eChapters

Applications of Remote Sensing

The era of satellite remote sensing was open in the 1960s when cameras and electronic sensors were mounted on spacecraft. Nowadays there is a big assortment of satellite systems actively recording information about the Earth. A wide variety of imagery is available from satellites. Both active and passive sensors, operating from the microwave to the ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum collect a large amount of information about the earth’s surface every day. Each of the systems vary in terms of their spatial, spectral, radiometic and temporal resolution. Those characteristics play an important role in defining which applications the sensor is best suited for. The main benefits of satellite remote sensing are the following:

Introduction

A geographic information system or geographical information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of spatial or geographical data. The acronym GIS is sometimes used for geographic information science (GIScience) to refer to the academic discipline that studies geographic information systems and is a large domain within the broader academic discipline of geoinformatics. What goes beyond a GIS is a spatial data infrastructure, a concept that has no such restrictive boundaries. In a general sense, the term describes any information system that integrates stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and present the results of all these operations. Geographic information science is the science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and systems.

GIS is a broad term that can refer to a number of different technologies, processes, and methods. It is attached to many operations and has many applications related to engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business. For that reason, GIS and location intelligence applications can be the foundation for many location-enabled services that rely on analysis and visualization. GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. Locations or extents in the Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation, respectively. All Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a “real” physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry.

Introduction

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based navigation system that provides location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver. The US began the GPS project in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including a number of classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites. It became fully operational in 1995. Roger L. Easton, Ivan A. Getting and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it.
 
Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block IIIA satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX). Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contem-poraneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s. There are also the planned European Union Galileo positioning system, China’s BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, the Japanese Quasi-Zenith Satellite System, and India’s Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System.

Digital image processing is the use of computer algorithms to perform image processing on digital images. As a subcategory or field of digital signal processing, digital image processing has many advantages over analog image processing. It allows a much wider range of algorithms to be applied to the input data and can avoid problems such as the buildup of noise and signal distortion during processing. Since images are defined over two dimensions (perhaps more) digital image processing may be modeled in the form of multidimensional systems. Introduction to image processing 
Image processing is a method to convert an image into digital form and perform some operations on it, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it. It is a type of signal dispensation in which input is image, like video frame or photograph and output may be image or characteristics associated with that image. Usually image processing system includes treating images as two dimensional signals while applying already set signal processing methods to them.
Image processing is a method to perform some operations on an image, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it. It is a type of signal processing in which input is an image and output may be image or characteristics/features associated with that image. Now-a-days, image processing is among rapidly growing technologies. It forms core research area within engineering and computer science disciplines too.

Introduction

Although both maps and aerial photos present a “bird’s-eye” view of the earth, aerial photographs are NOT maps. Maps are orthogonal representations of the earth’s surface, meaning that they are directionally and geometrically accurate (at least within the limitations imposed by projecting a 3-dimensional object onto 2 dimensions). Aerial photos, on the other hand, display a high degree of radial distortion. That is, the topography is distorted, and until corrections are made for the distortion, measurements made from a photograph are not accurate. Nevertheless, aerial photographs are a powerful tool for studying the earth’s environment. 

Because most GISs can correct for radial distortion, aerial photographs are an excellent data source for many types of projects, especially those that require spatial data from the same location at periodic intervals over a length of time. Typical applications include land use surveys and habitat analysis. 

This unit discusses benefits of aerial photography, applications, the different types of photography, and the integration of aerial photographs into GISs.

Introduction
Remote sensing is the art and science of recording, measuring, and analyzing information about a phenomenon from a distance. Humans with the aid of their eyes, noses, and ears are constantly seeing, smelling, and hearing things from a distance as they move through an environment. Thus, humans are naturally designed to be remote sensors. In order to study large areas of the Earth’s surface geographers use devices known as remote sensors. These sensors are mounted on platforms such as helicopters, planes, and satellites that make it possible for the sensors to observe the Earth from above.

Definition
Remote sensing can be defined as any process whereby information is gathered about an object, area or phenomenon without being in contact with it. Our eyes are an excellent example of a remote sensing device. We are able to gather information about our surroundings by gauging the amount and nature of the reflectance of visible light energy from some external source (such as the sun or a light bulb) as it reflects off objects in our field of view. Contrast this with a thermometer, which must be in contact with the phenomenon it measures, and thus is not a remote sensing device.

