eChapters

Cassava scale : Aonidomytilus albus: Diaspididae

White elongated scales appear in colonies on stems. Plants die in the field and under storage.  Stem becomes weak and dry, causing side branching to give bushy appearance.  Viability of planting material is reduced, resulting in poor establishment.

Current status of researches on VA mycorrhiza and their benefits to the plants carried out by the mycorrhizasts of the country has been described in detail in chapters II to X.

Prior to the establishment of any specific forum, the pace of research on VA mycorrhiza in the country was not of desired level. However, the activities related to research on VA mycorrhiza gained unexpected momemtum when Mycorrhiza network came into exixtence in the year 1989. The network provided not only assistance and guidance of various types to the scientists working on VA mycorrhiza in the country but also offered them periodical platforms to exchange their informations and thoughts on status of researches on VA mycorrhiza and to propose future strategies of research. During the National conferences held in different parts of the country the panel of experts made certain observations regarding future prospects and strategies for research on VA mycorrhiza. They have been mentioned in the present chapter.

Abstract

Investigations were carried out during 2005 at Rajgarh area of District Sirmaur in Himachal Pradesh for screening elite germplasm of Kaphal ( Myrica nagi Thunb). A wide range of variability was noticed for 14 fruit characters. Maximum fruit weight (834 mg), fruit length (12.94 mm), pulp weight (5.96 mg), pulp percentage (83.21%) and seed : pulp ratio (1 : 5.96) were recorded in Tree No. 35. maximum TSS (14.40 oB) was recorded in Tree No. 37. maximum fruit diameter (10.71 mm), fruit volume (650 µl), seed weight (154 mg) and seed breadth (7.51 mm) were recorded against Tree No. 25. maximum coefficient of variability was noticed for pulp weight followed by fruit weight and minimum for pulp percentage. Keeping in view the importance of large fruit size two elite trees (Tree No. 25 and 35) were marked which has fruit weight greater than 700 mg for collecting seeds to raise seedlings of this unexploited sub-temperate fruit

Introduction

Soil is a complex system consisting of physical, chemical and biological components. These components dynamically interact making it functional to sustain life. All life forms rely on soil microbial processes for their survival. Microbial diversity in the soil is greater than the diversity of any other group of organisms existing in the earth. Microbes as inhabitant of soil are responsible for diverse metabolic functions that affect soil and plant health (Table 1).

Onion is one of the most important commercial vegetable crops grown all over India. Onions are bulbous, biennial, herbaceous and are typically grown as annual, which give off a distinctive and pungent odour when the tissues are crushed. Characteristic pungency and flavour in onion are due to a volatile sulphur compound, allyl-propyl disulphide. This organo sulphur compound has potential for anticarcinogenic secondary metabolites. Pungency varies with cultivar, growing condition, stage of maturity and storage conditions.

It is such a unique vegetable, used throughout the year in the form of salad or condiment or for cooking with other vegetables. Onions are used for flavour, aroma and taste in preparation of vegetables and used in the form of dehydrated, freezing, canning and pickling. Onion salt is prepared by dehydration and used in flavouring.

Quality of silage is determined by nutrients content and intake potential of the silage. High quality silage is a stable feed, made from high quality pasture, which is preserved in the absence of oxygen by a high quality fermentation, to minimize any loss of feeding value. It is not possible to produce high quality silage from low quality pasture, no matter how good the fermentation is. The silage quality is generally used to indicate the success of fermentation and not to evaluate the feeding value of the silage. However, the fermentation quality and nutritional value of the silage are usually highly correlated because a poor fermentation can result in great loss of the digestible nutrients (Sutoh et al., 1970; Uchida and Sutoh, 1973). Therefore, both the quality of the ensiled pasture and the quality of the fermentation must be considered.

Burn : Tissue changes due to excessive absorption of heat is known as burns.
Scald : A scald is a burn caused by moist heat and is usually partial thickness.

