eChapters

These are a broad group of plants that have evolved in situations characterized by very high day temperatures and low night temperatures with very low available moisture in the growing medium. Their plant body is modified to conserve moisture with physiological adaptations that help to reduce moisture loss considerably and to survive in hot desert situations or drought conditions. Stems, leaves and roots of these plants are fleshy and rich in watery mucus. The unusual morphological features that these plants have developed to enable them to survive in their harsh native habitats, set them apart from other plants and have given them rarity value when grown as ornamentals. They are hence displayed individually or grown in a rockery where a landscape of rocks and stones highlight their features and at the same time provide desirable contrast with other garden plants. Many members of Cactaceae, Crassulaceae, Aizoaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asphodelaceae and Agavaceae belong to this group and are commonly referred to as rock garden plants.

1. Botanical name: Garcinia gummigutta L (Roxb).

2. Family: Clusiaceae

3. Common Name : Cambodge Tree, Malabar-tamarind

4. Name in Indian languages

Panapuli (Kodwa), Manda huli, Mantulli, Punara huli, Seeme hunnise, Upagi mara (Kannada), Gorakkapuli, Pinar, Kodampuli, Kudapuli, Marapuli, Meenpuli, Perumpuli, Pinampuli (Malayalam), Gorakkapuli, Heela, Kottukkappuli, Panampuli (Tamil).

Fruits and vegetables play an important role in balanced diet. These provide not only energy rich food but also provide vital protective nutrients/elements and vitamins. Comparatively fruits and vegetables are the cheapest source of natural nutritive foods. Since most of Indians are vegetarians, the incorporation of horticulture produce in daily diet is essential for good health. Realizing the worth of fruits and vegetables in human health, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommended the use of 120g fruits and 300g vegetables per capita per day. With the growing awareness and inclination towards vegetarianism worldwide the horticulture crops are gaining tremendous importance.

Functions of fruits and vegetables in human body

Fruits and vegetables provide palatability/taste.

Improves appetite and provides fiber to overcome constipation.

They neutralize the acids produced during digestion of proteins and fatty acids.

They improve the general immunity of human body against diseases, deficiencies etc.

They are the important source of vitamins and minerals for used in several bio-chemical reactions occur in body.

2.1. Introduction

The engine is the source that generates power. It transforms chemical energy in fuel into mechanical energy for power. Diesel internal combustion engines are invariably used in all the tractors. In these engines, very high compression of the air ignites the fuel as compared to spark plug that ignites fuel in petrol engines. The air in the diesel engine is compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15 and 22 resulting in a 40 bar (about 600 psi) pressure as compared to 8 to 14 bar (about 200 psi) in the petrol engine. This high compression heats the air to 550°C (1022°F). At about this moment, small droplets of fuel are sprayed in an atomized form directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber.

2.2. How does it work?

Any engine will work with four strokes, namely suction, compression, power and exhaust (Fig 2.1). It will also complete two revolutions of the crankshaft. In the suction stroke, pure air is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve. The exhaust valve gets closed and the crankshaft completes half a revolution. In the compression stroke, the piston moves up while the valves remain closed. The air which is drawn into the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed. There is a rise in temperature. The hot air ignites the fuel injected into the cylinder. The crankshaft again completes half a revolution. In the power stroke, the hot products of combustion, viz., carbon dioxide and nitrogen expand. The piston is forced down. The valves remain closed and the crankshaft completes half a revolution. In the exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve opens while the piston reaches the lowest point of travel. Then the burnt gases are swept out.

Wood apple is also known as kaith, kavat, curd apple and monkey fruit. It is found almost throughout the country. It is one of the very hardy tree found growing in arid and semi arid regions of the country. Hill region of northern India and Ceylon are supposed to be its native land (Reuther et al., 1967). Chundawat (1990) thought it to be a native of India and Sri Lanka. It is a popular tree of forest, Indoor yard garden and can be exploited for regular cultivation in dry areas. The cricket ball size fruits have sweet and aromatic pulp, eaten fresh or used for drinks, chutneys, jellies etc. In forests of Rajasthan, it is commonly found in Aravalli range and Hadoti Plateau.

