eChapters

Introduction Turnip (Brassica rapa subsp. repifera L.) is a root vegetable grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of India that is commonly grown for its edible root and leaves. The root is typically white or cream-colored with a slightly purple or pink top, and has a slightly sweet and earthy flavor. The leaves, which are also edible, have a slightly bitter taste and are typically used in soups, stews, and salads. Turnips are a coolseason crop and are typically planted in the spring or fall. They are hardy and can tolerate frost, making them a popular choice for fall and winter gardens. Turnips are a very nutritious vegetable, they are a good source of vitamin C, fiber, and potassium, as well as other minerals and vitamins. They are also low in calories and high in antioxidants. The root contains a compound called glucosinolate, which has been shown to have anti-cancer properties.

The word Cymbidium has been derived from a Greek word ‘Kumbos’ meaning ‘hole or cavity’ referring to the structure of the base of the lip. The genus consists of 44 known evergreen species in the family Orchidaceae, subfamily Vandoideae, tribe Cymbidieae and sub-tribe Cryptopodiinae. It is distributed from northwestern India to China, Japan, south through the Malay Archipelago to the north and east Australia. (DuPuy and Cribb, 1988). Cymbidiums have been for over hundred years one of the most famous orchids in commerce.

Kerala has a tropical humid weather characterised by high rainfall and humidity. The intense rainfall during June-September is a limiting factor for vegetable cultivation. High cost of labour, rapid urbanisation, small size of holdings and quality conscious consumers are some of the factors favouring protected cultivation in Kerala. Rain shelters and modified naturally-ventilated polyhouses are recommended structures for protected cultivation of vegetables. The important vegetables grown are cucumber, yard long bean, Capsicum, okra, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower and leafy vegetables. The conventional saw-toothed structure has been modified to suit Kerala weather by making variation in height and improving the roof and side ventilation so that temperature variation inside the structure is only 1°C compared to the ambient. The Kerala Agricultural University has also developed an ad-hoc package for protected cultivation of vegetables, considering the soil and weather parameters and is providing necessary technical support to growers and extension officers. The technology for large-scale production of virus-free vegetable transplants in pro-trays has also been standardized. There is a growing demand for quality, disease-free seedlings and technology can be scaled up into a profitable agri-entreprenurial model. Open field precision farming through fertigation and mulching is profitable compared to conventional system of cultivation. Besides maximising water-and nutrient-use efficiency of the crop, this technology offers scope for mechanisation in vegetable cultivation saving human labour requirement by almost 50%. Rain shelters are useful for year-round production of vegetables in homestead for small growers.

Orchids are known for their exquisite beauty and trade in global floriculture business. The Netherlands is pioneer in roduction and ex ort of tem erate orchid while Thailand and Hawaii are the world leader in tropical orchids, respectively. Recently, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Sri Lanka are catching the international market. The orchid industry is expanding in terms of magnitude in some of the major orchid-producing nations. The global orchid market has passed $ 1 Billion mark in 2010. The leading orchid producing countries in 2010 are:

Country Production ($ million) Japan 280 USA 170 Taiwan 130 China 70 Brazil 60 UK 45 Thailand 35 Italy 30 New Zealand 20 Source: Orchid News The world consumption of orchids (potted plants) is valued more than $ 500 million (2000). The Dominican Republic, Costa Rica and India have recently begun to produce orchids for export. Commercial production of orchids has increased dramatically through the world in the past quarter century. The most common genera sold in Japan from 1993 to 2002 were Phalaenopsis (30%), Nobile type Dendrobium (20%), Oncidium (20%), Cymbidium (15%) and Cattleya (10%). The potted orchids sold through Dutch flower auctions increased from 50, 0000 to 18 million pots.

Introduction

Pulses are the second most important group of crops after cereals in India. They are important food crops for nutritional security, soil health and sustainable agriculture. Consequently, they remained an internal component of Indian agriculture especially under rainfed since time immemorial. They are among the ancient food crops with evidence of their cultivation for over 8,000 years. India, China, Brazil, Canada, Myanmar and Australia are the major pulse producing countries with relative share of 25%, 10%, 5%, 5% and 4%, respectively. In 2017, the global pulses production was 95.98 million tonnes from an area of 95.17 million ha with an average yield of 1008 kg/ha. Dry beans contributed 32.7% to global total pulses production followed by chickpea (15.4%), dry peas (16.89%), lentil (7.91%) and pigeonpea (7.1%). About 70% of the global pigeonpea, 60% of chickpea and 17% of lentil area falls in India (FAO STAT, 2018). India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world contributing around 25-28% of the total global production.

India can be proud of growing the largest number of pulse crops (grain legumes) in the world. Over a dozen pulse crops including chickpea (Cicer arietinum), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), mungbean (Vigna radiata), urdbean (Vigna mungo), cowpea (V. unguiculata), lentil (Lens culinaris), lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus L.), frenchbean (Phaseolus vulgaris), horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum), field pea (Pisum sativum), moth bean (V. aconitifolium), etc. are grown in one or the other part of the country throughout year. The latest data (2017-18) indicate that the present production of pulses is 25.23 million tonnes from an area of 29.99 million ha with productivity of 841 kg/ha (DAC, 2019) (Fig. 1). The stagnant growth of pulse production and continuous increasing human population in the country led to decline in per capita consumption of pulses from 67 g/day/person during 1951 to 35 g/day/person during 2010 (Indian Council of Medical Research recommends 65 g/day/person).

The most important pulse crops grown are chickpea (48%), pigeonpea (15%), mungbean (7%), urdbean (7%), lentil (5%) and field pea (5%). To fulfill domestic demand of pulses in the country, India has to import 3-4 million tones of pulses every year. In order to ensure self-sufficiency, the pulse requirement in the country is projected to be about 50 million tonnes by 2050 which necessitates an annual growth rate of 4.0% (IIPR, 2013).

Introduction

Soils are formed by weathering of rocks and minerals and all soils contain some amount of soluble salts. Many of these act as a source of essential nutrients for the healthy growth of plants. However, when quantity and quality of salts in the soil near rhizosphere exceeds a particular value, growth, yield and/or quality of most crops is adversely affected. Such a soil is called salt-affected. The degree of adverse effects depends upon the type and quantity of salts, crop and its variety, stage of growth, cultural practices and environmental factors viz. temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall etc. Development of salinity and waterlogging is a serious problem in arid and semi-arid regions of the world and threatening the sustainability of irrigated agriculture.

Salt-affected soils occupy an estimated 952.2 million ha of land in the world that constitutes nearly 7% of the total land area and nearly 33% of the potential arable land (Dudal and Purnell, 1986). In India, the salt affected soils account for 6.727 million ha i.e. 2.1% of geographical area of the country. These soils are mostly found in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh. In the last 25 years 1.1 million ha of alkali soils have been reclaimed in the states of Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. These have contributed to the additional food grain production of 10 million tonnes annually. Reclamation of alkali soils have also decreased the incidents of floods and malaria and increased the groundwater recharge.

Floriculture industry comprises of cultivation and trade of cut and loose flowers, potted plants, foliage and bedding plants, and dried flowers under open field as well as protected conditions. Globally, more than 145 countries are involved in cultivation of floricultural crops. Though the art of growing flowers is not new to India, protected cultivation is relatively new in India. Enormous genetic diversity, varied agroclimatic conditions, versatile human resources offer India a unique scope for diversification into new avenues which have not been explored to a greater extent. India also has a strong dry flower industry, which contributes a major share to the overall trade. Other segments like fillers, potted plants, seeds and planting material, turf grass industry and value-added products also contribute a share in overall growth of floriculture industry.