Etiology
       Dry heat
       Actinic rays (sunburn)
       Irradiation
       Moist heat
       Electricity
       Friction
       Dry heat causes desiccation and charring.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They occur in all living plant cells as constituents of proteins and as free acids or amides. More than 200 naturally occurring amino acids have been identified in higher plants. Around 20 different amino acids have been observed to be incorporated into proteins. They have two functional groups, an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxylic group(-COOH). Both these groups are attached to the a carbon atom only. Amino acids with this structure are called a amino acids or 2-aminoacids. The unique characteristics of the 20 amino acids are due to the side chain (R), which can be an alkyl, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, sulphide, aromatic, or heterocyclic group.

Amino acids have the general formula, R-CH(NH₂)-COOH. The R represents a side chain. If R=H, the simplest amino acid glycine (NH₂ -CH₂ –COOH) results. Amino acids are alpha (a ) amino carboxylic acids. The carbon atom is tetrahedral in shape. The various groups attached to it are placed in different positions. Since the valence of the carbon atom is four, four groups can be attached to the carbon atom. Based on the groups attached to the carbon atom it may be of two types.

INTRODUCTION

Potato is a crop of major significance in human nutrition, ranking fourth in world production, after wheat, maize and rice. Potatoes are grown on over 44 million acres in more than 125 countries, with annual production of about 250 million tons. Potatoes are grown across India, with production concentrated in several areas of the North Indian plains and West Bengal. Indian potato production is significant and accounts for 8.5 per cent of the world total (Dahiya et al., 1999).

The potato has hundreds of recognized pests including many insects, mites, nematodes and rodents. Some of these were transported to new locations alongwith seed tubers. Others were already present in locations where the potato was introduced and then proliferated on this new host plant. Because a potato crop is vegetatively propagated from tubers, which easily carry some pathogens and pests, many pest problems have followed potatoes to areas wherever they are grown. The potato tuber moth was introduced accidentally into India from Italy in 1906, probably through seed potatoes (Lefroy, 1907), and by the middle of century had become well established throughout India (Kumar and Nirula, 1967). Of all the major food crops, potato is heaviest user of chemical pesticides, which often total up to 20 per cent of its cost of production (Anonymous, 1991).

African leaf vegetables (ALVs) are vegetable species utilized for their leaves and have become a part of the African tradition. This is a dynamic concept that is changing with the African culture and the term ALV embraces not only indigenous, but also indigenised species. These species are very nutritious, and contain high levels of pro-vitamin A and iron. ALVs are often more hardy than the introduced “modern” vegetables. The important role that ALVs have played in African livelihood strategies has been ignored, especially in the last half of the twentieth century. This led to ALVs being seen as a low-status crop, but this perception  started to change during the last two decades. ALVs are entering the commercial market and regaining its equal status in many African countries. ALVs are mostly used as an ingredient in relishes and soups to accompany starchy staples and sometimes meat.

ALVs include species cultivated in farmer fields and home gardens, like  pumpkins and cowpeas, and species harvested from  wild and fallow lands, like eru and cleome. Certain cultivated species have only recently been domesticated after a long history of wild harvesting.  Currently, ALVs are mainly cultivated using traditional farm practices with almost no African countries having formal seed systems. After years of neglect by formal research, more and more research institutions are initiating research on ALVs. Amaranth, cleome, corchorus, cowpea, pumpkins, nightshades, african eggplant, moringa, ethiopian kale, roselle, bitterleaf, taro, slenderleaf and water spinach are listed as the most prominent ALVs in Africa.

Principle

Dried milled samples are extracted successively with diethyl ether, 0.5 percent ammonium oxalate solution, NH₂SO₄ and 72 percent sulphuric acid. Soluble carbohydrate in the ammonium oxalate extract determined with anthrone and hydrolysed pentosans and hexosans in the combined N H₂SO₄. Seventy two percent sulphuric acid extract are determined with aniline acetate and chromotropic acid respectively. The method gives a maximum variation of 4 percent from the mean of duplicates with each carbohydrate component. The residual material is ashed to obtain crude lignin and a nitrogen correction applied.

