eChapters

Introduction

The need for water for human consumption and the industry keeps spiraling up in the cities in the wake of rural diaspora and urban sprawl. Groundwater is exploited at an unsustainable rate leading to depletion of aquifers. Worse still is the intrusion of salt water from adjoining coast into the aquifers leading to total wastage of remaining water.

Introduction

Accumulation of excess soluble salts in the root zone of soils resulting in partial or complete loss of soil productivity is a worldwide phenomenon. The problems of soil salinity are widespread in the arid and semi-arid areas but salt-affected soils also occur extensively in the sub-humid and humid climates particularly in the coastal regions where the ingress of sea water through estuaries and rivers and through ground water movement causes large scale soil and water salinisation. Soil salinity is also a serious problem in areas where ground waters of high salt content are the only source of water available for irrigation. By far the most serious problems of salinity are being faced in the irrigated, arid and semi-arid regions of the world. Our ability to manage salt-affected soils and waters both in the irrigated and in the unirrigated regions will constitute a major effort in meeting potential food requirements. The magnitude of the problem can be appreciated from the following.

The use of salt (Sodium Chloride) in food products is an important method of preservation. It not only imparts taste to the products but also helps in checking spoilage of fruit products. Salt is added to pickles, sauces, chutneys, ketchup, and many other products. Food Safety & Standards Regulation has specified the maximum limit of salt in different products. Therefore, the estimation of salt content in food products is considered as an important attribute in food quality control.
Direct Titration Method
Direct titration (Mohr’s) method is used for the determination of salt content in food products as a routine quality control. In this method, the sample is titrated against a standard solution of silver nitrate for the estimation of salt.
Reagents
0.1 N NaOH, Phenolphthalein 1% indicator solution
0.1N Silver nitrate (AgNO3)
5% Potassium Chromate

Next to the mineral frame work the salts in the soil deserve consideration. In fact these salts constitute the main food material of plants besides what the root hairs can get out of the mineral framework in the form of basic materials already dealt with. We are, however, not concerned with the plant food materials, but salts that are in excess and which alter the properties of the soil to such an extent as to influence its behaviour profoundly.

Salvadora the  “Grape of the Desert” and commonly known as Pilu or jaal is a popular  multipurpose tree (MPTS) found growing luxuriantly in Thar desert and Kutchh region of Gujarat. It is an extremely drought hardy and salinity tolerant plant, capable of growing in hostile weather conditions. Salvadora provides life and support to the people living in fragile ecosystem of Thar desert and hence can be rated as a life line tree. The two important species of Salvadora i.e. Salvadora oleoides Decne and Salvadora persica L. are known to exist in India and known by different vernacular names. S. oleoides is called jaal, Mitha jal (Rajasthani); Pilu (Sanskrit); Bhapilu (Hindi); Kankhina (Marathi); Pil (Punjabi) and Kalawa (Tamil) while S. persica is known as Pilu (Sanskrit), tooth brush tree (English); Chotapilu (Bengali); darakht-I-miswak (Persian); Pilu (Marathi); Varagogu (Telgu) Ughaiputtai (Tamil); goni-mara (Karnataka). Salvadora is native of India, East Africa and Arabia. It is found in wild form in extensive areas of Africa particularly, Turkama, Sambura and Marsabit districts of Northern Kenya, Ferli in North Senegal, South Sivani in Egypt and N. E. Tanzania. Salvadora is also of common occurrence in South coastal areas of Pakistan, Sindh and Baluchistan, Saudi Arabia and other middle eastern countries.

Once a pest, pathogen or a weed has been detected in the introduced planting material, quarantine officials must make all efforts to disinfect/decontaminate the material and make it available for further exploitation in the country without undue delay. However, it may be kept in mind that treatments, which only reduce the inoculum, may be acceptable for general agricultural practices, but they are not acceptable in plant quarantine. For quarantine purposes, tolerances are zero and, therefore, no residual inoculum of exotic pests/pathogens must remain. Fullproof eradicative treatments are required to be employed before release of the planting material from quarantine.

16.1. Fumigation

Fumigation of the material under atmospheric or under reduced pressure has been found acceptable as a quarantine treatment against insects and mites. Fumigants like methyl bromide, HCN, phosphine and EDCT (ethylene dichloride + carbon tetrachloride mixture) are commonly used.

In general, fumigation with Methyl bromide at 48g/cubic metre for 24 hours at 21ºC or above or 32g/cubic metre for 2 hours at 21ºC or above is used based on the kind of infected material and the pest to be salvaged.