1. California mastitis test

The California mastitis test (CMT) is conducted during milking of lactating cows. The CMT paddle is used to collect about three to four ml of fore milk from each quarter of cows after discarding few streams to which an equal volume of CMT reagent (composition mentioned below) is mixed immediately by circular motion (Fig. 1). The reaction is graded by intensity of gel formation and color changes as follows:

    Q.1.    What are the common infectious diseases affect teat skin of mammary gland?
    Ans.    The common infectious diseases that affect teat skin of mammary gland are cowpox, buffalopox, pseudocowpox, bovine ulcerative mammillitis, black pox, foot and mouth disease, vesicular exanthema, swine vesicular diseases, contagious exanthyma, Staphylococcus sp., Pasteurella sp etc.

    Q.2.    What is thelitis?
    Ans.    Thelitis is the inflammation of tissues of teat wall caused by traumatic injury to the teat cistern. It is generally manifested with gangrenous mastitis.

    Q.3.    What is the main etiology of gangrenous mastitis?
    Ans.    Staphylococcus aureus

    Q.4.    What are the causes of coming blood in milk and mentions its treatment?

    Q.1.    How mastitis occurs in dogs? 
    Ans.    Mastitis in dogs initiates with the infection in the milk ducts of the dogs, where in the dog’s breast is enlarged as well as milk duct is blocked. The skin around the nipple might get cracked which might give a way to bacteria. In neglected cases it leads to cause gangrenous mastitis which is a severe form of mastitis in dogs.

    Q.2.    What are common pathogens responsible for mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp. and Escherichia coli.
 
    Q.3.    What are the characteristic features of milk cytology during mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    Milk cytology will show the presence of erythrocytes, degenerated neutrophils and bacterial agents.

    Q.4.    What characteristic physical changes of milk are seen during mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    The viscosity of milk is increased and the colour of milk will be yellow to brown depending on the amount of blood and purulent exudates present.

    Q.1.    What is the cause of mastitis in non-lactating mare?
    Ans.    Mastitis may develop in a non-lactating mare due to abnormally high estrogen levels in her system. This excess female hormone can result from a pituitary gland tumor or consumption of high estrogen containing hay. High estrogen concentrations can cause mammary gland enlargement and trigger the production and secretion of milk, even though the mare is not pregnant and has not foaled. If the non-lactating mare begins to secrete milk due to excess estrogen, she may become a candidate for mastitis.

    Q.2.    Why equine mammary glands are less prone to mastitis than bovines?
    Ans.    The possible reasons are as follows:
    a)    Mammary glands are relatively smaller in size
    b)    Concealed position of the glands
    c)    Small milk capacity of the glands
    d)    Greater resistance to infection in equine mammary glands because of differences in endocrine environment and local immunity

Fill in the blanks
    Q.1.    ………… organisms are the common isolates from clinically affected quarters.
    Ans.    Coagulase-negative staphylococci
    Q.2.    ………….is the most common cause of mastitis in goats.
    Ans.    Staphylococcus aureus
    Q.3.    Streptococcal zooepidermicus causes …………. in does.
    Ans.    Chronic suppurative mastitis.
 
Write True/ False about the statements
    Q.1.    Pseudomonas organism causes an acute mastitis characterized by extensive necrosis and fatal septicemia.
    Ans.    True.
    Q.2.    In summer mastitis, non-lactating goats develop severe mastitis whereas lactating goats suffer from moderate degree.
    Ans.    False

Fill in the blanks

    Q.1.    ---------- and -------------- are the synonyms of mastitis of sheep.
    Ans.    Bluebag, garget
    Q.2.    In gangrenous mastitis, besides Staphylococcus aureus, ----------- organism may also be involved.
    Ans.    Clostridium perfringens A
Answer the followings

    Q.1.    What are the characteristic symptoms of mastitis in sheep?
    Ans.    The important symptoms include severe necrotizing inflammation of mammary gland, severe systemic reaction and reduced milk production
    Q.2.    Classify the sheep mastitis based on etiology and clinical symptoms.
    Ans.    a) Gangrenous mastitis by Staphylococcus aurcus mastitis b) Herd mastitis by Pasteurella hemolytica
    Q.3.    When the risk of mastitis in sheep is high?
    Ans.    During summer month between parturition and weaning

    Q.1.    The mastitis-metritis-agalactia (MMA) is a disease syndrome of which animal species? 
    Ans.    Swine

    Q.2.    What is MMA syndrome?
    Ans.    MMA syndrome is post parturient disease of sows and manifested as fever, anorexia, lethargy, agalactia, mastitis, swollen udder and appearance of vulvar discharge due to development of metritis.
 
