eChapters

ABSTRACT

Agriculture and allied sectors is the largest livelihood providers in rural India, still Indian farmers are among the poorest in the World. Agriculture sector is potentially largest employment providing sectors in the country. Despite this, unemployment is high among educated rural youth, and they prefer to migrate to urban areas to take up low paying jobs. The present study was carried out mainly to find out the challenges faced by rural youth in choice of agriculture as a means of livelihood. The study was conducted in four villages in Udham Singh Nagar district in Uttarakhand. Data was collected from 115 youth using pre-tested interview schedule. It was found that maximum number of respondents had education up to higher secondary level, majority were students and had medium level of mass media exposure and change proneness. The study indicates that limited access to new agricultural technologies, limited access to farm machinery, perception regarding suitability to agriculture, damage of crops from pests and insects, and lack of information on agricultural inputs and government policies were the main challenges faced by rural youth in choosing agriculture as a means of livelihood. The study indicates that government has developed policy framework for involving youth in agriculture. This study can be carried on training needs of youth in agriculture and allied sectors.

Dahlia (Dahlia variabilis) belongs to the family Compositae and is a native of Mexico. Modern garden Dahlias with large blooms in wide array of colours are important flowering plant for Indian gardens. The range of forms, size and colours of the flowers is simply amazing. In the plains of India, Dahlias produce flower during winter season and usually grown as potted plants for display purpose. At suitable sunny locations, they are planted in beds also.

Classification

There is enormous variation in shape, size and flower colour of Dahlia. In addition, hundreds of cultivars are available for use in the garden. For having information on various groups having different flower structure, size etc., it is important to know classification. Garden Dahlias have been classified in the following major categories (based on the National Dahlia Society, United Kingdom).

Anemone - Flowers double having one or more rows of petals; disc florets tubular; ideal as cut flower for floral arrangement.

Ball - Flower head in ball-shape, fully double; petal tips ovate or round and rolled half length. There are large variation in the size of flower head and categorization.

Fruits and vegetables are living tissues subject to continuous change after harvest. Some changes are desirable from consumer point of view but most are not. Post-harvest changes in fresh fruit cannot be stopped, but these can be slowed down within certain limits to enhance the shelf life of fruits. The post-harvest handling plays an important role in extending the storage and marketable life of horticultural perishables.

Post Harvest Treat ment of Fruits and Vegetables Washing

It is useful in removing surface adhering material water. Mechanically, it is also accomplished by passing the fruits/vegetables through machine arranged with water tank equipped with rotating brush. In some produce washing improves appeal by facilitating removal of sap as case in mango, papaya, jackfruit, kronda, dirt in case of carrot, reddish, turnip, sugar beet, sweet potato, etc. and for removal of debris in case of banana. The water use for the purpose should be cleaned otherwise fungal and bacterial levels may build up. Disinfected treatment using ultraviolet light, ozone, chlorine (100 ppm), calcium hydroxide, etc. help to clean water for washing purpose.

ABSTRACT

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), known as the ‘King of Spices’ is an important export- oriented spice crop, valued for its medicinal and condimental properties. A perfect protocol for the rapid in vitro multiplication of this plant is available. However, systemic bacterial contamination is the single major constraint in the large scale in vitro production of plantlets. Based on morphological and biochemical characters, this bacterium was identified as Beijerinckia indica It grows profusely on nitrogen-free Jensen’s agar and solubilizes CaCO in the medium by acid production. It is resistant to a range of antibiotics and produces indole acetic acid. The bacterium is slow growing and has pH optima of 5.5 and temperature optima of 27oC. It has both endophytic as well as epiphytic association with the plant, the colonization being more in the stem and petiole. A single plasmid of 4.0 kb size was isolated from the bacterium and characterized. Competent cells of E. coli DH5a, transformed with this plasmid survived on Jensen’s nitrogen free agar, indicating its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. We stipulate that the nif genes are located on the plasmid of the bacterium. Since endophytic bacteria are known to stimulate plant growth through antagonistic activity against pathogens, production of growth promoting substances and inducing systemic resistance in several other agricultural crop species, the symbiotic association between Bejerinckia indica and black pepper could be further exploited through integrated nutrient management for improved growth and yield of this spice crop.

Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted on a surface by the weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of earth. The gas molecules of the atmosphere are pulled towards the earth by the force of gravity and hence exert a force on earth surface. Atmospheric pressure can be calculated as the summed weight of all gas molecules between a horizontal plane and top of the atmosphere and divided by the area of the plane. Low pressure areas have less atmospheric mass above their location, whereas high pressure areas have more atmospheric mass above their location.

Maize is one of the world’s leading crops cultivated over an area of about 194 million hectares with a production of about 1147 million tonnes of grain (2020). Among the maize growing countries, USA has the largest area followed by China, Brazil, Argentina, Ukraine and India. In respect of production also USA stands first followed by China. Regarding average yield per hectare USA ranks first followed by China. The average maize yield in India is only 3065 kg per hectare which is much lower than most of the maize growing countries of the world.

i) Silicon Technology

Silicon technology in agriculture refers to the use of silicon-based compounds, primarily silicon dioxide (SiO2 ), in pesticide formulations and as part of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. Silicon technology is not a pesticide itself but is used to enhance the effectiveness of pesticides and contribute to sustainable pest management. Here are some ways silicon technology is applied in pesticide use:

1. Silicon-Based Adjuvants: Silicon-based adjuvants are added to pesticide formulations to improve their efficacy. These adjuvants can enhance the spreading, wetting, and sticking properties of pesticides, ensuring better coverage of plant surfaces and improving the retention of the active ingredient. This leads to more effective pest control and reduces the need for higher pesticide concentrations.

2. Induced Resistance: Silicon has been shown to induce plant resistance against pests. When plants take up silicon from the soil and deposit it in their cell walls, it can create physical barriers that make it more difficult for pests to penetrate plant tissues. Additionally, silicon can trigger the production of defensive compounds in plants, making them less susceptible to pest damage.

3. pH Buffering: Silicon compounds can act as pH buffers in pesticide formulations, helping to maintain the stability and efficacy of the active ingredients over a broader pH range. This can be particularly useful when mixing pesticides with other chemicals or using them in different environmental conditions.

11.1. Introduction
The input-output relationship is commonly referred to as the Classical Production Function.
The Classical Production Function is also known as the Law of Diminishing Returns or the Law of Increasing Costs.
It is sometimes termed the “Law of Life”, as it serves as a fundamental principle of economics upon which several other economic laws are based.
This law analyzes the relationship between a single variable factor and output while keeping all other factors constant.
It represents a short-run production function.
11.2. Definition
The Law of Increasing Cost states that the proportion of one factor in a combination of factors increases till a certain point but after that first the marginal product then the average product will diminish.
According to Marshall “An increase in capital and labour applied in the cultivation of land causes in general less than proportionate increase in the amount of produce raised, unless it happens to coincide with the improvements in the arts of agriculture”.
According to Earl O. Heady “If the quantity of one of productive service is increased by equal increments, with the quantity of other resource services held constant, the increments to total product may increase at first but will decrease after certain point”.

Importance of Food Additives

Food additives are chemicals, biochemical ingredients etc., which are added to food products for their technological benefits. These benefits may be to preserve the quality of food, to maintain and improve its appeal, to ensure its nutritional value and to provide innovations in new products with consumer appeal and satisfaction. Additives are also added to maintain uniform quality and to enhance quality parameters such as flavour, colour, texture etc. in large-scale production. They and their by-products ultimately become part of the food that is consumed and so they must be safe.

Additives may be direct additives, which are added deliberately to improve its sensory quality, nutritive value, stability, ease in processing and retention of quality during handling and retailing. There are also indirect additives, which are not added intentionally but get included into foods incidentally during handling, processing and packaging.

There are some guiding principles for the use of food additives. They should be justified for their technological effectiveness and purpose. They should be safe for use. There should be maximum adequate levels, absolutely necessary levels of usage and ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake) properly evaluated while considering its safety and permitted usage levels in foods. They should not be added with the intention of misleading consumers about quality. They should also not significantly affect adversely the nutritional quality of food products.