Salvia belongs to family Lamiaceae. The genus Salvia comprises about 900 species which are grown for their ornamental flowers since they make excellent and showy borders in gardens. One of the species most commonly grown is Salvia splendens is a tender herbaceous perennial, but grown in India as winter season annual flowering plant. It bears racemes of bright scarlet flowers of large size. It has ability to grow under partial shade condition. It is commonly grown as bedding plant due to varying colours mostly scarlet, purple, orange, lavender and yellow and long lasting flowers. The word salvia was derived from Latin word ‘Salvare’ meaning ‘to heal or to be safe and unharmed’ (Blumenthal et al., 2000 and Kamatou et al., 2008) later it was translated in French as “sauge” or “sage” and in old English “Sawge” (Kamatou et al., 2008).

Salvia belongs to family Lamiaceae. The genus Salvia comprises about 900 species which are grown for their ornamental flowers since they make excellent and showy borders in gardens. One of the species most commonly grown is Salvia splendens is a tender herbaceous perennial, but grown in India as winter season annual flowering plant. It bears racemes of bright scarlet flowers of large size. It has ability to grow under partial shade condition. It is commonly grown as bedding plant due to varying colours mostly scarlet, purple, orange, lavender and yellow and long lasting flowers. The word salvia was derived from Latin word ‘Salvare’ meaning ‘to heal or to be safe and unharmed’ (Blumenthal et al., 2000 and Kamatou et al., 2008) later it was translated in French as “sauge” or “sage” and in old English “Sawge” (Kamatou et al., 2008). Salvia has several ornamental, culinary and medicinal species (Codd, 1985, Paton, 1991, Gali-Muhtasib et al., 2000, Kamatou et al., 2008 and Bruna et al., 2006). It is also used in preservation of food, mainly meat and cheese, due to its antioxidant properties, as well a spice for flavouring food articles (Topuc, 2006). Chinese use its species to increase longivity and Roman use it in ceremonies as scared herb (Kamatou et al., 2008). The salvia species contain secondary metabolite the main are terpenoids and flavonoids and monoterpenes present in aerial parts of plant like flower and leaves and diterpenoids mostly in roots (Topuc, 2006).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The centre of origin of salvia is considered to be Afghanistan and Soviet Central Asia as a large number of primitive morphological species are present but the most of the diversity or species are present in Mexico (Paton, 1991 and Kamatou et al., 2008). The genus is sub-cosmopolitantly distributed worldwide, but is absent in the North and most of the low-lying tropical areas of the world such as the Amazon basin and central and west Africa (Paton, 1991), Jager and Van Staden (2000) and Kamatou et al. (2008) reported its absence not only in western Africa but also in central tropical Africa, Hedge (1974) and Kamatou et al. (2008) reported that West and the southern parts of Africa has greatest number of species (Kamatou et al., 2008).

The genus Salvia contains at least 900 species, because they readily cross pollinate, innumerable hybrids - both natural and manmade. Salvias are found on almost every continent in the world. Pliny the Elder, a Roman naturalist, wrote about their healing qualities back in the first century. In the early 17^th century, the English botanist John Gerard, in his famous Herbal, described a number of sages, including common garden sage and one that sounds similar to what we now call ‘Tricolor’ sage. He referred to the healing powers of these herbs as well. Until the 19^th century, most gardeners focused on growing plants for medicinal or culinary purposes; beauty was a secondary, much less important consideration.

The results of plant exploration in the 18^th and 19^th centuries brought scores of new salvias to English and European gardeners from Mexico, China and Africa. One, Salvia buchananii, was found in Mexico by an English woman, who gave it to a man serving in the army. Salvia coccinea, indigenous to Mexico and South America, was grown for decades as a wildflower. Both scarlet sage and mealy cup sage were discovered in the early 1800’s, the former in Brazil, the latter in Texas.

Abstract: Ornamental salvia, native to Brazil is cultivated as bedding plant in the world. Many species have horticultural, commercial and medicinal values. Continued breeding and improvement of salvia is focused on disease resistance, new flower colours, seed oil content and abiotic stress tolerance. Interspecific hybridization is hampered by genomic differences, heterostyly, self incompatibility and low seed set. Breeders have created polyploid cultivars and mutants which have high ornamental value. Continued use of these and other modern techniques will ensure creation of new phenotypes for the market.

Keywords: Salvia, polyploidization, male sterility, inheritance, seed production.