Cut flower production is a growing business in most of the Asian countries. Technology for production is well-known and it has been utilized to the maximum in many countries. As a consequence, cut flowers are commercially produced in larger quantities in these countries, resulting in surplus quantity during normal periods of blooming. On the other hand, such prices are much higher during the periods of needs such as certain special occasions, or off-season.

Vegetables are the most extensively utilized plants for  exploitation of heterosis for  development of hybrids. As the importance of heterosis breeding increased, male sterility proved an asset particularly in crops like onion and carrot which produce many but small sized flowers making hand emasculation tedious. Large scale hybrid seed production sometimes remains handicapped because of high labour cost, unavailability of trained labour at crucial times i.e. at blooming, bad weather conditions like continuous rains etc. The phenomenon of male sterility has always been of long term interest for  researchers of various disciplines of applied, strategic and basic sciences. It is of special interest for  plant breeders to produce more efficient and economic hybrid seed. Discovery of certain male sterile mutants which  eliminate more laborious operations of emasculation combined with various marker genes further facilitate identification of undesirable types even at seedling stage has widened the very basis of hybrid seed production. This technique has also reduced the total cost of hybrid seed production. Onion crop provides one of the rare examples of very early recognition of male sterility (Jones and Emsweller 1936), its inheritance and use in hybrid seed production (Jones and Clarke 1943). Since then male sterility is reported in fairly large number of crops including vegetables.

Introduction

Rice is the staple food for over half the world’s population. China and India alone account for ~50% of the rice grown and consumed. Rice provides up to 50% of the dietary caloric supply for millions living in poverty in Asia and is, therefore, critical for food security. Globally, share of Asia continent in rice production is more than 90% followed by America (5.2%), Africa (3.4%) and Europe (0.6%). It is becoming an important food staple in both Latin America and Africa. Record increases in rice production have been observed since the start of the ‘Green Revolution’. However, rice remains one of the most protected food commodities in world trade. Rice is a poor source of vitamins and minerals, and losses occur during the milling process. Populations that subsist on rice are at high risk of vitamin and mineral deficiency.

The Indian population of 1.32 billion is projected to reach 1.53 billion by 2030 A.D. Goyal and Singh (2002) estimated a demand of 146 million tonnes of rice (taken as 50% of total cereals) by the year 2030. On the other end of the scale, 3^rd projection puts rice demand to be 156 million tonnes by 2030 (ICAR, 2010). To meet this, it is immensely necessary to increase the productivity levels without adversely affecting the natural resource base. Achievement of the targeted production would be an uphill task in the coming decades with the shrinking natural resource base, deteriorating soil health and soil productivity, declining input use efficiency, plateauing of yields in irrigated ecologies and lack of a major yield breakthrough in rainfed ecologies. Further, slowdown in the growth rate of cereal production and growing population pressure have emerged as formidable challenges for the future food and nutritional security in India. These challenges will be more extreme under emerging situations of natural resource degradation, high energy demands, volatile markets and risks associated with global climate change (Jat et al., 2016; Lal, 2016). Since, rice is the staple food for our country’s food security primarily depends on this wonderful crop. Globally rice is cultivated now in 167 million ha with annual production of around 769 million tonnes (499.3 million tonnes, milled rice) of rough rice and average productivity of 4.6 tonnes/ha (3.62 t/ha, milled rice) of rough rice (FAO STAT, 2017). In Asian countries, >90% of the rice is produced and consumed. The other continents in which rice is grown are Africa (7.78% of the global area), South America (6.4%) and North America (1.4%).

India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world after China. As per the National Horticulture Database (3rd Advance Estimate), the area under cultivation of fruits is 6.914 million hectares with a production of 103.027 million tonnes. Mango (34.71%) ranks 1st in the area, followed by citrus (15.42%), banana, and grapes (2.14%), standing in the 9th position. Likewise, Mango (22.4%) occupies the 2nd position in production, followed by Citrus (12.89%) and Grapes, sharing around 3%. Underutilized fruit crops, such as aonal, bael, ber, Jamun, and tamarind, and minor fruit crops like phalsa, karonda ker, salvadora, etc., are grown in drier tracts of the country, including the arid region. Some of the crops introduced as non-traditional crops have revolutionized the fruit industry in India. Although the total acreage of cultivation and production of fruit crops has accelerated annually, the productivity of fruit crops has been on a declining trend due to several factors impacted by abiotic stresses. Since plants’ first line of defense lies in the roots, the success or failure of orcharding enterprises depends upon rootstocks.

Introduction

In India, around 70 per cent of cultivated land is under rainfed condition, but it accounts for about 42 per cent of the total quantity of produced food grains (Sujatha et al., 2013). It was estimated that using quality seeds, productivity can be enhanced up to the extent of 15-20 per cent and under optimum management, the increment may touch upon up to 45 per cent depending upon the crops. Quality seeds play a major role, along with improved package of practices leading to enhanced productivity. Crops propagated with seeds face many problems: Poor seed germination, poor seedling establishment under several abiotic stresses such as, drought, salinity and poor seedling vigour. The capacity of a crop propagated with seeds to grow depends on its genetic constituent and its interaction with the environmental biotic stresses. A number of diverse materials/ treatments at varying doses have been used to increase the rate and uniformity of seedling emergence in many field crops, which are generally categorized for seed enhancement. Seed enhancement may be defined as “post-harvest treatments that improve germination and seedling growth or facilitate the delivery of seeds and other inputs/materials required at the time of sowing smoothly”. Seed enhancement technology predominantly possess a central objective to further improve seed performance by treating with specific additives/chemical/organics/botanicals etc. under very specific regimes and with the aid of certain planting equipments to grow uniform crop obviously to harness higher productivity and production (Halmer, 2006). There are several ways and means to enhance vigour of germinating seedlings while emerging from the seed, which produce a uniform crop stand and finally substantially more yield is achieved by adopting simple techniques.

Abstract

Seed technology deals with the various aspects of seed- right from production to make it readily and timely available to the end users. The advancement in seedtechnology was realizedlong back and itwas considered equally important to the development of new technology (varieties). Considering the importance of seed as well as variability among seed of different crop species or even in same crop species, the researchers initiated work and focused their direction of research accordingly which resultedinto worthy achievements. Brief overviews of the advancements made in seed technology are being discussed in this chapter. However, efforts are still on to get rid of problems of seed technology in order to strengthen the seed industry, which makes the highest contribution to rural development, probably among all industries.

Introduction

Solar energy could be converted to electricity both through thermal route and photovoltaic cells but the latter is more advantageous as it has no moving part, it doesn’t require water, a rare commodity specifically in arid regions. Moreover, the maintenance of PV systems is easy, it can be installed right at the place of utility, the system is modular and these are reliable having life more than twenty years and of course eco-friendly.

In photovoltaic cells, generally known as solar cells, charge carriers are generated by the incoming irradiance (energy greater than band gap) and these are separated and swept away by an internal electric field, which is created by either making metal semiconductors contact (Schottky barrier) or p-n junction or MIS (Metal Insulator Semiconductor) or SIS (Semiconductor Insulator Semiconductor) devices. The height of potential barrier at the junction determines the voltage and the flowing charge carriers contribute to the current when connected externally. The choice of material depends on its band gap, absorption coefficient, diffusion length, mobility of charge carriers, ease in contact formation, type of junction with thermal and electronic compatibility, availability of material, toxicity and several other fabricational opto-electronic and practical aspects. PV cells based on single crystal and polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, CdS, CdTe, CuInGaSe, InP, GaAs etc. have been much studied. PV modules of efficiency above 16% on silicon and 10% on CdTe, CuInGaSe and 8-9 % on amorphous silicon are commercially available. Dye sensitized TiO₂ devices have also been receiving more attention with coloured panels for windows. Organic semiconductors are explored and more recently perovskite solar cell has been studied. Flexible solar cell panels based on thin film devices are in use. The applications have gone from solar lighting to operation of pumps, small and medium size equipment, stand alone and grid connected solar power plants, roof top and building integrated PV and now even energizing cars and aero planes. With technological advancement and enhanced production (233 GW in 2015) the cost of commercially available PV modules, which used to be high at one time has been brought down from 30 $/Wp in seventies to about $0.5/Wp at present.