ABSTRACT

Atotal of 45 Gram positive, spore forming and rod shaped bacteria identified as Bacillus species were isolated from the rhizosphere of Chickpea plants. They were studied for their interaction with root borne fungal pathogens was studied using spot test method. Isolates CBS 29, CBS 113, CBS 123, CBS 132, CBS 153 and CBS 155 inhibited the growth of four or more fungi with inhibition zones varied from 1-5 mm. Two isolates CBS 153 and CBS 155 produced siderophores on CAS supplemented agar medium. Further inoculation of these Bacilli on seeds of Chickpea cultivar C235 and H8618 showed inhibitory, stunting or stimulatory effects on plumule and radicle growth depending upon cultivar, bacterium used and stage of seedling growth. Studies on co-inoculation of these isolates with Mesorhizobium and their plant growth promoting activity are being carried out. These co-inoculation studies are important areas of exploitation to improve crop productivity.

Soil microorganisms are the most important agents in the cycling or transformation of various elements (N, P, K, S, Fe etc.) in the biosphere; where the essential elements undergo cyclic alterations between the inorganic state as free elements in nature and the combined state in living organisms. Life on earth is dependent on the cycling of nutrient elements from their elemental states to inorganic compounds to organic compounds and back into their elemental states.

The microbes through the process of biochemical reactions convert / breakdown complex organic compounds into simple inorganic compounds and finally into their constituent elements. This process is known as “Mineralization”.

Mineralization of organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and iron by soil microorganisms makes these elements available for reuse by plants. In the following paragraphs the cycling or transformations of some of the important elements are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

During the last three decades, libraries have shown a considerable degree of momentum in the collection building and readership programme activities involving considerable expenditure of funds. This rapid development of libraries as a consequence, generated several evaluative studies on the usefulness of libraries to society. Until recently evaluations were subjective, based purely on opinions expressed by an individual or group. However, developments in the field of mathematics, statistics, operations research, management science, economics and system analysis have led to a minimization of this subjectivity. In particular, the systems analysis approach has led to the identification and application of appropriate quantitative measuring techniques for evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of the information services offered by the librarians. This has generated a new field in library and information science viz; ‘Bibliometrics’.

Bibliometric analysis which has now become a well established part of information research and quantitative approach to the description of documents and examination of services is gaining ground both in research and practice. Librarians are facing the problems arising out of ever increasing cost of different types of reading materials and decreasing budgets of libraries.

Bibliometric studies are helpful in solving the problems of librarians. Pritichard¹ defines Bibliometrics as “application of mathematical and statistical methods to books and other media of communication”.

Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng. (syn. Calla aethiopica L.) (Araceae): Eng.- Arum Lily; Hindi – Iram sousan [NI]. A rhizomatous perennial, suitably planted in moist and shaddy situations and under green house conditions.

Asparagus is an herbaceous perennial that is widely grown in the United States, Germany, Spain, and France, with India contributing only a little amount. For many years, asparagus has been grown. This was a favourite crop of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. It belongs to the Liliaceae family and is thought to have originated in the eastern Mediterranean and further east in the Caucasus Mountains. It’s a monocotyledonous perennial that’s farmed for its edible stems (spears).

Organic farming is getting more and more popular as a farm practice. Although most agricultural land is still processed through conventional farming, the demand for organic agriculture and organic crops is constantly increasing. Organic farming is defined in a variety of ways. The majority of them argue that synthetically manufactured fertilisers and pesticides are not allowed in organic farming. This is right; yet, organic farming encompasses much more. Organic farming is founded on unique qualities as a wholly natural and sustainable farm management technique. To put it another way, organic farming is both an agricultural practise and a philosophy of cooperating with nature.