    Q.3.    What is the critical time of occurrence of MMA in sows?
    Ans.    The mastitis-metritis-agalactia (MMA) syndrome occurs between 12-48 hrs of farrowing in sows.

    Q.4.    What is the probable causes for the development of MMA syndrome?
    Ans.    The probable causes of MMA syndrome are infectious mastitis, metritis, more feeding at pregnant period, nutritional deficiency, endocrine disorders and constipation.

    Q.1.    What are the most common isolated environmental Streptococci from mastitis cases?
    Ans.    Streptococcus uberis and Streptococcus dysgalactiae.

    Q.2.    What are the common sources of environmental Streptococcus uberis in a herd?
    Ans.    The common sources are bedding materials, lips, nostrils and abdominal skin of cows.

    Q.3.    What are the common sources of environmental Streptococcus dysgalactiae?
    Ans.    The common sources are tonsils, mouth, vagina and mammary gland of cows.

    Q.4.    Why incidence of Streptococcus uberis is highest just prior to calving?
    Ans.    The important reasons are the excessive accumulation of milk due to lack of milking, lack of keratin plugs from the streak canal and immunosuppression at periparturient period.

    Q.5.    The cattle fly sometimes involves in persistent bacterial contamination on teat of a cow. Mention the name of the cattle fly.

Q.1.    Enumerate the etiological agents responsible for Coliform mastitis.
    Ans.    Different serotypes of E. coli, Klebsiella sp. and Enterobacter aerogens.

Q.2.    What is the primary reservoir of Coliform mastitis?
    Ans.    Primary reservoir of Coliform is the dairy cow’s environment as it is an environmental pathogen, however, infected mammary gland acts as reservoir of Coliform mastitis

Q.3.    What is the important factors of E. coli that affect the normal bactericidal activity of leukocytes?
    Ans.    Lipopolysaccharide-endotoxin, somatic and capsular factors. Similarly, fibronectin binding property of E. coli is also an important virulence factor which help to adhere to ductular epithelium.

    Q.1.    How many species of Mycoplasma are responsible for causing mastitis?
    Ans.    At least seven species like Mycoplasma bovis, Mycoplasma Canadensis, Mycoplasma bovigenitalium, Mycoplasma alkalensis, Mycoplasma capricolium, Mycoplasma californicum, Mycoplasma disper and Ureaplasma sp. are responsible for causing mastitis

    Q.2.    Which herds are more prone to such type of mastitis?
    Ans.    The herds where milking hygiene is very poor and when the cows are imported from other farms or from public sale yards.

    Q.3.    Which organs act as common habitat of the Mycoplasma organisms?

Fill in the blanks

    Q1.    …………… is a contagious pathogen in bovine mastitis
    Ans.    Streptococcus agalactiae

    Q.2.    Streptococcus agalactiae causes ……… (acute/chronic) mastitis if control procedure of mastitis is not used.
    Ans.    Chronic

Answer the following
    Q.1.    Mention the strategy to reduce the prevalence of Streptococcus agalactiae mastitis at herd level.
    Ans.    Good hygienic measures, proper disinfection and efficient treatment of clinical cases.

    Q.2.    What is the relation between SCC and Streptococcus agalactiae infection?
    Ans.    The possibility of Streptococcus agalactiae infection is high with high bulk milk somatic cell count.

    Q.3.    What are the common sources of Streptococcus agalactiae infection in a dairy herd?

Q1.    What is the etiology of Staphylococcus aureus mastitis?
    Ans.    Coagulase positive Staphylococcus aureus.

Q.2.    It causes contagious or environmental mastitis?
    Ans.    Contagious mastitis

Q3.    What are the important animal risk factors of S. aureus mastitis?
    Ans.
    (i)    Presence of coalgulase –ve Staphylococci and Corynebacterium bovis in the mammary gland act as protective factor for S. aureus mastitis.
    (ii)    Abrasion of teat orifice epithelium is a major risk factor of S. aureus mastitis.
    (iii)    Cows with increased parity are more prone to clinical and subclinical S. aureus mastitis.
    (iv)    Presence of different periparturient diseases like parturient peresis, retained placenta, dystocia, ketosis and ulcers in different organs are also risk    factors for S. aureus mastitis.
    (v)    Animals having very low SCC in milk are more prone to S. aureus mastitis.