Definitions

Pen Enclosure for housing rabbits that allows for freedom of movement by rabbits and allows for the provision of a variety of environmental enrichment strategies. Cage Fully enclosed container for housing rabbits which, because of its size, restricts freedom of movement by rabbits and limits the provision of environmental enrichment strategies. Cages are usually constructed from metal or plastic, with solid or mesh sides.

Introduction
Vegetables are an essential diet component for human beings and nutritional security because of their short season, high yielding potential, nutritional capacity financial viability and potential to create on-farm and off-farm agricultural employment. India ranks as the world’s second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables. In India, vegetables and fruits accounts for about 92% of the total horticultural production. Daily diet consisting of vegetables is primary sources of proteins, vitamins, minerals, dietary fibers, micronutrients, antioxidants and phytochemicals. Additionally, vegetables have wide range of phyto-chemicals such as anti-carcinogenic factors and anti-oxidants constituents (e.g. flavonoids, glucosinolates and isothyocynates) (Silva Dias, 2019). In India an area of 11.35 million hectares is employed for the production of vegetables which is around 204.84 million metric tonnes (APEDA, 2023). Novel genotypes adaptable to various horticultural systems must be developed due to rapid climate change, customers demand and the resurgence and emergence of plant’s pest and diseases (Cardi et al., 2017). Plant tissue culture is emerging as a technology which has significant impact on agriculture sector by producing plants to meet out the growing global demand. It provides the huge potential areas currently offering a glimpse into the future. Apart from this, it has advanced significantly in the area of vegetable sector. Vegetable crops can be improved through efficient in vitro plant regeneration system of biotechnological approach consisting of meristem culture, haploid production and somatic hybridization (Kumari et al., 2020). Genetic engineering is a novel approach to produce improved crops varieties with greater yield potential and pest resistant. Genetic transformation plays an important role in genetic engineering process in order to improve genetics of crop plants. The world’s demand for nutritious and cheap food market have prompted the scientists to step up their efforts to genetically modify the economically significant plants. Traditional breeding methods have several limitations such as more time consuming to develop a plant with desired traits and sexual incompatibility barrier and these limitations can be overcome by adopting effective strategies for regeneration and transformation of valuable plants. Genetic engineering has shown to be an excellent method for improving vegetable crops under different adverse conditions (Gerszberg, 2018). Plant tissue culture and molecular biology are the technical foundations of genetic transformation technology, which is used to produce enhanced crop varieties, disease-free plants (virus-free), genetic transformation, secondary metabolite production, and varieties resistant to various biotic stresses such as diseases-pests, and abiotic stresses like high temperature, drought, and salinity (Hussain et al., 2012).

Introduction

The general recommendation for intake of fruits and vegetables is at least 400 g/ person as recommended by World Health Organization (WHO), which amounts to five servings of 80 g/day or about 146 g/person/annum. For vegetables, the recommended intake requirement is at least 300 g per day per individual. This 300 g requirement must include 50 g leafy vegetables, 50 g roots and tubers and 200 g other vegetables (Kapur, 2016). Current annual vegetable production including potato, based on recent three years (2015-16, 2016-17, 2017-18) average is around 177 million tonnes from 10 million ha giving a productivity of 17.7 tonnes/ha. With this average and stagnating production and assuming Indian population at 133 crores (1.33 billion) and 25% post-harvest losses, per capita per day availability of vegetables comes to 273 g leaving a gap of 27 g between the recommended dose and the availability of vegetables/head/day in India. By 2050, the projected population of India is 1.5 billion and to meet the requirement of this population, vegetable production will have be 220 million tonnes, of course making allowance of 25% post-harvest losses. Considering all kind of constraints on the available land area of vegetables, the vegetable area will be around 10 million ha and consequently, major gain of production will have to come from productivity increase from current level of about 18 to 22 tonnes/ha and this seems to be a gigantic task as during last several years, the productivity of vegetables in India has been between 17 and 18 tonnes/ha, an indication that perhaps productivity has reached to a plateau. This situation will call fall massive interventions on technological fronts in terms of innovative products with focus on better hybrids with higher yields, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses coupled with horizontal scaling up of modern production technologies. This chapter looks into the modern production technologies as applicable to vegetable crops in India to boost the productivity further from current 18 tonnes/ha to at least 22 tonnes/ha.

1. Introduction
Soil salinity is a global threat which affects crop production and poses challenges to sustainable development in various regions worldwide. Worldwide, salinity and sodicity impact 20% of cultivated land and 33% of irrigated land, respectively (Kumar and Sharma, 2020). Global map of salt–affected soil (SAS) indicated that 0.424 billion hectares of upper soil layer (0–0.3 m) and 0.833 billion hectares of subsoil layer (0.30–1 m) are salt-affected (FAO, 2021) and by 2050, salinization will degrade 50% of agricultural land (Wang et al., 2003). In India, SAS currently occupy 2.1% of total geographical area. Among the SAS, 2.96 million ha is saline and 3.77 million ha is sodic (Narjary et al., 2024). Due to salinity and sodicity, yearly 16.8 million megagram of agricultural produce are wasted in India, costing of ? 230.2 billion (Sharma et al., 2015).
Salt–affected soils are a significant concern in several regions of India. These soils contain high level of sodium salts (NaCl, Na2SO4, NaHCO3, Na2CO3) which adversely affect soil fertility and crop productivity. Here are some areas in India known to have salt–affected soils:
1. Indo–Gangetic Plain: The Indo–Gangetic Plain, spanning across states like Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and parts of West Bengal, is prone to salinity issues. Over–irrigation, poor drainage, the presence of salt containing parent materials in the lithology and use of saline irrigation have contributed to soil salinity.
2. Coastal Regions: Coastal regions in India, such as parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karela, Odisha and Andaman and Nicobar Islands experience salinity problems due to sea water intrusion and the presence of coastal saline soils. These soils are affected by high levels of sodium chloride and other salts, making them unsuitable for cultivation of most arable crops.
3. Arid and Semi–Arid Regions: Arid and semi–arid regions, including areas in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Madhya Pradesh, face the risk of soil salinization due to low rainfall, high evaporation rates, and poor– quality irrigation water. Waterlogging in these regions can also lead to soil salinization.
4. Irrigation Command Areas: Certain irrigation command areas in different states, including Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, have witnessed salinity problems as a result of improper water management, excessive irrigation, and inadequate drainage infrastructure.

