eChapters

1. Central Fertilizer Quality Control & Training Institute (CFQC&TI) is situated at

a. Mysore           b. Karnal

c. Faridabad        d. Coimbatore

9.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1 Which insect order is close related to Diptera?

a) Hymenoptera b) Orthoptera

c) Plecoptera d) Zygentoma

RICE (Oryza sativa)
Fungal diseases
1. Blast
Symptoms: All above ground parts (leaf, leaf sheath, culm) of the plant are affected. There are three type of blasts (leaf blast, node blast, neck blast)
Leaf blast: Eye or spindle shaped spots on leaves (margin is dark brown and centre becomes ashy) and leaf sheath are observed. Several spots appear on the leaves cause blightening.

ABSTRACT

Supercritical fluid extraction technology specifically employing carbon dioxide as an extracting solvent under supercritical conditions have gained tremendous importance in the commercial applications as well as academic fields. The basic advantage is its operation above pressure and critical temperature. The most convenient things are variations of pressure, temperatures, batch time, flow rate and fractionation of important constituents of essential oils, herbs and petrochemicals. In the recent times most of the researchers have studied the Organic synthesis under supercritical conditions with the improved yield and reaction selectivity. The chapter also describes the thermodynamics also.

A carbohydrate is a large biological molecules, or macromolecules, consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen : oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula C_m(H₂O)_n (where m could be different from n). Some exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C₅H₁₀O₄. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.

The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide. The carbohydrates (saccharides) are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. In general, the monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are smaller (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the monosaccharide glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose.

Arsenic
General Information

    1.    Exists in elemental form (-3), trivalent As+3 and pentavalent As+5 oxidation states
    2.    Arsenic is an essential element for rats, chicks, mini-pigs and goats
    3.    The second most important pollutant for livestock. 

Source

Inorganic form is used in paints.
Pasture near smelters may be contaminated. 
Industrial effluents released into nearby water body.
Insecticides (arsenic trioxide, lead arsenate).
 

1.    Fruit Crops
    
2.    Spices
    
3.    Masticatory Crops
    
4.    Vegetables
    
5.    Plantation Crops
    
6.    Tuber Crops
    
7.    Medicinal Plants
    
8.    Ornamental Plants
    
9.    Future Prospects
        
References

Social civilization of the Neolithic settlements of primitive human communities contributes substantial initiation of cultivation and an approach towards conservation of useful plant species for sustainable food habits. Several archaeological attestations confirm that Homo sapiens at the end of the Paleolithic period had knowledge on many useful plants derived from food gathering techniques. Growth of human populations beyond the size that hardly supports hunting and gathering for food materials may perhaps be the probable reason that forced the Neolithic primitive nomadic communities for settlement and emergence of crude forms of cultivation.

Introduction

Humans have inhabited the earth for nearly 2 million years. For over 90 per cent of this period, the maximum population numbered about 200,000 and the growth rate was only about 0.01 percent per year. The use of fire and the development of tools were the first major changes affecting human population growth which increased to about 5 million individuals about 100,000 years ago. The population remained fluctuating about this mean value for the next 90,000 years depending upon the food supply. Up to this time people were hunterer-gatherers and depended exclusively on the natural ecosystem for their food. Then about 10,000 years ago, humans began to cultivate crops for food. With established agriculture came an increased and stable food supply. This contributed to an increased growth rate of the human population (Dhaliwal et al., 1998).

• Botanical name: Lycopersicon esculatum
• Family: Solaceae
• Origin: Peru/Mexico
• CN: 24
• India is the second largest producer of tomato in the world after China followed by Turkey, USA and Italy.
• Highest producing state:Orrisa > Andhra pradesh > KN
• Highest productivity: KN > MH > Assam
• Tomato is universally treated as ‘Protective food’.
• The total sugar content is 2.5% in ripe fruit.
• Vitamin-C: 16–65mg/100g of fruit weight.
• The total amino acid is 100–350mg/100g of fruit weight.
• Processed product of tomato like puree and paste have great demand in export.
• Tomato is a herbaceous, annual to perennial plant.

Flavour, colour, inclusions, ripples, and variegates play important roles in creating distinctive ice cream products and enhancing consumer appeal. This chapter examines different flavouring materials and colouring systems used in ice cream, together with chocolate, cocoa, fruits, nuts, cookies, sauces, and other inclusions. It explains the formulation and processing considerations associated with ripples, ribbons, variegates, and complex flavour systems. Proper ingredient compatibility, dosage, distribution, and processing are essential for maintaining product quality. The chapter also addresses common flavour defects and their possible causes. Together, these topics provide practical guidance for developing attractive, innovative, stable, and commercially successful flavoured ice cream products.

