzyme reactions. Modern spin-column kits are very good at removing impurities, old-fashioned ‘kitchen sink’ methods are less good.

Cutting Out the DNA Band

Most of the methods require you to cut out the band. You must visualise the band, in an ethidium bromide stained gel, in a dark-room on a UV light- box (a trans-illuminator). UV is dangerous, wear gloves, long-sleeves and face protection. Never look at UV with unprotected eyes. If possible, set the trans-illuminator to long-wavelegth UV (or low-power) and minimise the amount of time the DNA is exposed. This is because the UV mutagenises the DNA at a measurable rate. Use a scalpel blade to cut around the band of interest. Switch off the transilluminator, switch on the white light and carefully remove the band from the gel and place it on the glass. It is good to trim off as much empty agarose as possible so go back to UV illumination briefly to do this. Place the excised band in a 1.5mL microfuge tube.

7.1. Early shoot borer: Chiloinfuscatellus snellen

1. Damage symptoms

The development of a recipe for chocolate should be based on three criteria:

(i) The intended market or use;

(ii) The limitation being placed on material and production costs;

(iii) The desired quality.

The amount of fat present in the chocolate will affect the flow properties, and fat content must therefore be varied according to the intended use.

Some point to remember while manufacturing chocolate:

1. To maintain proper viscosity if fat content is increased then sugar content should also be increased.
2. Milk chocolate requires lower fat content than dark chocolate.
3. Addition of emulsifier like commercial lecithin can save upto 5% of added cocoa butter.

Fruit crops are mostly composite plants consisting of scion and rootstock, except banana, papaya, and strawberry. Rootstock exhibits a great influence on the performance of a scion in terms of production efficiency, yields, quality, adoptability, and resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses. The primary function of a rootstock is to provide anchorage or support to the scion by growing deep into the soil and also regulating the uptake of moisture and nutrients. The rootstock cannot be changed during the life-time of a plant, so it makes it inevitable to pay more focused attention to it because its functions are long-term and complex.

ABSTRACT

This paper is an attempt to analyze the plausible impacts on the economy and social issues of developing countries with reference to enforcement of IPR.

Introduction

From commodity based nature, business has changed during the past hundred years in a way that ideas and knowledge have taken higher value than commodities. Today, many companies find their most valuable assets being intangible and they are therefore dependent on functioning IPR systems. But does the rigid protection of IPR serve all the people in our globalized world? The purpose of this paper is to discuss the impact of the introduction of IPR protection on developing and under developed countries in the light of TRIPS Agreement.

Abstract

This paper portray the generation of spectral signature library for semi arid area crops using hyperspectral data and the scope of the application of the generated digital library for the classification of the satellite imagery of similar regions.

Hypersprctral data have narrow bands which help to provide additional information related to observed features. In case of this agriculture study crop related information are gathered using hyperspectral sensors The variation in the observations are due to physic-chemical characteristics such as biochemical composition, physical structure, water content and plant ecophysical status. Using the hand held spectroradiometer the reflectance is captured for the bajra, moong, moth crops from the Rajasthan, India’s semi arid region. The observations have been taken for different dates considering the phenology of the crops. Hyperion data from EO-1 satellite have been used to implement the classification operation based on the spectral signature library of bajra. It is observed that the image with the crops can be classified according to the phenology difference.

Chocolate is almost unique as a food in that it is solid at normal room temperatures yet melts easily within the mouth. This is because the main fat in it, which is called cocoa butter, is essentially solid at temperatures below 25^oC when it holds all the solid sugar and cocoa particles together. This fat is, however, almost entirely liquid at body temperature, enabling the particles to flow past one another, so the chocolate becomes a smooth liquid when it is heated in the mouth. Chocolate also has a sweet taste that is attractive to most people.