Introduction

Wheat is pre-eminent both in regard to its antiquity and its importance as a food of mankind in the world. In prehistoric times, it was cultivated throughout Europe and was one of the most valuable cereals of ancient Persia, Greece and Egypt. Wheat has been cultivated for several thousand years in India with the evidence of presence of wheat grains in the Mohen-Jo-Daro excavations. Till 1947, the total wheat production was only about 6 million tonnes and was not sufficient to meet the demand, leading to large scale importation of wheat. Subsequently production increased due to an increase in both total cropped and irrigated area. Wheat crop has exhibited a robust growth trend since the onset of the ‘green revolution’ in 1968. India, one of the greatest success stories of ‘green revolution’, is the second largest producer of wheat in the world after China. During 2018-19 (Fig. 1) India produced a record breaking 101.20 million tonnes of wheat from 29.62 million ha area indicating 3.42 tonnes/ha wheat yield (ICAR-IIWBR, 2019). On the other hand, India is also the second largest wheat consumer after China. Thus, wheat and its various products play an increasingly important role in managing India’s food security and India became the wheat surplus nation as against the wheat deficient nation during 1960’s. The tremendous progress in area, production and productivity of wheat to the tune of 2.9, 12.2 and 4.2 times, respectively as compared to 1950 has made India (Table 1) the member of elite group of wheat exporting countries (Workman, 2018).

The demand of day by day increasing population there is lacking of nutritious food to peoples all around world. Underutilized crops like small or minor millets are having more nutrition and providing calories up to 2000 to 3000 calories per person per day than our staple crops i.e wheat, rice, and maize etc. Small Millets are the most underutilized crop in the world possessing high nutrient-cereal qualities and potential for the improvement of food security, nation income and generate the employment for the rural peoples. Millets are rich in nutrients such as proteins, fibers, carbohydrates, fats, vitamin-B, and minerals like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, potassium, and zinc etc.They are highly nutritive crop, non-acid forming, glutan free and help in reducing blood sugar level, blood pressure, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. They also help in preventing asthma and migraines sufferings and fighting malnutrition in children s and adults.S mall millets are considered the forgotten crop species because of lower yield compared to other millets i.e. Sorghum and Pearl millet and cereals i.e. rice, wheat, maize etc. Being a highly nutritive cereal crop, easy to digest, high fibers and low glycine-max content, environment friendly and prevent the human hazards small millets still remained neglected and underutilized crop. Out of 200 underutilized crops identified 29 are small millets species (NAS USA, ICUC). Considering the food demand of common peoples, emerging health consciousness and nutrient demand for food security emerged small millets to limelight because of ecologically sound to climate. Still, the harvest of crop demands combination of computational technologies to full-fill food needs of population. Recognizing the potential of small millets in improving the national income UN-FAO announced the year 2023 as International Year of Millets. This chapter focused on application of climate smart agricultural methods such as artificial intelligence for the improvement of small millets to achieve future food security.

Introduction

Peach (Prunus persica (L.) is an important deciduous fruit crop in temperate regions. The basic chromosome number 8 and somatic chromosome number 16. It belongs to family Rosaceae family, subfamily Prunoideae. It has a deciduous nature and can reach heights of 5 to 10 m. It is classified with the almond within the genus Prunus in the subgenus Amygdalus that is distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated seed shell.

The majority opinion among botanists today is that they are Chinese in origin and were transported along the silk road in ancient times, most likely by around 2000 BC, to Persia and the Mediterranean region. Introduction of the cultivated peaches probably took place in the latter half of the 19th century.

China, Japan, Iran, Turkey, and other Mediterranean nations have historically produced significant amounts of peaches. Peaches have been cultivated in these nations for thousands of years. The United States, Canada, and Australia have all grown in importance more lately. Due to insufficient summer heat, oceanic climate regions like the Pacific Northwest and the British Isles are generally unsuitable for peach growth, though they can occasionally be grown trained against south-facing walls to capture additional heat from the sun. In the British Isles, trees can thrive in a protected, south facing location and produce both flowers and a plentiful supply of fruit.

Introduction

A significant nut that originated in Central Asia, the almond (Prunus communis) is now grown all over the world in hot, dry Mediterranean climatic zones (Monteiro et al., 2001). The Rosaceae family it belongs to (Martinez-Gómez et al., 2007). Number of chromosomes is 2n = 16. Today, the USA produces the most almonds, followed by Australia and Spain. Due to genetic, ecological, and processing-related variables, different cultivars of almond exhibit varied chemical profiles. Regular nut consumption has been linked to health benefits, particularly in the fight against cardiometabolic disorders (Massantini et al., 2022). Consuming nuts has been shown to have beneficial benefits against a variety of illnesses, including obesity, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome, according to epidemiological research and clinical trials (Chen et al., 2006). Regular nuts consumers also exhibit better metabolic profiles and smaller waist circumferences. The edible portion of an almond, known as the almond kernel, is made up of two enormous cotyledons that are protected by an exterior hull and an inside shell (Aydin et al., 2003). When the seed reaches maturity, the hull opens and the seed readily separates. Approximately 50% of almonds are lipids, 25% are proteins, and 20% are carbs. Almonds also have a low moisture content and a variety of minor beneficial components (Ahrens et al., 2005). Almonds’ macro- and micronutrient composition is related to their consumption’s positive effects on health (Esfahlan et al., 2010). The lipid profile can be highlighted as one of the components with beneficial health properties. According to Roncero et al.(2020), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) make up 60% of the lipid profile, followed by polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), fibre, vitamins, minerals, phytosterols, and polyphenols.

Introduction

The apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) is a significant temperate fruit growing in India and is widely cultivated in many regions around the world with cold winters, frost-free springs, and warm summers. It is a deciduous tree that belongs to the Rosaceae family. It is a widely cultivated fruit tree and is known by various names across different regions. In India, apples are commonly referred to as “seb” in Hindi, “sev” in Bengali, “sevva pazham” in Tamil, and “seema palam” in Telugu. These names reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity of the country (Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 2020). The apple is a round fruit that comes in a variety of colors including red, green, and yellow. The apple tree, like most plants, has a specific chromosome number that determines its genetic makeup and characteristics. The chromosome number of the cultivated apple, Malus domestica, is 2n = 34 (Janick et al., 1996). This means that each cell of the apple tree contains 34 chromosomes, with 17 pairs in total. Most of cultivated apples (2n=34) are diploids, and a (2n=51) are triploids. Understanding the chromosome number is crucial for breeding programs and genetic research as it helps in identifying genetic variations and selecting desired traits. Delicious group apples are widely popular and cover 50–70% of the land. The apple, which is the most popular table fruit in the world, is regarded as the king of temperate fruits. Its positive qualities include a pleasing look and a longer shelf life at room temperature. Except for the Kashmir Valley and a small portion of the Kullu Valley, the majority of apple acreage is on hill slopes. Unlike other fruits, apples can be grown effectively in sod culture as long as the apple plants are given more nutrients than is recommended to prevent nutritional competition between grass and apple trees. They require a cool climate with cold winters and moderate summers for the fruit to develop properly.

Introduction

Prunus armeniaca L. is a highly nutritious fruit belonging to the Rosaceae family and subfamily Prunoideae. It is known for its attractive appearance, pleasant flavor, and aroma. The name “apricot” is believed to have originated from the Latin word “praecocia” meaning “early matured” or the Arabic word “albarquq” meaning “short ripening period.” Apricot is considered to be an important temperate fruit crop due to its high nutritional and health benefits. Apricots are rich in a multitude of vitamins and minerals, including Retinol (Vit. A), Thiamine (Vit. B1), Riboflavin (Vit. B2), Ascorbic acid (Vit. C) and Tocopherol (Vit. E) as well as calcium, iron, sodium, phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium. It also has low levels of fats and carbohydrates, making it an important food in human nutrition (Batu et al., 2007; Karatas and Kamisli, 2007). Research has indicated that incorporating apricots into one’s diet may counteract the risk posed by several ailments, including cardiovascular disease, cancers, cataracts, and other degenerative diseases (Oomah and Mazza, 2000).