Almond (Prunus dulcis, syn. Prunus amygdalus Batsch.) is an important temperate fruit crop. In India, it is mostly cultivated in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Almond is a small deciduous tree, growing to 3–10 m tall, with a trunk up to 30 cm diameter. The young shoots are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their second year. The leaves are lanceolate, 4–13 cm long and 1.2–4 cm broad, with a serrated margin and a 2.5cm petiole. The flowers are white or pale pink, 3–5 cm diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs before the leaves in early spring. The fruit is a drupe 3.5–6 cm long, with a downy outer coat. The outer covering or exocarp, fleshy in other members of Prunus such as the plum and cherry, is reduced to a leathery grey-green coat called the hull, which contains inside a hard shell the edible kernel, commonly called a nut in culinary terms. Generally, one kernel is present, but occasionally two. However, in botanical terms, an almond is not a true nut. In botanical parlance, the reticulated hard stony shell is called an endocarp. It is mature in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering. The fruit of the wild forms contains the glycoside amygdalin, “which becomes transformed into deadly prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) after crushing, chewing, or any other injury to the seed”. However, domesticated almonds are not toxic.(FAO, 2013 and Verma, 2014).

Fishery resources get depleted due to over fishing and one of the important management measure is to assess the fish stock, get update on the status of fishing and devise measures to mitigate fishery resource depletion. Recent examples of such management regulations in Indian fisheries are implementation of minimum legal size for fish catch, regulations brought out to control length and size of fishing fleet etc. With multi-dimensional expansion of fishing activities in India, it is necessary to analyse stock data critically bringing out suitable recommendations for fishery management. Stock assessment models play a vital role in management of fisheries.

Fish stock assessment is an evaluation of the state of the stock as relating to changes in the abundance or composition of the stock to changes in the amount of fishing. It involves the use of theories, laws, models and methods propagated by various scientists. There are two general approaches - population model (Schaefer, 1954, 1957) in which the stock is treated as a single entity subject to simple laws of population growth and the analytic approach (Ricker, 1958, 1975) which considers the abundance of the population as determined by the net effect of the growth, reproduction and mortality of individual members of the stock.

Stock assessment gives us the maximum sustainable yield (MSY), fish mortality, the input and output into the fisheries. The various environmental changes as they affect biological and physical features of a fish species, family or the group need to be assessed by using a model for its stock assessment and the basic data is got from research and commercial surveys.

Research survey is a detailed investigation of the fish based on the objectives. It involves taking the data on biological parameters of the fish (length, weight, sex etc), the food of the fish including the percentage composition. Other factors include the environmental features such as time, weather, position of catch, physicochemical parameters of the water body. Commercial survey involves taking note of basic and important information of commercial usefulness e.g length-weight frequencies, percentage composition etc which are strictly for economic purpose.

Crop growth is influenced by internal factors and external factors. Internal factors are controlled by the genes and hereditary. External factors are climate, edaphic, biotic, physiographic and anthropic.

Genetic Factors

Genetic factors are controlled by the genes. Plant height, yield, size and color of the grains or fruit etc. The productivity and quality of the crop can be improved by breeding through conventional methods or by biotechnological approaches.

Environmental factors Climate

Precipitation occurs in the form of rainfall, snow, hail and fog.

Fog: Consists of water droplets so small that their fall velocity is negligible. Fog particles contact vegetation and may adhere, coalesce with other droplets and eventually form a drop which is large enough to fall to ground.

Ice nucleation: It is a process of reducing the formation of ice crystal under freezing stress, by some polysaccharides and proteins known as ice nucleators.

Imbibitions: It is a special type of diffusion when water is absorbed by solids-colloids-causing them to enormously increase in volume. The classical examples of imbibition are absorption of water by seeds and dry wood.

Immobile elements: The elements which get translocated slower inside the plant are called immobile elements. Examples: Ca, Fe and B.

Immunoassay: This is very sensitive method of identifying and or quantifying the hormones and other molecules which has antigen and antibody interaction.

Indeterminate growth: Plant growth in which the main stem continues to elongate indefinitely without being limited by a terminal inflorescence or other reproductive structure; also growth is characterized by sequential flowering from the lateral or basal buds to the central or uppermost buds.

Indole -3 acetic acid: It is naturally occurring auxin responsible for cell elongation, apical dominance and other physiological functions of auxins.

Induced dormancy: Induced dormancy in which dormancy develops as a response to external environmental factors.

The genus Clostridium belongs to the family Clostridiaceae. The genus name was originated from the Greek word ‘klo ster’, which means ‘spindle’ referring to their individual rod shape. Clostridia are gram positive, large, sporulating anaerobic rods (except C. piliforme which is gram negative). At present, there are more than 200 numbers of species under the genus Clostridium. Among them, 15 species can produce potent toxins and are considered as pathogenic for animals and human. The animal pathogenic clostridia can be classified as neurotoxic, histotoxic and enteric.