Flooding and soil erosion are closely connected because concentrated runoff detaches, transports, and deposits soil material throughout a watershed and river system. Raindrop impact initiates splash erosion, while surface flow produces sheet, rill, and eventually gully erosion. Sediment generated from fields and channels reduces reservoir capacity, raises riverbeds, obstructs drainage, and lowers channel conveyance, thereby increasing flood risk. This chapter explains erosion mechanisms, classifications, influencing factors, gully development, sediment yield, sediment-delivery ratio, suspended and bed loads, and sediment-transport models. It also examines soil-loss estimation and agronomic or structural conservation measures that can reduce erosion, control sediment movement, and improve watershed-level flood management

The genus Clostridium belongs to the family Clostridiaceae. The genus name was originated from the Greek word ‘klo ster’, which means ‘spindle’ referring to their individual rod shape. Clostridia are gram positive, large, sporulating anaerobic rods (except C. piliforme which is gram negative). At present, there are more than 200 numbers of species under the genus Clostridium. Among them, 15 species can produce potent toxins and are considered as pathogenic for animals and human. The animal pathogenic clostridia can be classified as neurotoxic, histotoxic and enteric.

Important Points to Remember

• The term Biochemistry (biosG = life) was first introduced by a German chemist Carl Neuberg in 1903. Biochemistry may be defined as a science concerned with the chemical nature and chemical behavior of the living matter.
• Major organic molecules present in the living beings are: carbohydrates, proteins (of course, including enzymes), lipids and nucleic acids.
• Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. They are primarily composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• The name carbohydrate literally means ‘hydrates of carbon’. The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides that have the general formula (CH2O)n where n is 3 or more.
• Carbohydrates may be defined as polyhydroxyaldehydes or ketones or compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. The term ‘sugar’ is applied to carbohydrates soluble in water and sweet to taste.

4.1 Composition of Concentrate Mixture
 
The ingredient composition of experimental concentrate mixture is presented in Table 3. Groundnut cake in T1 and T3 were treated with formaldehyde as a tool of protein protection while protected fat at the rate of 10g per liter milk production per animal in T2 and T3 was added in concentrate mixture before feeding every day.

Introduction
 
Soybean (Glycine max L. Merril) is the world’s most important oil yielding legume which contributes 25% of the global edible oil, about two thirds of the world’s protein concentrate feeds for livestock, poultry and fish. India ranks fifth in the area and production in the world after USA, Brazil, Argentina and China. The contribution of India in the world soybean area is 10% but to total world soybean production is only 4% indicating the poor levels of productivity of the crop in India (1.1 t/ha) as compared to other courtiers (World average 2.2 t/ha) which is a major cause of concern.

Nanoscience and nanotechnologies are set to transform the global industrial landscape, but the debate on how to regulate environmental, health and safety risks is lagging behind technological innovation. Current regulatory efforts are primarily focused on the national and regional level, while the international dimensions of nanotechnology governance are still poorly understood and rarely feature on the international agenda. With the ongoing globalization of nanosciences and the rapid expansion of international trade in nanomaterials, however, demand for international coordination and harmonization of regulatory approaches is set to increase. However, uncertainty about nanotechnology risk poses a profound dilemma for regulators and policy-makers. Uncertainty both creates demand for and stands in the way of greater international cooperation and harmonization of regulatory approaches. Falkner Robert and Jaspers Nico (2012) reviewed the emerging debate on nanotechnology risk and regulatory approaches, investigates the current state of international cooperation and outlines the critical contribution that a global governance approach can make to the safe development of nanotechnologies. 

Plant diseases are of paramount importance to humans because they damage plants and plant products on which humans depends for food, clothing, furniture, the environment and in many cases the housing. The kinds and amounts of losses caused by plant diseases vary with the plant or plant products, the pathogen, the locality, the environment, the control measures practiced and combination of these factors (Agrios, 2005). Disease is one of the major biotic constraints to reduce crop yield and also deteriorate the quality of product that ultimately reduce the market price.

Hypothesis: A statement about the value of a population parameter developed for the purpose of testing.

Type I and Type II Errors

•    Type I Error: Rejecting the null hypothesis when it should not be rejected.
    •    Therefore accepting the alternative hypothesis (your theory) when you should not.
    •    Probability of a Type I error is called a.
•    Type II Error: Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it should be rejected.
    •    Therefore not accepting the alternative hypothesis (your theory). Opportunity loss.
    •    Probability of a Type I error is called b.
•    Minimizing Type I errors is the main concern of hypothesis testing

1. IMPORTANCE

India is bestowed with a varied agro-climate, which is highly favourable for growing a large number of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, root tubers, ornamentals, aromatic plants, medicinal herbs, spices and plantation crops like coconut, arecanut, cashew and cocoa. It has emerged as an indispensable part of agriculture, offering a wide range of choices to the farmers for crop diversification. It also provides ample opportunities for sustaining large number of agro-industries which generate substantial employment opportunities. India has emerged as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables; with largest producer of coconut, arecanut, cashew, ginger, turmeric, black pepper and tea, among plantation crops.

The changing scenario encourages private investment, to go for Hi-tech Horticulture with micro-propagation, protected cultivation, drip irrigation, fertigation and integrated nutrient and pest management, besides making use of latest post harvest measures particularly in the case of perishable commodities. As a result, horticulture crop production has moved from rural confines to commercial ventures and has attracted youth since it has proved to be intellectually satisfying and economically rewarding. It is essential to appreciate the contribution of horticulture, landscaping and gardening in the hospitality industry. Aesthetic use of horticulture freshens up the atmosphere, enhances the look of the property and creates a lasting impression on guests. It also has a beneficial effect on the health.