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is the international organizations associated for making outline the mastitis control programme?
    Ans.    National Institute for Research on Dairying (NIRD) and National Mastitis Council (NMC).

    Q.2.    What is the important objective of dairy industry as regards to mastitis control?
    Ans.    The important objective is to achieve an excellent udder health for production of high quality of milk.

    Q.3.    What is the basic principles of mastitis control programme?
    Ans.    There three basic principles of mastitis control programme:
    a)    Elimination of existing infection
    b)    Prevention of new infection 
    c)    Monitoring of udder health status

Answer the followings.
    Q.1.    Which factors govern the efficacy of intramammary drug in mastitis therapy?
    Ans.    The important factors are spectrum of bacteria controlled, diffusibility through mammary tissue and cost of the drug.

    Q.2.    What should be line of emergency treatment when type of infection is not known?
    Ans.    Frequent removal of milk manually or by using oxytocin, broad spectrum antimicrobials parentrally as well as via intramammary route and non steroidal anti-inflammatory drug.

    Q.3.    Why therapy of mastitis often fails to respond in lactating cows in spite of intensive veterinary service?
    Ans.    The main reasons are as follows:
    a)    Ineffective drug diffusion
    b)    Inactivation of antibiotics by milk and tissue priteins
    c)    Formation of micro-abscesses which make inaccessible of drug to pathogens
    d)    Inefficient killing of bacteria and intracellular survival of bacteria

   Q.1.    How milk sample is collected for diagnosis of mastitis?
    Ans.    At first the end of teat is cleaned with a cotton swab dipped with 70% alcohol, then the dirt and wax are removed from the external sphincter by pressure. After this milk sample is collected in screw cap bottle.

    Q.2.    When milk sampling should be done in suspected cases of tubercular mastitis?
    Ans.    Last few streams of milking is crucial in cases of tubercular mastitis.

    Q.3.    What is the effect of freezing of milk sample on bacterial count?
    Ans.    On freezing of milk, Arcanobacter pyogenis and E. coli counts are decreased, coagulase negative bacteria counts increases whereas, Streptococcus and Staphylococcus spp. counts may be unaffected or increased.

    Q.4.    Which media is suitable for initial isolation of bacteria from milk samples?
    Ans.    Blood agar. However for isolation Streptococcus agalactiae selective media is required

Q.1.    What are the major clinical findings in mastitis?
    Ans.    These are abnormalities of secretions, abnormalities of udder related to size, consistency, temperature and sometimes systemic reactions.

Q.2.    How clinical forms of mastitis could be classified based of severity and duration?
    Ans.    Based on severity it is classified in four forms: Per acute mastitis, acute mastitis, subacute mastitis and subclinical mastitis. However, based on duration it is of three forms: Short term clinical or subclinical mastitis (Coliform mastitis), recurrent mastitis (Staphylococcus aureus mastitis, Streptococcal dysgalactiae mastitis) and persistent clinical or subclinical mastitis (Streptococcus agalactiae mastitis).

Q.3.    What is sub clinical mastitis?
    Ans.    In sub clinical mastitis there is evidence of inflammation which is evidenced by only raised SCC in milk without any visible abnormalities of milk and udder.

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is the different stage of pathogenesis in mastitis?
    Ans.    There are three stages in pathogenesis 
These are as follows:
Invasion: here pathogens move from the exterior of teat to milk inside the teat canal.
Infection: Here pathogens multiply rapidly and invade the mammary gland.
Inflammation: In this stage clinical mastitis occurs with varying degree of clinical abnormalities of milk and udder.
    Q.2.    Of these phases, which phase is important to reduce the incidence of mastitis in control program?
    Ans.    Invasive stage is very important. The incidence of mastitis can be reduced by taking preventive measures at invasive stage by good management and good hygiene practices.
    Q.3.    What are the common abnormalities encountered in udder during mastitis?

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is the relative incidence of  Streptococcus agalactiae, other Streptococci and Staphylococcus aureus
    Ans.    1:1: 2
    Q.2.    What are sources of contagious pathogen for mastitis?
    Ans.    Udder surfaces of infected quarters 
    Q.3.    What are sources of environmental pathogen for mastitis?
    Ans.    Bedding of cow’s environment
    Q.4.    When animal get infection from environmental pathogen?
    Ans.    Animal get infection at any time during the life such as milking time, between milking, during dry period and prior to first calving.
    Q.8.    What is the probable period of new infection from environmental pathogen?
    Ans.    Early part of dry period and first two months of lactation.
    Q.9.    What is the relation of growth of Corynebacterium bovis in milk and lactation?