The study and utilization of biomass for energy, composting, or other valueadded applications require accurate information about its properties. This begins with a scientifically sound process of sample collection, preparation, and analysis. Each step ensures that the data derived from biomass materials is representative, reliable, and applicable for research, industrial application, or environmental assessment.
Sample Collection
Biomass sampling methods vary depending on the biomass type and the analysis objective. For instance, truck-top sampling is used for biomass pellets, while quadrats are employed to gather cover crop biomass from fields. Regardless of the technique, the primary aim is to collect a representative sample that accurately reflects the overall characteristics of the biomass.
Purpose
The goal is to obtain a sample that accurately represents the average composition and properties of the entire biomass batch.
Biomass Types Commonly Sampled
• Agricultural by-products (e.g., husk, straw, stubble)
• Animal-derived waste (e.g., manure, poultry litter)
• Forest residues (e.g., bark, wood chips) • Organic or food waste
• Industrial biomass (e.g., bagasse, distillery by-products) Sampling Guidelines
• Random Sampling: Collect from multiple locations within a pile or batch to reduce sampling bias.
• Quantity: Gather a sufficient amount—typically several kilograms—based on whether physical, chemical, or energy content analysis is intended.
• Equipment: Use clean, non-corrosive tools such as stainless steel or plastic scoops.
• Preservation: Store in sealed containers or bags to maintain sample integrity and prevent contamination or moisture changes.

Scanning electron-microscopes are available nowadays which operate at high vacuum as well as low vacuum mode. Low vacuum mode allows viewing of wet samples, but compromise on very high resolution and high magnification images. In high vacuum mode the samples must be absolutely dry and free of any organic contaminants to avoid gas molecules interfering with both the primary electron beam and the secondary or backscattered electrons emitted from the sample. Biological specimens which are largely composed of water, necessitate additional preparatory steps to ensure that structure of the organism is retained in its natural form.
Sample preparation is essential in scanning electron microscopy. Improper sample preparations can undermine the quality of results and lead to false conclusions. SEM, unlike TEM, allows the processing of larger sized organisms and tissues. For Biological samples the smallest representative sample size should be used as the microscope’s detection capacity is as much as 1μm from the sample surface.
Samples for SEM preparations are normally collected by biopsy/ dissection/ sacrificing of an animal to remove tissues from the main body. Incisions should be done with fresh sharp blades to avoid tissue deformation from the physical forces applied with blunt blades. Collected samples should be immediately transferred to vial containing the fixative for fixation.
Microbial cultures fixation of bacteria and fungus needs to be carried out under strict safety measures. Biosafety cabinets should be used wherever possible and sample should be removed from the biosafety cabinets only after the

The preservation methods used for water samples differ depending on the experiment to be performed, and they are as follows:

1. Project is __________

a) Investment activity

b) Create productive assets

c) Realising benefits over time

d) All of these

Q.1 SRSWOR scheme is better (more efficient) them SRSWR scheme.

Q.2 The sampling variance of sample mean under SRSWOR scheme is more than that in SRSWR scheme.

.3 The sample variance s2 is an unbiased estimate of population M.S. (S2 ) in case of SRSWOR scheme.

4.1. INTRODUCTION

The number of individuals to be included in a research study (the sample size of the study), is an important consideration in the design of many studies. This chapter will provide information on basic factors that determine an appropriate sample size and provides methods for its calculation in some simple, yet common, cases. Sample size is closely tied to statistical power, which is the ability of a study to enable detection of a statistically significant difference. A trade-off exists between a feasible sample size and adequate statistical power. Strategies for reducing the necessary sample size while maintaining a reasonable power is also important.

How many individuals will I need to study? This question is commonly asked by the clinical, ecological and behavioural investigator and exposes one of many issues that are best settled before actually carrying out a study. Consultation with a statistician is worthwhile in addressing many issues of study design, but a statistician is not always readily available.

The amount of information that can be gained from a sample depends upon its absolute size and not upon its size as a proportion of the population size, Just as to decide if the wine is good we need only a sip, irrespective of the bottle size, similarly we do not need to know the exact size of the parent population, provided complete homogeneity exists, But in reality, and more so in biological sciences, such homogeneity is rarely seen. Therefore, appropriate sample size becomes pertinent for drawing valid conclusions and is among the most difficult decisions to be taken for a study.

The size of the sample would depend upon (i) the permissible error in assessment of inference i.e. accuracy and (ii) sampling error. Sampling error measures the amount of variability between sample results; the lesser it is the better. The main determinant of the sample size, therefore, is how accurate results do we used. This in turn, depends on the purpose and type of study.

True/False

Q.1.    The precision of an estimator increases as the sample size increases.
Q.2.    Statistical power is the probability that a statistical test will indicate a significant difference is true i.e. it is the probability of taking correct decision.