Soluble carbohydrate - this group, which includes sugars, oligosaccharides, and the fructosans of grasses, provides a source of nutrients  readily available to livestock.

Lisianthus is among top ten cut flower crop of the world. In short duration of 20-30 years it become top ranking flower crop of world due to its beautiful flowers which bears beauty of different top ranking old commercial flower crops with variation in flower colours, shape, size with long vase life. It looks like tulips as they began to open and as poppies when fully opened, gaps between the petals appears like daisy, ruffled petals resemble carnations and the most important one is the flower buds and opened double type lisianthus resemble rose buds and open flower respectively and there is no doubt that this is a primary reason for consumer acceptance. Double flowered lisianthus are more demanded in U.S. as cut flower about 80% of lisianthus market whereas, single flowered are more dominant in Japanese and European markets. In Japan over 129 million cut stems were sold in 2001 placing it on number one position in Europe, over 122 million cut stems were sold in 2001 and placing it in top ten ranking and in the United States over 14 million cut stems were sold in 2002, it is not only popular as a cut flower but also as a bedding plant and a pot plant in market (Grueber et al., 1985, Halevy and Kofranek, 1984, Roh and Lawson, 1987, Tjia and Sheehan, 1984, Tija and Sheehan 1986, Skrzypczak et al., 1993 and Harbaugh, 2007), a plant bears 20-30 flowers per plant (Skrzypczak et al., 1993).

Lisianthus (Eustoma) is herbaceous perennial in some cases annual and biennial (Farina, 1989, Halevy and Kofranek, 1984, Wilkins and Grueber, 1983 and Harbaugh, 2007) belongs to family Gentianaceae (Oren-shamir et al., 1999) and genus “Lisianthus”, which is also used as the common name for Eustoma grandiflorum, the plant was commonly known as Lisianthus russellianus when first listed in seed catalogues in the early 1980’s in the United State, later it was given scientific name Eustoma grandiflorum (Raf.) Shinn. (synonyms Eustoma andrewsii; E. russellianum; Lisianthus russellianus) (Bailey and Baily, 1976, Everett, 1981 and Harbaugh, 2007). However, Lisianthus is also known as the Prairie gentian or Texas bluebell (Markham, 1996 and Harbaugh, 2007) and Prairie Rose (Harbaugh, 2007). Eustoma is named after the two Greek words Eu (beautiful, good, well) and stoma (mouth) (Uddin et al., 2013). It is a self compatible (Harbaugh, 2007 and Markham, 1996), diploid crop (Markham, 1996). The buds are colourless is a great disadvantage as an ornamental growth. The range of flower colours available in commercial lines is limited to white and purple, shades of cream, pink, mauve and purple (Markham, 1996 and Harbaugh, 2007).

E. grandiflorum has a set of pharmacologically active compounds and therefore can be a valuable therapeutic material, or can serve as a source of pure chemical compound, apart from its strictly ornamental uses (Skrzypczak et al., 1993).

Introduction

In terms of individual health and physical condition, the situation in modern society is rather giving rise to concern. The last decades have seen a tremendous increase in availability and variety of food products which has undoubtedly affected the food habits of the average individual. Despite the fact that food has become overall safer and increased accessibility allows for healthier diets, worrying we are nevertheless faced nowadays with diet- related diseases of proper epidemic proportions. We now encounter an epidemic of obesity that spreads not only to the majority of the adult population but also, more worryingly, to young people who have rarely the option of alternative diets. Moreover, as scientific proofs for the link between diet and disease (particularly cardiovascular diseases and some cancers) accumulate, action is urgently needed. There are an increasing number of calls for action. It is within this situation that functional foods have developed. They assume a highly targeted solution to the diet related diseases with effective reduction of risk and improved physical and mental well being. That represents a big step from the traditional food-for-nutrition but the scientific milieu is ready to take the chances. The emerging ‘functional food science’ is focusing research on the effects of functional foods on growth, development, metabolism, the cardiovascular system, intestinal physiology, and even on behavioural and psychological functions (FAIR, 2000, Vol. 1). In view of these facts, it should appear necessary to assess and evaluate the developments in food production in terms of their effect on the individual consumer and the society at large.