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is mastitis?
    Ans.    It may be defined as inflammation of mammary parenchyma and characterized by physiochemical changes in the milk and pathological changes of the glandular tissue.
    Q.2.    What are the cardinal changes of milk and udder in mastitis?
    Ans.    Changes of milk includes discoloration, presence of clot, and presence of huge leukocytes whereas, mammary gland becomes hot painful swelling and induration.
    Q.3.    What is sub clinical mastitis?
    Ans.    In subclinical mastitis, normally mammary gland is normal by physical examination; however, cellular constitution only indicates presence of mastitis (i.e. increased somatic cell count).
    Q.4.    What is the basis of diagnosis of sub clinical mastitis?
    Ans.    Diagnosis sub clinical mastitis depends largely on indirect tests which are related to leukocyte content of milk.

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something, which can include facts, information, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); it can be more or less formal or systematic.While many would agree that one of the most universal and significant tools for the transfer of knowledge is writing (of many kinds), argument over the usefulness of the written word exists nonetheless, with some scholars skeptical of its impact on societies. People are often internalizing new information which they perceive to be knowledge but in reality fill their minds with false knowledge.

  1.    Gender Sensitization: Change of Attitude of people towards gender equality, gender roles etc.

  2.    Public-Private Partnership: Involvement of private stakeholders with public entreprises

  3.    Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Use of computer. fax, video, telephones in information sharing & transfer of technology.

  4.    Cyber Extension: Use of computers in extension management.

  5.    Broad Based Extension: Farming system use for maximum use of all available resource to maximize profit

  6.    Bottom-up Approach: Planning from lowest level of society.

  7.    ITK (Indegenous Technological Knowledge): Use of farm community knowledge for development

  8.    Market Led Extension: Transfer of technology basing on assured & confirmed market of the product.

DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN RURAL AREAS (DWCRA)

Objectives

  1.    To raise the income level of women poor households.

  2.    Formation of groups of 10-15 women in rural poor for developing of services.

Salient features

  1.    Each group is given one time grant of Rs.25,000/-as revolving fund for infrastructure, purchase of raw materials, marketing, child care etc.

  2.    Fund is in ratio of 50:50 between Central and State government.

  3.    Provision of setting up of District Supply and Marketing Society for women producers.

DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (DRDA)

Objective

To professionalise the DRDA so that they are able to effectively manage the antipoverty programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development and interact effectively with other agencies.

Salient Features

•   The DRDA is visualized as a specialized agency capable of managing the anti-poverty programmes and to effectively relate these to the overall efforts of poverty eradication in the district.

•   The DRDA role will be to facilitate the implementation of the programmes, to supervise, oversee and monitor the progress, to receive and send progress reports and maintaining accounts of funds received for various rural development programmes.

•   DRDAs also need to develop synergies among different agencies for the most effective results.

•   The Chairman Zilla Parishad would be the chairman of the governing body of the DRDA.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT (CD)

Meaning of Community Development

Community development is an exclusive term. It is used frequently to encompash every efforts towards the advance of community interest.

Community

A community is a group of people who live in a particular geographical area and have an interest on each other and have a purpose of making a living.

Development

It means growth or maturation. It is gradual and sequencial phases of changes. Example: Life from child to death

Definition of Community Development

1. It is bringing forth the potential abilities and qualities of a group of people who live together in a common territory or region and who have an interdependent relationship with each other.

2. Community Development is a continuous process of social action by which the people of community do the following things.

(a)   Define their common and group needs.

(b)   Organize themselves formally and informally for democratic planning and action.

(c)   Make group and individual plans to meet their need and solve their problems.

(d)   Execute their plans with maximum reliance upon their own resources.

(e)   Supplement their resources from outside community when necessary with services and materials.

3. Carl Taylor’s Definition

Community Development is a method by which people in villages are involved in helping to improve their own economy through their own effort. Thereby, they are effective working groups in the programme or national development.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Meaning

The word “Rural” comes from the word “Rurale” which means close to nature and environment, and “Development” means growth or maturation.