Introduction

Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L.) belongs to the family Rosaceae and is a perennial fruit crop that is widely cultivated in different parts of the world due to its high nutritional and medicinal values. The fruit is known by different names such as bramble, dewberry, and thimbleberry, and has a chromosome number of 2n=14. Blackberry is a rich source of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and dietary fiber, and has potential health benefits in the management of various diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disorders (Kumar et al., 2018). The fruit is consumed fresh and also processed into jams, jellies, juices, wines, and other value-added products.

Origin and distribution

Blackberry is believed to have originated in Europe and Western Asia, and was introduced to North America by early European settlers. The fruit is now widely cultivated in different parts of the world including Asia, Africa, Australia, and South America (Arya et al., 2020). In India, blackberry cultivation is gaining popularity in states such as Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttarakhand, where the climatic conditions are favorable for its growth and development.

The blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) is an evergreen or perennial deciduous shrub that is a member of the Ericaceae family and it is native to North America. It is oblat at maturity and forms dark blue color. Blueberry is also known as “the king of berries,” have real blue fruits, which is very rare in nature (Chu et al., 2018). Tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates make up the majority of the distribution of blueberries. The United States, Chile, Canada, Spain, China, Japan and Morocco are the top producer in the world (Yousuf et al., 2016). Traditionally, 58% of the world fresh blueberries are consumed in North America. The lowbush and highbush varieties combine produced 850,886 tonnes of blueberries in 2020. The United States alone produced around 35% and Peru for 21%. (FAOSTAT 2022).

According to the South Africa Berry Producers’ Association, blueberries were originally brought to South Africa in the 1970s and are currently one of the country’s fastest growing agricultural sectors. There are many places where blueberries are grown, with the Western Cape produced around (60%) followed by Limpopo (15%), North-West (10%), Gauteng (8%), Eastern Cape (4%), Free State (2%) and Mpumalanga (1%) (Steyn et al., 2022). Federick Coville of the United States Department of Agriculture began the first blueberry domestication in 1908. (USDA). High and low bushes are the most widely grown kind of blueberry, however rabbiteyes are only significant in South and North America. High and low bushes hybrids are very common in the upper Midwest of the United States. The main growing countries for north high bush are Australia, Germany, and France.

Introduction

Cherry is a fleshy fruit of stone, it occupies a prominent position among the temperate fruit grown commercially all over the world. Cherry belongs to the genus prunus and the family Rosaceae. Other stone fruits such as plum, peach, almond, apricot also come under the genus prunus. The cultivated cherries are divided into two main group sweet cherries (Prunus avium) are mainly cultivated for table purpose and are consumed as fresh fruits (Fig. 1) , sour cherry (Prunus cerasus), is mainly cultivated for processing purpose which is a cross of Prunus avium × Prunus fruticosa. Somatic chromosome number of sweet cherry is 2n=16 and somatic chromosome number of sour cheery is 2n=32. Cherry requires highest chilling hours among the temperate fruits with 2000 to 2700 hours. In India cherry is commercially grown in Kashmir valley and other adjoining regions with an area of around 1,110 ha. With and annual production of around 605 MT (Bal, 1997). In these areas the span of winter is wide and very much pronounced and according to Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database (Anon. 2022) Turkey is largest producer of cherry in the world, around 42% of world production originated in Turkey, and around 14% production in the United States. Among the temperate fruit cherry comes first in the market. The primary center of origin is supposed to be the Caspian and Black sea region from where it has been spread throughout the world (Oz., 2013). The earliest records indicate that it was first domesticated in Greece around 300 BC. It spread to Italy from Greece where it was established as a fruit crop by 37 BC. In India, it was introduced by Britishers in Kashmir, Kullu and Shimla hills during pre-independence era. At present European countries are growing cherries on large scales for table purpose and also for processing.

Introduction

Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) belongs to the family Fagaceae and is a deciduous tree. It is also known as sweet chestnut and has a chromosome number of 2n=24. Chestnuts have been used for centuries for various purposes such as food, timber, and medicine. They are an important source of carbohydrates and contain several nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and fiber (Laribi et al., 2020). In India, chestnuts are mainly grown in the hilly regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.

Origin and distribution

Chestnut is believed to have originated in the Mediterranean region and was later introduced to other parts of the world. It is widely grown in Europe, Asia, and North America. In India, chestnuts were introduced by the British in the 19th century and were mainly grown as an ornamental tree. It was only after Independence that chestnuts were recognized as a potential crop for the hilly regions of the country (Bhat et al., 2016).

Area and production

The total area under chestnut cultivation in India is estimated to be around 1000 hectares, with an annual production of around 1000 metric tons (Bhat et al., 2016). The major states growing chestnuts are Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.

Introduction

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton) belongs to the Ericaceae family and is native to North America. Cranberries are also known by various other names, including American cranberry, bearberry, and lingonberry. The plant has a diploid chromosome number of 24 and grows in acidic, nutrient-poor soils in wetlands and bogs. It is an important commercial crop worldwide due to its high nutritional value, antioxidant properties, and health benefits. Cranberries are primarily consumed as juice, dried fruit, or in the form of sauces and jellies. They are a rich source of vitamins C and E, dietary fiber, anthocyanins and essential minerals such as potassium, manganese, and copper. The fruit is also used in the pharmaceutical industries due to its anti inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anti aging properties (Santos et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017).

The composition of cranberries is quite remarkable, with high levels of antioxidants, including phenolic compounds such as flavonols, anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins. These compounds are responsible for the fruit’s vibrant red color and are thought to provide many of the health benefits associated with cranberries. Cranberries are an important crop in the United States, Canada, and Chile, with significant economic value. They are primarily consumed as juice or in processed forms, such as sauces and jams. Cranberries are also used in the production of dietary supplements and cosmetics.

1.0 Introduction

Kiwi or kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) belongs to the Actinidiaceae family that is a fruiting vine originated from Yangtze Valley of China. Kiwifruit was named because it resembles a flightless bird, kiwi which is New Zealand’s national symbol. It is also referred as “New Zealand’s horticultural wonder”. In china kiwi was named as Yang Tao and also as “China’s miracle fruit”. Over the past century, kiwis have also acquired a variety of strange names, including “melonette”, “wood berry”, “strange fruit”, “monkey peach, “macaque pear”, “mihoutau”, “Chinese gooseberry” (Tyagi et al., 2015) “vine pear”, “sun peach” and the particularly enticing moniker “hairy bush fruit” (Hugh Cambbell and Julia Haggerty., 2008). Kiwifruit is a nutrient dense fruit which is exceptionally known for its flavour and vitamin C content (Guroo et al., 2017). Digestive potential, antioxidant property, healthy metabolism, immune function and protection from coronary artery disease are the therapeutic benefits of kiwi (Feruguson., 2003; Boeing et al., 2012; Singeltary., 2012). It reduces the risk against cancer (Puri and Manjula., 2018), arteriosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases and irritable bowel syndrome (Chang et al., 2012) as it is a rich source of ascorbic acid and polyphenols. Due to palatability, aromatic compounds present in kiwifruit attract many consumers. Unique flavour and aroma is increased due to the presence of aldehyde E-2-hexenal, methyl benzoate, ethyl butanoate and esters. China tops in kiwifruit production followed by Italy. Two biggest exporters of Kiwi in world are Italy and New Zealand (Testolin & Ferguson, 2009). Kiwifruit has excellent pharmacological profile and it helps in development of nutritional supplements for welfare of mankind. Farmers can earn high return per unit area as it bears heavily every year and has no crop failure. Thus, kiwifruit has bright prospects in our country.