The first known cocoa plantations were established by the Maya in the lowlands of south Yucatan about 600 AD. Cocoa trees were being grown by the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru when the Europeans discovered central America. The beans were highly prized and used as money as well as to produce a drink known as chocolatl. The beans were roasted in earthenware pots and crushed between stones, sometimes using decorated heated tables and mill stones, similar to those illustrated in Figure 1.1.

1. Market information includes

a) Market intelligence

b) Market news

c) Both a and b

d) Marketing

2. Historical nature of market information is

a) Market intelligence

b) Market news

c) Market information

d) Marketing

3. Current information about markets is

a) Market intelligence

b) Market news

c) Market information

d) Marketing

A nursery is a place, where seedling, saplings, trees, shrubs and other plant materials are raised and sold out for planting in gardens and orchards. The prerequisites of a successful and remunerative fruit production are the availability of true-type, healthy and good quality planting materials. Nursery is, therefore, a place where one can produce true to type plants by gaining technical skill, maintaining plants property and by careful planning. Like orchard establishment, establishment of a nursery is also at permanent venture and any mistake made initially can’t be rectified easily in the later stages. Therefore, for establishing a nursery, due care in selection of site, plants to be raised and transportation facilitation etc. must be given.

Key Points

• It might be necessary to administer oxygen or perform artificial respiration. Giving tranquilizers is not a good idea.

• Precaution: It's crucial to always follow the label's instructions on how to use pesticides since they provide information on how to do so. Warnings against using on unapproved species or in testing conditions must also be included on labels. A maximum of care should be made to prevent drift or drainage to neighboring fields, pastures, ponds, streams, or other properties outside the treatment area. In no case should amounts larger than those specifically recommended be utilized.

Introduction

It has been determined that a number of plant species are poisonous to animals. These plants not only posed a health risk to humans and animals, but they also significantly reduced cattle productivity. Many plants contain chemicals that can be dangerous or even lethal to animals. The degree of toxicity varies based on the animal species, the quantity of plant material ingested, and the particular poisonous compounds in question. In general, there are two categories of dangerous plants: those that are known to be toxic and contain toxic compounds, and those that are normally non-toxic but can turn hazardous in certain circumstances. Here are some typical plant toxicities, along with information on managing toxicity and clinical signs.

Introduction

Wool which obtained primarily from sheep is an essential textile fiber that is used across the world. Whether for clothing, canvas work, carpets, or even upholstery, wool is a vital resource supporting many industries and occupations. This natural fiber has many benefits, such as being biodegradable, easy to clean and even having a natural structure that traps air which is excellent for heat retention. The annual wool production is 2 million tones. China ranks first in terms of global wool production. With a production of more than 333,624 tonnes of wool in 2020, China accounts for approximately 19% of the global wool clip. Australia produces 16% of global wool and is by far the largest wool exporter in the world. There has been a constant increase in the demand of wool products worldwide. This has made scientists to try to improve livestock and livestock associated derivatives. The conventional system along with the recent biotechnological interventions will be helpful for enhancing wool quality and production.

Scheme

The needy livestock farmer visits the banks in the local area and enquire with the bank manager about the livestock projects and after having discussion with him, he visits the technical expert. A scheme can be prepared by a beneficiary after consulting local technical persons of State animal husbandry department, DRDA, SLPP, etc. livestock co-operative society/union/federation/commercial livestock farmers. If possible, the beneficiaries should also visit progressive livestock farmers and government/military/agricultural university livestock farm in the vicinity and discuss the profitability of livestock farming. A good practical training and experience in livestock farming will be highly desirable. The livestock co-operative societies established in the villages as a result of efforts by the Livestock Development Department of State Government and National Livestock Development Board would provide all supporting facilities particularly marketing of fluid milk. Nearness of livestock farm to such a society, veterinary aid centre, artificial insemination centre should be ensured. There is a good demand for milk, if the livestock farm is located near urban centre. The scheme should include information on land, livestock markets, availability of water, feeds, fodders, veterinary aid, breeding facilities, marketing aspects, training facilities, experience of the farmer and the type of assistance available from State Government, livestock society/union/federation.