Rural development is utilization, protection and enhancement of the natural, physical and human resources to make long-term improvements in rural living conditions. It involves provision of jobs and income opportunities while maintaining and protecting the environment of rural areas.

General Definition

1)     It is based on an operational approach with practicalities with the people covering maximum end users for maximum economic return.

2) Definition by Axinn

R.D. is a process of change among the rural people through change in environment, technology institutions and attitude to eliminate the poverty and improve the way of life.

3) Definition by Miller

R.D. is based on the following components

a)     Development of human resource - It includes the development of rural people by providing education to the rural children and employment to rural youth, socio-economic condition of village can be improved.

b)     Expansion of physical resources - Construction of infrastructures like roads, schools, colleges, post office, bank etc will improve the rural condition.

c)     Extension of communit’s control over the resources.

OBJECTIVE OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

Objective

Objectives are expression of the ends towards which our efforts are directed.

The objective of extension is to develop the rural people economically, socially and culturaly by means of education. Overall, these objectives are divided into 4 types they are :

a)   Material objective

b)   Educational objective

c)   Social and cultural objective

d)   Developing leadership objective

a) Material objective

According to National Commission on Agriculture (1976). Agriculture extension aims at improving the efficiency of human capital, an effort to rapidly increase the rate of agricultural production. It also seeks to import necessary skill to farmer to understand the improved agricultural operation and improve the their own income, own resource and also the money value.

b) Educational objective

Extension education also aims at development of individual to change in behaviour by identifying their knowledge, skill, attitude and action. It aims at increasing the knowledge of people to analyse their past, present and expected future situation, to become aware of problem identification, solution and also realising their felt and unfelt need.

Extension

Extension is that type of education which is stretched out to people in rural areas far and near, beyond the limits of education institutions to which the formal type of education is usually confined.

Education

Education is a process of bringing about desirable changes in the behaviour of human being.

Formal education: The hierarchically structured, chronologically graded ‘education system’, running from primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialised programmes and institutions for full-time technical and professional training.

Informal education: The truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment - from family and neighbours, from work and play, from the market place, the library and the mass media.

Non-formal education: Any organised educational activity outside the established formal system - whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity - that is intended to serve identifiable learning clientele and learning objectives.

Adulteration in animal and human foods has become common feature in the country, therefore we should be cautious while selecting animal/human feed ingredients.

The author of this compendium has developed. “Animal Feed Testing Kit” based on novel cud liquor enzyme complex (innovation certified by ISA, International Search Authority - Patent office, Vienna), registered with WIPO (Geneva). This method is described in detail in this chapter and Patent application is field at Indian Patent Office Delhi.

Now-a-days, animal feed is being adulterated with extraneous materials viz, Saw dust, Ric hulls, sand and Silica, Castor husk, oat hulls and urea (higher than 01 percent limit on dry matter basis).

Preparation of Samples

Before withdrawing portions for analytical determinations, bring the sample to a temperature of 26 to 28ºC and mix throughly by pouring gently into a clean dry receptacle and back, until a homogenous mixture is assured. If lumps of cream do not completely disappear, warm the sample to about 40ºC, mix throughly, then cool to 26 to 28ºC. In case a measured volume is required in a determination, bring the temperature of the sample to about 27ºC before pipetting. All samples shall be allowed to stand for three to four minutes after mixing to allow air bubbles to rise ; the sample bottle shall then be inverted three or four times immediately prior to taking the milk for analysis. If a sample is curdled, excessively churned or decomposed, the sample should not be taken up for analysis.

(Colorimetric Method of Barker and Summerson, 1941)
I. Method for Blood / Plasma
Principle

In this method, glucose and other interfering material of the protein free blood filtrate is removed by the Van Slyke-Salkowski method of treatment with copper sulphate and calcium hydroxide. A part of the resulting solution is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid to convert lactic acid to acetaldehyde, which is then determined by reaction with p-hydroxydiphenyl in the presence of copper ions.

(Method of Schram and Aines, 1959)

All the legume seeds and their byproducts are very rich in urease activity which may be responsible for an appreciable loss of urea nitrogen on long duration storage. Therefore it is necessary to estimate urease activity in legume seeds and their byproducts.