Introduction

The olive fruit, scientifically known as Olea europaea L., is the edible fruit of the olive tree. It belongs to the Oleaceae family, which encompasses various other plants such as jasmine and lilac (Bartolini & Prevost, 2002). The scientific name Olea europaea reflects its European origin, with the genus name, Olea, derived from the Latin word “oleum” meaning oil, emphasizing the fruit’s high oil content. The species name, europaea, signifies its prevalence in Europe (Vossen, 2007). In India, the olive fruit is commonly referred to as “Jaitoon” or “Jaitooni” (Bhardwaj & Gupta, 2019). These names are derived from the Hindi language and are used to denote both the tree and its fruit. The olive tree has a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 46 (Besnard et al., 2008). This indicates that each cell of the olive tree contains 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs. Understanding the chromosome number is essential for genetic studies and breeding programs as it helps in comprehending the genetic diversity and variability of the olive fruit.

Importance

The production of olive fruit in India has gained significant importance in recent years due to various factors. Firstly, olive fruit is a valuable source of edible oil. Olive oil is renowned for its health benefits, being rich in monounsaturated fats, antioxidants, and vitamins (Vossen, 2007). The cultivation of olive fruit provides economic opportunities for farmers and contributes to the country’s agricultural diversification.

Introduction

Pear (Pyrus communis L.) is one of the most important temperate fruit crops after apple in the family Rosaceae. It is diploid and a member of the Pomoideae subfamily, having chromosome number 2n=2X=34. The pear is a tree and fruit in the Rosaceae family, which also includes apples and quince. The pear has a fibrous center and is a mildly sweet fruit. It is abundant in dietary fiber, plant components, and vital antioxidants. Pears come in a variety of shapes, including round, oval, and elongated, and they can be smooth or bumpy in texture. The fruit has a thin skin that can be smooth or rough, and it ranges in color from green to yellow to red. The flesh of the pear is white, yellow, or cream-colored and is juicy and sweet, with a slightly gritty texture. Later in the 19th century, better pear cultivars were introduced in India. Pears come in second place among temperate fruits in India in terms of both production and land area. Due to the pear’s extensive climatic and soil tolerance, it is grown in both temperate and subtropical climate.

Importance and composition and uses

Pears are a good source of fiber and vitamin C, and they are relatively low in calories. Pear fruits are suggested for diabetic patients because of their low sugar content, which also lowers blood pressure and regulates heart rate. The 3.1 gm of dietary fibre it contains are very beneficial for intestinal health. About 27 to 41 mg of phenolics are present per 100 mg of fruit, making it a strong source of antioxidants. Moreover, pears have demonstrated vasodilator capabilities, and their components anti-arrhythmic effects often lower blood pressure and regulate heart rate. Fruits include the folic acid that makes up the vitamin B complex. It contains the glycoside arbutin, which has potential as a treatment for urinary tract infections. The body’s uric acid is helped to leave the body with its help. The pears’ leaves are effective in treating swelling and blisters. Fever, anaemia, and general malaise are also treated with their assistance. A destion can be made from the bark of pears. 

Importance and uses

Walnut is a valuable nut crop that is grown in several regions of the world, including India. The nut is a rich source of several nutrients, including protein, fiber, omega-3 fatty acids, and antioxidants. Walnuts have several health benefits, including reducing the risk of heart disease, improving brain function, and reducing inflammation. They are also used in several industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

Walnuts have been an important food source for humans for thousands of years. In ancient times, they were believed to have medicinal properties and were used to treat several ailments (Martinez et al., 2010). Today, they are used in the food industry to produce confectionery, bakery products, and as an ingredient in several cuisines. They are also used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries due to their anti inflammatory and anti-aging properties (Alasalvar et al., 2010; Bolling et al., 2011).

Walnuts are a rich source of antioxidants, which are important for maintaining good health. Antioxidants help to neutralize free radicals in the body, which can cause cell damage and lead to several chronic diseases, including cancer and heart disease (Alasalvar et al., 2010). In addition, walnuts are an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, which are important for brain health and reducing inflammation in the body (Bolling et al., 2011). Walnuts also contain fiber, which is important for maintaining healthy digestion and reducing the risk of colon cancer (Martinez et al., 2010).

Introduction

The pistachio nut (Pistacia vera L.), a small tree native to Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Iran. The Pistacia genus is a member of the Anacardiaceae family, which also includes the cashew, mango, sumac, and poison ivy plants. The tree yields seeds, which are frequently eaten as food. The genus Pistacia has about 20 species including Pistacia vera, Pistacia atlantica, Pistacia terebinthus, Pistacia khinjuk, and Pistacia lentiscus (Parizi et al., 2016). Western Asia is the pistachio nut home region, and traders brought them to the Middle East, the Mediterranean nations, and Europe. Pistacia vera L. is the only species in this genus commercially grown for edible nuts. It was probably first grown in areas close to where it grew wild, as remains of pistachio nuts dating to the 6 millennium BC have been discovered in both Afghanistan and south-eastern Iran in recent times. Pistachio cultivation progressively spread to the West from the old Persian Empire, where it was widely grown. the word “Pistachio” etymology most likely stems from the Avestan word “pistak” from ancient Persian (Mandalari et al.2022).

Health benefits

In pistachio nuts more than 50% of the fat is unsaturated. There are also 20% proteins, 20% complex carbs, and pro-vitamin A. Dried fruit pistachios nut has the highest potassium content that is very good for health. It is also great supplier of energy, magnesium, phosphorus, and iron. The heart’s functioning can benefit from the consumption of this fruit. Moreover, it participates in cell metabolism, and the potassium it contains controls the water content of the cells. The production of hemoglobin and myoglobin depends on iron, consumption of pistachio nuts fulfill the iron requirements. It contributes to cellular respiration, intellectual growth, and immune system amplification. A crucial component of bones and teeth is phosphorus. Moreover, magnesium aids in the formation of bones and the production of proteins. This nut is good source of phosphorus and magnesium also.

Introduction

Plum, scientifically known as Prunus domestica, is a popular fruit-bearing tree belonging to the Rosaceae family. Renowned for its delicious and versatile fruits, plum cultivation has a long history that spans different cultures and regions. Plums are enjoyed worldwide both in their fresh form and processed into various culinary delights. Because of its temperate character, plum is a significant crop in hills, but it is just a modest fruit crop in Punjab and the north Indian plains. Because it requires little freezing and has a shorter juvenile phase, it is ideal for planting as a filler fruit plant in mango, litchi, and pear orchards. There are a few solid-block plum plantations in the Amritsar, Fazilka, Ambala, and Kurukshetra regions as well. Due to the trees’ abundant f lowering, high fruit set, and early ripening habits of varieties suitable for plains, they are extremely productive. A fully developed tree can typically produce 50–60 kg of fruit. Plum trees are deciduous and typically bear fruits during the summer season. The fruits come in a wide range of colors, including shades of purple, red, yellow, and green, with variations in size and flavor. This diversity in plum varieties allows for a delightful selection for consumers, catering to their individual preferences.

Introduction

Raspberry, scientifically known as Rubus idaeus L., belongs to the family Rosaceae. It is also known as “red raspberry” or “European raspberry,” and its chromosome number is 2n=14. Raspberry is an important and popular fruit crop due to its rich flavor, high nutritional value, and various medicinal properties. Raspberry is rich in vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, and antioxidants, making it a valuable component of a healthy diet (Rahman et al., 2020). Raspberry is widely used in the food industry for jam, jelly, juice, ice cream, and other processed products.

Origin and Distribution

Raspberry is believed to have originated in Eastern Europe and Western Asia (Farrar, 2016). Raspberry was introduced to India during the British era and was initially cultivated on a small scale in the hilly regions of the country. Today, raspberry cultivation has spread to various parts of India, including Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim. The major raspberry-growing states in India are Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.