1. INTRODUCTION

During fermentation, the fruit wines have to be monitored for different parameters to know the progress of fermentation and to control the quality of the finished products. It is essential to maintain the quality of the products, for which it is necessary to keep a complete record of wine fermentation. One such form is the fermentation control record or fermentation logbook, which is kept to monitor and record fermentation progress. It includes the name of fruit, variety, original characteristics of juice/pulp, amelioration, tank number, inoculum type and quantities, sampling time, date of start of fermentation and completion. It should also have daily record of temperature of fermentation, total soluble solid or ^oBrix reading, titrable acidity and volatile acidity, racking time/date and other comments on the fermentation. Fermentation control records should be completed and all new wines be entered in the bulk wine book inventory, the annual supplemental records can be kept in a file entitled, for example ‘Vintage season 2018’.

Protoplasts are cells which have had their cell wall removed, usually by digestion with enzymes. Cellulase enzymes digest the cellulose in plant cell walls while pectinase enzymes break down the pectin holding cells together. Once the cell wall has been removed the resulting protoplast is spherical in shape. Digestion is usually carried out after incubation in an osmoticum (a solution of higher concentration than the cell contents which causes the cells to plasmolyse). This makes the cell walls easier to digest. Debris is filtered and/or centrifuged out of the suspension and the protoplasts are then centrifuged to form a pellet. On resuspension the protoplasts can be cultured on media which induce cell division and differentiation.

Objectives of book keeping

How much have we earned this year?

How much during the past year?

Is our business improving?

Also, how much cash do we have?

How much our customers owe us?

Apart from insects, pests and diseases, physiological disorders are one of the major threats to fruit industry which cause financial losses global. Over-all, the problems rise due to unfavorable environmental conditions and improper cultural practices which affect the normal plant growth and development is called as physiological disorders of plant. Ladaniya (2008) stated that the physiological disorder is that it is a function of physiological processes fruit tissue abnormality or failure due to abiotic stress, such as temperature, relative humidity, water stress, chemicals/ nutritional excess and deficiency.

Canopy manipulation in fruit crops has a seasonal and a life-time development pattern and have lifelong advantage and disadvantage. The unmanaged canopy of fruit trees poses many difficulties i.e. difficulty in spray, pruning and hand harvesting, poor light penetration and interception throughout the canopy. Low early light interception, leaf area index and fraction of land covered by canopy, leading to delayed and poor cropping.

Important Points to be Remember

• Father of Indian plant pathology – E.J.Butler
• Father of Plant virology – Beijerinck
• Wheat rust is associated with Indian scientist – K.C.Mehta
• Kresek phase of rice is due to – Bacterial leaf blight
• Bakanae disease of rice is also known as – Foot rot and Foolish seedling disease

Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (Linn.) originated in northwestern South America around 8000 - 6000 BC. The plant is a dicotyledonous, herbaceous, trailing vine which is the only economically important member of the family Convolvulaceae. The plant is generally characterised by starchy, succulent and tuberous storage roots; alternating palmately lobed leaves and medium sized sympetalous flowers which grow individually and vary in colour from white to varying degrees of purple (Austin et al., 1991).

Introduction

Rural development focuses on development of rural man, woman and all things. Rural development influences the growth of economy in rural areas. Rural development mainly depends on agriculture. This agriculture reduces hunger in rural areas and increases food security. Bondad-Reantaso et al., (2009) showed for rural development aquaculture act as a indicator. Brummett and Williams (2000) showed rural development of aquaculture in Africa.

Role of poverty alleviation by aquaculture

(a) Aquaculture creates employment in rural area

(b) Aquaculture gives nutrition to infants and women

(c) Vale of aquaculture is comparatively high.

(d) Rural people may income by selling the fish seed.

(e) Landless people can cage culture, mollusks culture in very short place.

9.1 Introduction

Hydrogen is colourless and odourless gas. Hydrogen is simplest and lightest element and most abundant available element on the earth. It is not primary energy source as it does not exist in free state however it presents in compound with oxygen (water) and carbon, nitrogen and oxygen in living material and fossil fuels (natural gas, coal and biomass). Therefore, hydrogen can be produced from these sources using some external energy. Hydrogen can be burned without generating CO₂ and have clean combustion. but with air it can form very explosive mixture. Hydrogen is considered as an energy carrier. Like energy carrier allows the transport of energy in usable form from one place to another. 

Research setting refers to the detail information of an area where the study has been conducted. The study area, generally comprises of a particular geographical area viz. a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area selected according to the convenience of the investigator who possesses adequate knowledge regarding the location, communication facility etc. of the locality so that he/she can easily approach each and every corner of the area for data collection. Here. in this study the data collection was done mostly over telephone based on the interview schedule due to Covid-19 pandemic situation. Besides the investigators must also have the basic knowledge about the socio demographic background of the people so as to have an easy understanding of their knowledge, attitude and behavior.