• What is a Neural Network?
• How does an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) work?
• Characteristics of Neural Networks 
• Architectures of Artificial Neural Networks
• Learning Process
• Classification of Learning Algorithms
• Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture -Intelligent Agent 
• Classes of Intelligent Agents
• Characteristic of Intelligent Agents

There is no rapid direct test to determine fertility of semen sample. During freezing and thawing of semen 20-80% of the spermatozoa become immotile or die. In addition to this, there may be damage to spermatozoa by disintegration of sperm cell membrane and acrosome leading to loss of intracellular enzymes.   The only reliable method to evaluate the semen is to inseminate a cow and get a calf at the end of gestation period.  Now-a-days new methods have been developed for in-vitro assessment of fertility of spermatozoa.  Some of these methods are exhaustive, time consuming, need for a full fledged analysis and difficult under field conditions.

Introduction

Desertification is affecting the livelihoods of millions of people, mainly poor in the dry lands, which occupy nearly 41% of the Earth’s land area and are the residence of more than 2 billion people of the world. In India, the western part of Rajasthan is mostly affected by desertification process dominated by wind erosion. Kar et al. (2009) reported that 15.2 mha land in western Rajasthan is affected by wind erosion out of total 22.96 mha area under desertification. A brief account on issues and priorities related to wind erosion processes in Thar desert was reported in Santra et al. (2006). Plenty of incident solar energy in the region makes the desert surface very hot especially during summer months. Wind speed also remains very high in the region for most of the time in a year. Therefore, the loss of top fertile soils through wind erosion process is very active in the region. Eroded dust particles during severe wind erosion events commonly known as dust storms not only create the soils poor but also pose several environmental threats through generating aerosols in atmosphere. 

The productivity of agricultural ecosystems depends on the interactions and interdependence of numerous species, such as other plant species, micro-organisms, pollinators, predators of agricultural pests and livestock. Agricultural ecosystems serve as an important habitat for many plant and animal species. Wild species are sometimes used to provide valuable genetic resources, for instance for certain plant breeding. When preserved, these can help to meet future food and livestock production challenges, including adaptation to climate change. Conservation agriculture provides an ample opportunity for the maintenance of agricultural biodiversity. This paper discusses the agricultural development phases, their consequence on the environment and cropping system diversification opportunities in conservation agriculture.

Indication

Necrosis, Gangrene, Extensive injury of nerve of hind limb.

Malignant neoplasm

Frost bite. Burns

Incurable peripheral vascular disease.

Metabolism - sum total of all chemical reactions in living cells

Catabolic reactions - degrade macromolecules and other molecules to release energy

Anabolic reactions - used to synthesize macromolecules for cell growth, repair, and reproduction

Can divide metabolism into 4 groups: carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, nucleotides.

Several substrates, like proteins (enzymes), are very sensitive to alteration in the concentration of the solution they are placed in. Hence is the importance of a buffer which controls the chemical properties of the medium. Literally a “buffer” has the ability to resist changes in the hydrogen ion concentration. Although, buffers do contain other molecules, that might, in addition to the hydrogen ion concentration, influence the ionic strength, the activity of enzymes, and other parameters of the experiment.

In any biological experiment, appropriate buffer must be selected based on their effect on the experiment. Ideal buffers control pH and ionic strength without interacting adversely with the experiment undertaken. For example, although phosphate is a common buffer, it may not be suited when phosphate is a substrate or product of the reaction being studied. Also, some proteins interact poorly with some buffers. For example, Tris is not ideal as it exhibit high pKa and the large change in pKa when temperature changes, although it is cheap and most proteins are stable in Tris buffers, moreover it seldom reacts with reaction substrates hence, Tris buffer is commonly used in biochemical experiments.