Introduction

Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) is a perennial herb that belongs to the Rosaceae family (Bayat et al.2019). Strawberry is sweet and has a distinct fragrance. Strawberries are a popular fruit that are known for their sweet taste, bright red color, and high nutritional value. It is abundant in several vitamins and nutrients, including carotene and anthocyanins. It is popularly regarded as the important table fruit of millions of people around the globe and well-liked by consumers. Strawberry, which has 98% edible component, is regarded as a whole fruit. typically eaten fresh and raw. They are tasty, healthful, and low in calories. Strawberries grow well in India in conditions that are often temperate in the north, subtropical in the plains, or tropical at high altitudes. The primary reason strawberry production is still in its infancy in India, despite its handsome fruits and palatable flavour, is that it is a perishable crop (Pramanick et al. 2012). The strawberry is a fruit that grows all over the world. The Roman poets Virgil and Ovid wrote about it in the first century, and gardeners have been growing strawberries in England since the sixteenth century (Boriss et al. 2006).

Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.)

Cape gooseberry, scientifically known as Physalis peruviana L. (Physalis edulis Sims) belongs to family Solanaceae. Fruits are enclosed inside a bladder- like husk which turns papery when mature making all seeds inside visible. There are more than 70 species under the genus Physalis. Out of these species only few of them are of economic value. Cape gooseberry is most widely known among these species as it bears superior fruit in comparison to other species. The fruits are good in taste and a good source of minerals and vitamin such as vitamin B complex, vitamin C and pro-vitamin A, rich in pectin.

Species diversity

Cape goosberry is also known by different names in Latin America: capuli, aguaymanto, tomate sylvestre, or uchuba, in Bolivia; uvillain, in Peru; capuli or motojobobo embolsado, in Colombia; topotopo, chuchuva, in Ecuador; uchuva, vejigón or guchavo in Venezuela; capuli, amor en bolsa, or bolsa de amor, in Chile; cereza del Peru in Mexico; teparee, tiparee, makowi, etc., in India. Physalis pruinose L. commonly known as strawberry tomato, husk tomato or ground cherry is also grown for its small yellow fruits. In mild-temperature climates, the fruit is used to make sauce, pies, and preserves. Unripe druits are toxic. In Australia, the plant is thought to have caused illness and death in cattle.

Introduction

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is an important temperate nut crop grown in various parts of the world. It belongs to the family Juglandaceae and is commonly known as English walnut, Persian walnut, or common walnut. It has a chromosome number of 2n=32 (Kalia et al., 2016). Walnuts are a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids (Husain et al., 2013). The walnut fruit is a drupe that contains a nut surrounded by a hard shell. The nut is enclosed in a fleshy green or brownish-yellow hull, which splits open when the fruit is ripe. Walnut is an important nut crop due to its high nutritional value and medicinal properties. The kernel of the walnut is rich in protein, fat, and minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium. It also contains vitamins B1, B2, and E. In addition to being used as food, walnut has been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various ailments such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer (Liu et al., 2017). Walnut oil is rich in linoleic acid and is used in the production of cosmetics and soap. The leaves and bark of the tree are used in traditional medicine to treat various ailments such as diabetes, fever, and inflammation.

Abstract
Aquatic sustainability is vital for maintaining the health and productivity of aquatic ecosystems. Human activities have significantly impacted these environments, leading to pollution, habitat destruction, and biodiversity loss. Green technologies offer innovative solutions to address these challenges. Key components of aquatic sustainability include biodiversity, water quality, ecosystem health, resource management, and social equity. Aquatic sustainability is crucial for food security, economic benefits, climate regulation, cultural and recreational values, and ecosystem services. Current challenges facing aquatic ecosystems include pollution, overfishing, habitat destruction, climate change, invasive species, plastic pollution, and habitat degradation. Green technologies play a crucial role in addressing
these challenges by reducing pollution, promoting sustainable fisheries management, mitigating climate change, restoring habitats, conserving water, and monitoring aquatic ecosystems. Green technologies such as advanced water filtration systems, nanotechnology, bio-inspired filters, desalination technologies, UV-C light, ozone, eco-friendly wastewater management, integrated constructed wetlands, biological treatment systems, remediation technologies, natural infrastructure solutions, and biodegradable materials offer sustainable and effective solutions for aquatic sustainability.
Keywords: Aquatic sustainability, Pollution, Green energy, Nanotechnology

1. Introduction:- Understanding Good Laboratory Practices (GLP)
1.1 Definition and Core Principles of GLP
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines Good Laboratory Practice as “a managerial quality control system that governs the organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and thus, environmental safety studies are well planned, executed/ performed, vigilantly monitored, properly recorded, reported, and finally archived”. This definition highlights that Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) is a comprehensive framework focused on ensuring the quality and integrity of the entire study lifecycle, rather than dictating the scientific validity of the research itself. The primary goal of GLP is to ensure process integrity and data traceability, which are essential for the regulatory acceptance of safety data for a variety of products. These products include pharmaceuticals, pesticides, cosmetics, veterinary drugs, food additives, feed additives, and industrial chemicals, all of which undergo non-clinical testing to assess their potential health and environmental risks. It is important to note that GLP principles specifically apply to these non-clinical studies and exclude research involving human subjects. The OECD Principles of GLP are internationally recognized and serve as the basis for GLP regulations in numerous countries worldwide. These principles outline the responsibilities of key personnel involved in non-clinical studies, including test facility management, the study director, study personnel, and quality assurance personnel. Furthermore, they establish minimum standards concerning the suitability of facilities and equipment to perform studies, as well as the necessity for comprehensive Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to guide all aspects of laboratory operations. The core principles of GLP encompass a wide range of elements critical to ensuring the quality and integrity of laboratory studies. These OECD principles of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) include: the proper organization team and personnel staff members within the testing facility, the well establishment of a robust quality assurance programme, the better suitability and proper maintenance of various necessary facilities, the efficient management of apparatus, materials, and reagents, the characterization and control of test systems, the handling of test and reference items, the development and adherence to Standard Operating

Contemporary tilapia cultivation is aligned with the principles of circular bioeconomy, aiming to minimize resource inputs while maximizing waste and effluent reuse. This strategy involves closing the loops of various economic and ecological resources as well as decentralizing the production systems for localized production and consumption. Growing concerns about disease outbreaks along with market demands for environmentally responsible and sustainable aquaculture practices are propelling a transformative shift. This shift is characterized by structural advancements in water and effluent reuse through closed-loop recirculation systems that repurpose waste as valuable nutrients. Today one of the pivotal trends in tilapia farming is the adoption of circular bio-economy principles which is exemplified by diverse recirculation systems including Biofloc Technology (BFT), Partitioned Aquaculture Systems (PASs), Recirculatory Aquaculture Systems (RAS), bio RAS, , In Pond Recirculation Systems (IPRS) and Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture (IMTA). The trajectory of tilapia culture often aligns with the trajectory of urban agriculture as well as waste fermentation. Low-demand water recirculation systems are poised to spearhead a disruption in industries across five key sectors (material, information, energy, transport, and food/ health) that rely heavily on extraction. This transformation is driving the transition towards a more sustainable and localized model.