In this chapter some preliminary terminologies have been provided which are very much useful and frequently used in dealing with the theory of sample surveys and its application.

Appendix - 1:
Physical Properties of Seed – bed / Puddled Soil

Tillage is the process of getting the soil ready for planting and maintaining it loose and weed-free while the crop is growing.  The main goal and core function of tillage are broken down into three phases:

1. Creating a suitable seedbed,
2.  Eliminating weed competition, and
3.  Enhancing the physical quality of the soil.

Important Definitions

• Sampling method or sampling technique is the process of studying the population by gathering information (on basis of samples) and analyzing that data.

• Population: The whole group we are interested in census.

• Census: A collection of data from the whole population

• Sample: A collection of data from part of the population

• Parameter Vs Statistics: Parameter is statistical measure pertaining to population whereas statistics is measure pertaining to sample.

• Estimate-Value of population parameter obtained from sample.

• Livestock census carried every 5 years (2019-20th livestock census)

Blood Sampling

Blood samples shall be taken in the early morning hours before offering any diet to human subjects or ration to livestock. The syringe and needle should be autoclaved, needle should be free from any blockage etc. In the case of ruminants, blood sample is taken directly from jugular vein, while in swine, blood sample is drawn from ear vein, while in human subjects, blood is taken from prominent vein on the inner surface of the yellow usually the (medium basilic). The container (test tube etc.) should be dried and autoclaved. We should separate plasma (from anticoagulent mixed blood) and serum from ordinary blood by centrifugation immediately. We should remember by heart  that blood samples should not be kept in deep freezer, because there are chances of haemolysis as well as an abnormal distribution of certain ions and enzymes between the cells and the serum. We should never force the blood through the needle as such type of practice may result in extensive hemolysis. We should discard first few drops of blood, while taking sample. We should prepare protein free filtrate immediately. Protein-free filtrate may be kept in a much better way than whole blood or plasma.

Air

Estimation of Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSPM) and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM)

Requirements
Instrument

High Volume Sampler (HVS) APM 415-411 (Envirotech Instrument India), Respirable Dust Sampler (RDS) APM 451 (Envirotech Instrument India) with midget impinger containing absorbing solution were used.

7.1 Meaning of Sampling
    
Before we consider sampling theory, we first define the terms population and sample.
 
The word ‘population’ or ‘universe’ in statistics is used to refer to any collection of individuals or of their attributes or of results of operations which can be numerically specified. For example the assemblage of heights of all the individuals in the population is called a population of heights.  Similarly we may consider the population of weights, wages, yields of grain; prices of wheat, mileages of automobile tyres, etc. a population containing a finite number of individuals or members is called a finite population.  For instance the population f ages of the workers in a factory constitute a finite population of ages. A population with infinite number of members is known as infinite population.  For example the population of pressures of temperatures at various points in the atmosphere is an infinite population. 

For any statistical analysis, the required primary data are usually collected by the census or sampling methods. In the census method, the data are collected from all the individuals. E.g., If we want to study the weight of 100 cows, we have to make use of all 100 cows for data collection. That is, we collect data from the entire population or universe. However, in the sampling method, the data are collected from a small group of the population which is termed as the sample. A sample is a portion of the population selected to represent the population. E.g., we collect data only from a sample of cows, say 20 cows drawn from the population.

True/False

Q.1.    Collectivity (totality) of all sampling units is known as the “Population” and population size is denoted by “N”.
Q.2.    A list of all sampling units with their identification is known as “Sampling frame”. For example a list of all newly-born children in maternity home during a period of three months with specification of their sex, weight, name of their parents, their permanent address, etc. is known as sampling frame.
Q.3.    A function of all sampling units in the population is known as population parameter or population constant.

Soil testing is a useful tool that can help to ensure the efficient use of applied plant nutrients. Soil tests provide a means for assessing the fertility status of a soil, but soil tests do not provide a direct measure of the actual quantity of plant available nutrients in the soil. Instead, soil tests measure the quantity of a nutrient element that is extractable from a soil by a particular chemical extracting solution. The measured quantity of extractable nutrient in a soil is then used to predict the crop yield response to application of the nutrient as fertilizer, manure, or other amendment. As soil test levels increase for a particular nutrient, the expected crop yield response to additions of that nutrient decreases. A soil-testing programme has four phases as follows:

1.Collection of soil samples,

2.Chemical analysis of soil samples,

3.Calibration and interpretation of the results of chemical analysis, and

4.Nutrient/Fertilizer Recommendation.