Introdcution

Poultry have a nervous system made up of the brain, spinal cord, sympathetic nerves that govern their viscera, and branches that go to their ears and eyes. The structure of the brain and spinal cord is very similar to that of mammals. However, there are also significant structural variations between many bird brains and many human brains, including the following:

1. Absence of cortex: According to Cobb (1960), the cortex is “a peripherally placed coating (pallium) of cells arranged in layers,” yet it is completely absent in birds. However, other authors have compared the hyperstriatum to the mammalian cortex (Haefelfinger, 1957; Stingelin, 1958).

2. Presence of hyperstriatum: The functions of the hyperstriatum are comparable to those of the mammalian cortex. In pigeons and chickens, the hyperstriatum may be involved in the visual and hearing systems’ functions.

3. Birds have highly developed optic lobes.

4. Turkeys and vultures are the only birds with a well-developed olfactory system.

The Indian arid and semi-arid regions are characterized by immature, structure less, coarse textured soils with low water holding capacity and poor nutrient status. The moisture deficit conditions dominate for a long time throughout the year, which acts as the major limiting factor for establishment and growth of woody plant. Due to harsh edapho-climatic conditions, arable crop production is risky in arid and semi arid regions and threatening the agriculture, under such situation, horticulture based cropping system is considered effective strategy for improving productivity, employment oppornitues and nutritional security. Most of the cropping systems operating in the limited irrigated    area of arid ecosystems have very high water requirement and are highly unsustainable, hence location specific models have to be developed involving fruit crops, multipurpose tree species and arable crops in an agri-silvi-horti production system for increasing irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE), productivity, profitability and sustainability of the system. An attempt has been made to present the status of available research data on some of horticulture based farming systems for arid and semi arid regions

ABSTRACT

Assessment of technical and financial feasibility of two resource conservation technologies suitable for rice establishment1. Zero Tillage Machine (ZTM) for direct seeded rice (DSR) and; 2. Paddy transplanter machine (PTM) for mechanical transplanted rice(MTR) in Rohtas district was carried out at the demonstration farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Rohtas during Kharif-2012 and 2013 in a view to reduce the drudgery and cost of cultivation. An eight row self-propelled PTM (Model 2ZT-238-8) and 9 tined National Make ZTM were used for the purpose. Technical performance of these resource conservation technologies was found satisfactory. The field capacity, field efficiency, fuel consumption and cost of establishment of rice by these technologies were evaluated for the purpose. For the assessment of financial feasibility; benefit-cost ratio, internal rate of return, pay-back period and net present worth of these technologies were evaluated and demonstrated to rural youths for their quick adoption and get rid of labour-shortage and delayed transplanting of rice crop and hence saving of significant loss of Rabi crops that happens due to delayed harvesting of rice crop.

Irrigation/ Drip/ Fertigation

Pomegranate is considered to be drought hardy fruit crop. Supplemental irrigation, however, is necessary for realizing higher fruit yield and better quality. Irrigation is also used to regulate cropping in pomegranate and the total water applied therefore depends on the desired bahar. In Gujarat and Maharashtra, where Ambe bahar is taken, regular irrigation is required during March to July and irrigation is stopped after the fruit harvest until January. For Mrig bahar crop irrigation is not required from July to September. However, in case of prolonged break in monsoon one or two supplementary irrigation at an interval of 10-15 days during October to December are required. In hasta bahar (September flowering) prolonged rainy season helps in reducing requirement for irrigation 3-4 irrigation at monthly interval after cessation of rainfall are must to obtain good fruit size and higher yield.

The phenomenon and behavior of supercritical fluid (SCF) has been the subject of research right from 1800's and suggestion of supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) came in to exixtence in 1958. Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) was first developed in 1960, and that time, it was considered as a science fiction chromatography and a revolutionary separation technique. But its reputation has slowly ebbed over the years and it is now moving forward by leaps and bounds as a stable analytical method with many advantages over the existing chromatographic methods. It is an unit operation that exploits the high dissolving power of fluids at temperature and pressurre above their critical values for extracting analytes from sample matrices.The first commercial packed column of SFC was made available in 1981 and the first commercial capillary column SFC instrument was introduced in 1985. Several refrences are useful for understanding the super critical fluid extraction and super critical fluid chromatography