The age-old struggle between crops and diseases has been a perpetual challenge for farmers and agricultural stakeholders worldwide. Weather patterns play a pivotal role in the development and spread of crop diseases, making it essential to integrate weather wisdom into crop disease management strategies. By analyzing historical and real-time weather data, farmers and agricultural experts can anticipate, prepare for, and respond to disease outbreaks more effectively, minimizing crop losses and ensuring food security. Effective crop disease management based on weather wisdom involves a three-pronged approach. It begins with caution, where historical climate data and disease surveillance reports are analyzed to identify potential correlations between weather patterns and disease outbreaks. This information helps farmers and agricultural experts to recognize early warning signs of disease susceptibility, such as temperature fluctuations, precipitation patterns, and humidity levels. For instance, excessive rainfall can lead to an increased risk of fungal diseases, while drought conditions can exacerbate bacterial diseases (Fig. 13.1). The confirmation phase involves closely monitoring real-time weather forecasts and disease surveillance data to detect early warning signs of an impending disease outbreak. Advanced technologies, such as satellite imaging and sensor-based monitoring systems, provide valuable insights into crop health and disease development. By combining these data streams, farmers and agricultural experts can confirm the presence of disease-causing pathogens and take targeted action to prevent their spread. Finally, a call to action is triggered, prompting farmers and agricultural stakeholders to implement integrated disease management strategies. These may include cultural practices, such as crop rotation and sanitation, biological controls, such as introducing beneficial microorganisms, and chemical controls, such as targeted fungicide applications. By leveraging weather wisdom, farmers can optimize their disease management strategies, reducing the reliance on chemical pesticides and minimizing environmental impact. By embracing weather wisdom, crop disease management can be transformed from a reactive to a proactive approach. Farmers and agricultural stakeholders can stay one step ahead of disease-causing pathogens, protecting their crops and ensuring a stable food supply. As we explore the intersection of weather wisdom and crop disease management, it becomes clear that this integrated approach holds tremendous potential for revolutionizing the way we predict, prevent, and respond to crop diseases.
13.1 Caution
Approaches to Caution Farmers on Crop Diseases, Information Generation, and Communication using Mobile Technology To caution farmers on crop diseases, it is essential to adopt a multi-faceted approach that leverages mobile technology to generate and disseminate critical information. This approach should focus on empowering farmers with timely and accurate information, enabling them to take proactive measures to prevent and manage crop diseases. Firstly, a robust disease surveillance system should be established to monitor and track crop disease outbreaks in real-time. This can be achieved through a network of field scouts, extension agents, and research institutions that report disease incidence and severity to a central database. Mobile-based applications can be used to facilitate data collection, transmission, and analysis, ensuring that critical information is captured and disseminated promptly. Once disease outbreaks are detected, mobile technology can be harnessed to generate and disseminate alerts to farmers. This can be achieved through Short Message Service (SMS) or voice messages, which can be sent to farmers’ mobile phones, warning them of potential disease risks and providing advice on management strategies. Mobile-based applications can also be used to push disease alerts, advisories, and management recommendations to farmers, ensuring that they receive critical information in a timely and accessible manner. To enhance the effectiveness of these alerts, it is essential to ensure that they are tailored to the specific needs and contexts of farmers. This can be achieved

The effects of weeds, pests, and diseases result in the loss of between 20 40% of the world’s potential agricultural yield each year. By reducing crop loss from pest infestations, the use of pesticides can boost agricultural output by 25–50%. Only 25 to 30 percent of the area that is now being grown is protected by pesticides. Because domestic pesticide use is among the lowest in the world, there is significant room for expansion. India uses 0.6 kilogramme of pesticides per hectare compared to the global average of 3 kg per hectare. The use of crop protection products must be enhanced. There are now 1175 compounds accessible in the world, however only roughly 292 of them are registered in India.

Advantages of Using Pesticides

Pest are an ecological problem and therefore our control strategy must be ecologically sound. Modern agriculture is a combination of both and human intervention is necessary, whether it be pulling out weeds by hand, use of pesticides or genetic engineering. Control methods evolve over time as knowledge and techniques improve. This includes the development of chemical means of control which become very important because of a number of advantages

Pest are an ecological problem and therefore our control strategy must be ecologically sound. Modern agriculture is a combination of both and human intervention is necessary, whether it be pulling out weeds by hand, use of pesticides or genetic engineering. Control methods evolve over time as knowledge and techniques improve. This includes the development of chemical means of control which become very important because of a number of advantages

During recent time, world agriculture is in search of sustainability in farming. However, it is tedious job for the developing countries because of poor input management and degradation of resources, ever-growing human population and increasing demand for food and livestock feed, and shrinkage of land and other natural resources.

ABSTRACT

Due to the exorbitant price of the popular gelling agent agar, Plant Tissue Culture (PTC) has gradually become a costly technique in recent times. So, alternative sources of agar needs to be popularized which at one hand should be able to meet all the positive properties of agar and on the other hand be cost effective as well. The seed husk obtained from Plantago ovata Forsk. is such an alternative which was successfully used as a gelling agent for media preparation in PTC experiments for in-vitro shoot and root development in Nicotiana tabacum L. and Ocimum gratissimum L. The nodal explants were grown in MS basal medium (MSo) supplemented with 3% sucrose and were gelled with progressive concentrations of isabgol husk to ascertain the optimum concentration for better survival and growth response, while 0.8% agar acted as a negative control. The response of the explants on media gelled with husk was compared to that of media gelled with 0.8% agar. It was inferred that 0.3% husk in the medium was optimum for best growth response which was comparable to that of agar. Consequently, the estimated cost of a liter of MSo reduced by almost Rs.61.15/- (compared to Himedia’s Agar) to Rs.177.57/- (compared to Sigma’s Agar) after using isabgol seed husk as a gelling agent in media preparation.

Abstract

Milk is unique in its nutritional composition and it is the secretion of mammary gland with all the nutrients to nourish the young ones. Milk is a widely consumed drink because it provides essential macro and micronutrients and so called as complete food. Humans, not only the infants but also the adults, are the only species that drink the milk of another species, particularly cow’s milk. But cows’ milk has a different in composition and contains in excess of nutrients than human milk. This unnecessary excess nutrients leads to adverse and allergic effects on human health. One of these is milk protein allergy and it is an increasing health care concern. In medicine, the term cow’s milk allergy (CMPA) is only used to describe reactions involving the immune system, while other reactions are normally called cow’s milk intolerance. The feeding of cow’s milk has adverse effects on infants and young children. There are various methods and tests to identify the CMPA and its diagnosis can be achieved by skin or blood tests. Several efforts have been done to reduce the allergic reaction of cow milk proteins and various technological processes have been applied. The treatment of food allergy should be nutritional and is based on the elimination of diet or, in the case of infants, on the use of hypoallergenic or “HA” formulas, diets and best alternatives to cow milk like some Extensively Hydrolyzed Formulas (EHFs) based on whey, casein or another protein source, and by amino acid-based formulae (AAF), Soy protein-based formulas, donkey milk, camel milk etc.

These products were originally flavoured with the herb marshmallow but a modem marshmallow is a foam that has been stabilised by a gelling agent. The traditional material for marshmallows is egg albumen which acts both as a foaming and gelling agent - this gives light, soft gel. Gelatine is now more commonly used, and once again can act as both a whipping and gelling agent. A gelatine marshmallow is soft and rubbery but heavier than an egg albumen one. Further gelling agents, e.g., pectin, agar and starch all give a soft, short textured gel. These gelling agents have the advantage of being vegetable products but have the disadvantage of normally needing a whipping agent as well. Enzyme-modified soya products have also recently become available for this use.

Methods of Marshmallow Manufacturing:

Aeration is the addition of oxygen or air containing oxygen to water. Any aquatic species important for commercial purpose requires oxygen. Even photosynthetic plants need oxygen when it is dark.

2.1 Need of aeration

Rise in atmospheric temperature causes increased rate of biological degradation of organic matters and subsequent depletion in dissolved O₂ concentration in water.