9.1 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
i) Understand the concept of Sample, Population, Sampling Frame, Sample Size, etc.;
ii) Differentiate between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling methods;
iii) Understand the various methods of sampling;
iv) Recognize Sampling and Non-Sampling errors;
v) Determine Sample Size.

Introduction

In 1952, the classical theory of survey sampling neared completion. In 1952, Horvitz and Thompson created a general theory with an aim to create objective estimations. As Horvitz and Thompson completed the Classical theory, the random sampling strategy was mostly agreed upon. The majority of the great books on sampling were written by numerous authors. (Yates, 1949; Deming, 1950; Hansen, Hurwitz, and Madow 1953; Cochran et al., 1953).

Why Sample?

• Particularly in fisheries, it is impractical to count every single specimen.

• Sampling gives a depiction of an organism's abundance and dispersion.

• A sufficient number of samples must be used to ensure that the results are accurate representations of the condition. Notwithstanding the fact that the sample is considered to be the credible and representative of the population and that the data shows accuracy, the sample may not accurately reflect the system's real population. As a result, sampling introduces a mistake.

• Sampling error is the statistical error showing the difference between the values derived from the sample of a population and the true values of a population parameter when all the units in the population are counted in the same way that the sample is counted.

3.1. CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEYS

Census or Complete Enumeration

A survey, which includes every element of the population, is known as Census or the Method of Complete Enumeration. If certain agencies are interested in studying the total population of a country, they have to obtain information from all the households in rural and urban area.

The essential feature of this method is that this covers every individual unit in the entire population. We cannot select some and leave out others. We may be familiar with the Census of a country, which is carried out after a particular period like every ten years. A housetohouse enquiry is carried out, covering all households. Human demographic data on birth and death rates, literacy, workforce, life expectancy, size and composition of population, etc. are collected and published by a government agency.

A sample is just a part of a population selected according to some rule or plan. Following are some of the methods of sampling.

1. Simple Random Sampling

The simplest and the most commonly used type of probability sampling is simple random sampling. In this kind of sampling, each member of the population has the same probability of being included in the sample. Simple random sampling may be with or without replacement.

Population: The word population or universe in statistics means a set of observations relating to a phenomenon under investigation.

Sample: It is a fraction or a subset of population drawn through a valid statistical procedure so that it can be regarded as representative of the entire population.

Sampling: The statistical procedure of drawing a sample from the population is called Sampling.

Census enquiry or complete enumeration: When each and every unit of the population is investigated for the characteristic under study, known as census enquiry or complete enquiry.

Sample enquiry or sample enumeration: It is a part of the population is investigated for the characteristic under study, known as sample enquiry or sample enumeration.

Necessity of sampling: Since, the process of collecting information from all the elements of a large population may be, in general, expensive, time consuming and difficult. We help to sampling and generalise the properties of the sample to the entire population. The statistical procedures which are used for drawing inferences or conclusions about the population from sample data are covered under Inferential Statistics or Statistical inference. Thus, sampling theory is the basis of statistical inference in which we wish to obtain maximum information about the population with minimum effort and maximum precision.

After having performed their function, pesticides in the parent form or in some converted form reach the soil, the ultimate sink for these moieties which are collectively termed as residues. According to FAO 1986, pesticide residue is defined as any substance or mixture of substances in food, agricultural commodities or animal feed resulting from the use of pesticides and includes any specified derivatives such as degradation products, metabolism, reaction products and impurities that are considered to be of toxicological significance. From the soil they move into other segments of the environment. The pesticide residues are absorbed by plants and enter the food chain, where they get concentrated in animal fat. Some residues are carried away by wind in the vapor form, which enables them to be transported to long distances from the source of application and then get collected by dust and rain before they are deposited on the ground again. Pesticide residues also move to aquatic environments through runoff, leaching, and atmosphere disposition.

INTRODUCTION

Management of several of the important insect-pests of crops is becoming increasingly difficult owing to a number of factors by which pests have been able to offset the effect of control interventions. Several of the present day pest management problems may be ascribed to the excessive and indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides during the last about three decades. Routine application of insecticides for controlling insect-pests, without taking into consideration whether economic damage to the crops is being inflicted by the pest or not, has resulted into several problems like pest resistance, pest resurgence, pest replacement, killing of natural enemies of pests, presence of toxic residues in food, and soil and environmental pollution, etc., apart from increase in the cost of plant protection. Entomologists have been trying to find solution to these problems through integrated pest management of which monitoring of insect activity through regular surveys is an important component. In fact, knowledge of insect activity is indispensable since pest management system can not operate without accurate estimates of pests and natural enemies population or without reliable assessment of plant damage and its effect on yield.