Reagents

    1.    Dimethyleaminobenzaldehyde solution (DMAB). Dissolve 16 g DMAB in 1 litre 95% ethyl alcohol and add 100 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid (Stable one month).
    2.    Pyrophosphate buffer. Dissolve 233 g Na4P2O7. 10H2O in approximately 980 ml distilled water. Add 3 ml of conc. Hcl and then dropwise further Hcl until the pH of the buffer is 7.7 to 7.8. Dilute to one litre.
    3.    Buffered urea solution. Dissolve 0.4 g urea in one litre pyrophosphate buffer (Stable one week).

I. Detection of Castor Husk in Oil Cakes and Oil Seed Meals (Method of ISI, (BIS), IS: 10165-1982)
Principle

The method is based on the fact that castor husk is not bleached under the conditions which cause the bleaching of almost all other materials of vegetable origin likely to be present in an oilcake. The method consists of the treatment of the material with dilute alkali and acid solutions followed by treatment with bleaching powder solution and the isolation of the unbleached castor husk.

I. Titrimetric Method of Estimating Salt in Fish Meal
(Modified AOAC, 1965 method)
Principle

The salt content is calculated as sodium chloride from the content of water solubles chlorides. The chlorides are dissolved in water and directly precipitated by titration with a silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate as an indicator.

PEG Estimation
Introduction
Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is used as a marker for the estimation of rumen water volume and ruminant digestion studies (Hyden and Ekman, 1953). Long back, Hyden (1955) developed a turbidimetric method which is described below :

Principle
When trichloroacetic acid is added to a solution of PEG, a turbidity is produced, which can be measured photo-electrically. The intensity of the cloud, which consists of finely divided oily droplets, is increased in the presence of barium ions. Protein and sulphate must be completely removed from the sample before the addition of the trichloroacetic acid reagent. Sulphate is precipitated with barium chloride and the proteins are removed essentially according to Samogyi (1945). The method has been developed for determination of PEG in ruminal and abomasal fluids, but it has been tried with other biological materials too.

Introduction

Casein has been widely used as a substrate for measuring the trypsin inhibitor activity of natural trypsin inhibitors such as those which occur in Soybeans and other legume. The most common method employing casein is the one originally described by Kunitz (1947) which involves the spectrophotometric determination of the breakdown products produced by a given concentration of trypsin in the presence and absence of the inhibitor. On the other hand, the tryptic hydrolysis of a synthetic substrate such as benzoyl-DL-arginine-p-nitroanilide (BAPA), first introduced by Erlanger et al. (1961), does follow a zero order reaction, and one obtains, within broad limits, a linear relationship between the quantity of p-nitroaniline released and the concentration of the active enzyme. Although BAPA has been used for assaying the antitryptic activity of soybean fractions (Sambeth et al., 1967).

Pepsin Digestibility of Food
Principle

Solvent extracted samples are digested for 16 hour with warm acid solution of pepsin under constant agitation. Insoluble residue is centrifuged, dried and weighed and analysed for protein ; or filtered, washed and analysed for protein.

Apparatus
    1.    Centrifuge : Capable of at least 1750 rpm with conical bottom tubes of 150 ml capacity. If necessary, solution may be centrifuged in 50 ml tubes.
    2.    Agitator : or water bath with shaking device and having temperature controlling unit.
    3.    Glass fiber filter paper.

Total Protein in Tissue Extract or Blood, Serum or Plasma
(Method of Folin-Ciocalteu, 1927 modified by Lowry et al., 1951)
Principle

A deep blue dye is formed when protein is treated with the phenol reagent of Folin ciocalteu. The extraordinary sensitivity of the method is due to the fact that two colour reactions are taking place simultaneously.
    a.    The biuret reaction of peptide bonds with copper in alkaline solution.
    b.    A reduction of phosphomolybdic acid and phosphotungstic acid by the aromatic amino acids, tyrosine and tryptophan, present in the protein.

Separation of Bacteria and Protozoa
(Method of Czerkawski, 1975)

Rumen contents are obtained just before and two hours after feeding from sheep that had been given an experimental ration. The samples of rumen contents are strained through gauze and fractioned by sedimentation and centrifugation to give preparations of mixed protozoa (PR), large bacteria (LB) and small bacteria (SB). Whole particulate matter is also isolated by centrifugation at 20000g. The detail steps are mentioned in the flow chart given below.

TVFA Estimation in Blood
(Method of Friedemann, 1938 modified by Mc Anally, 1944)

A method for the determination of volatile fatty acids in various biological materials has been described by Friedemann (1938) which is said to be applicable to blood, then the blood is added to dilute sulphuric acid, then sodium tungstate solution and solid magnesium sulphate are added and the whole is steam distilled.

Reagents
    1.    Saturated magnesium sulphate solution to which has been added 2.5 per cent by volume of concentrated sulphuric acid.

Estimation of Magnesium in Feeds, Fodders and Faeces
(Gravimetric method - AOAC, 1965)
Principle

Evaporation of calcium free filtrate is carried out to drive off ammonium chloride and nitric acid is added to decompose ammonium salts, which is then subsequently driven off by evaporation. NH₄Cl + HNO₃ = HCl + NH₄NO₃ (driven off). Sodium citrate in solution yields citric acid which has got a tremendous effect on aluminium and iron in that the citric acid keeps these materials in solution.

At neutrality, first the normal magnesium phosphate is formed, which is then turned to magnesium ammonium phosphate, which on incineration gives rise to magnesium pyrophosphate (Mg₂P₂O₇).

Estimation of Phosphorus in Feeds, Fodders and Faeces
(Titrimetric method of AOAC, 1965)
Principle

Metaphosphates and pyrophosphates are converted to the ortho-phosphate, which is treated at 65-70ºC with excess of molybdate in the presence of nitric acid. When acid solutions of phosphates are heated with ammonium molybdate, the phosphoric acid is precipitated as yellow ammonium phosphomolybdate (NH₄)₃ PO₄ (Mo03)12 2HNO₃.H₂O. Impurities like molybdic oxide, if happened to be formed any, goes into solution. The yellow precipitate formed reacts quantitatively with standard alkali, the excess of which is back titrated with acid.

Estimation of Calcium in Feeds, Fodders and Faeces
(Titrimetric method of AOAC, 1965)
Principle

When a solution containing calcium is treated with ammonium oxalate, all the calcium present is precipitated as calcium oxalate, The precipitate on treatment with sulphuric acid dissolves, forming calcium sulphate liberating free oxalic acid which is quantitatively estimated by titration against standard N/10 potassium permanganate solution to arrive at the calcium content present in the given solution. The reactions which take place are given below:

Blood Sampling

Blood samples shall be taken in the early morning hours before offering any diet to human subjects or ration to livestock. The syringe and needle should be autoclaved, needle should be free from any blockage etc. In the case of ruminants, blood sample is taken directly from jugular vein, while in swine, blood sample is drawn from ear vein, while in human subjects, blood is taken from prominent vein on the inner surface of the yellow usually the (medium basilic). The container (test tube etc.) should be dried and autoclaved. We should separate plasma (from anticoagulent mixed blood) and serum from ordinary blood by centrifugation immediately. We should remember by heart  that blood samples should not be kept in deep freezer, because there are chances of haemolysis as well as an abnormal distribution of certain ions and enzymes between the cells and the serum. We should never force the blood through the needle as such type of practice may result in extensive hemolysis. We should discard first few drops of blood, while taking sample. We should prepare protein free filtrate immediately. Protein-free filtrate may be kept in a much better way than whole blood or plasma.

Unit of Length

A metre (m) is taken from the international prototype metre at the International Bureau of weights and measures; at 32ºF. (0ºC) = 39.37 inches (in.) = 3.280833 feet (ft.) = centimetres (Cm.). A centimetre (Cm.) = 10 millimetres (mm.) = 10,000 microns (µ) = 0.337 inch (in.) or 10-4cm. A millimetre (mm.) = 1,000 microns (µ) = 0.03937 inch. A micron (mµ) = 1,000 milli-microns (µ) = 3.937x10-5 inch. A milli-micron (mµ) = 0.001 micron or 10-7 cm. A foot (ft.) = 0.3048006 metre (m.) = 30.48006 centimetres (Cm.) = 12 inches (in.)., inch = 2.5 cm. An inch (in.) = 2.539998 centimetres (Cm.) = 25.39998 mm = 25,399.98 microns (µ).

Steps in the Estimation of Trace Elements
Estimation of trace elements in feeds and fodders and other biological materials involves the following steps :

    1.    Production of an acidic solution of the inorganic elements in the biological samples after removal of the organic matter by dry ashing or wet oxidation.

    2.    Removal or masking of interfering substances.

    3.    Determination of the selected elements, usually by using colorimetry.

Results of trace elements determinations are expressed as parts per million (ppm), mg/kg or µg/g dry matter.