eChapters

14.1. INTRODUCTION

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L. emend. Bowden) is one the most important ancient crops and played very important role in the development of agriculture and human civilization. It has also played crucial role in the progress of science of agriculture, physiology, genetics, plant breeding and malting and brewing science. It is the fourth most cereal crop after rice, wheat and maize in acreages and production in the world.  It is grown and used all around the world in many countries and has fed livestock, poultry and people since ancient time.  Barley was domesticated about 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East. Fertile Crescent is considered the first of at least seven primary centres of agriculture origin in the world (Smith, 1998; Baik and Ulrich, 2008). Barley is best known around the world as a feed grain and a premier grains for malting and brewing. When most people think of composition of beer, they only think of barley over other cereals. Although utilization of barley for food is relatively low as compared to other cereals today, throughout its history barley has remained an important and major food source poor people living in Western and Eastern Asia and Northern and Eastern Himalayan region nation like Tibet, Nepal and in Northern and Eastern Africa (Newman and Newman, 2006, 2008). Moreover, there has been resurgence of interest and use of barley as food primarily in the developed world due to an increasing emphasis on incorporating the diversity in consumption of whole grain in people’s diets due to its health benefits.

Natural Gene Flow in Plants

More than 70% of plant species, for example potato, oat, rape-seed, wheat, and kiwifruit have come from spontaneous interspecific or intergeneric hybridization although the extent of natural hybridization differs among the plant genera and families. It creates genetic variation and produce recombinant genotypes that may exhibit heterosis.The stabilization of these hybrids often through polyploidy (autopolyploidy or allopolyploidy) can result in the formation of new biological species (Masterson, 1994), thereby, having impact on both ecological and evolutionary processes (Martinsen et al., 2001). In addition, species genomes are often differentially permeable to introgression if they are under simple genetic control (unlike many genes contribute to hybrid fitness with linkages) and certain portion of the genome can readily incorporate alien alleles. Introgression is a selective process of gene flow that filters deleterious genes and takes only beneficial genes (incorporating the alleles from one taxon into other).

Abstract

Beekeeping is an agro-based activity which is being undertaken by farmers/landless labours in rural area as an integrated framing practice. It supplements income & employment generation and nutritional intake. Honeybees have been offering services to the society through ensured pollination in crops and providing honey and a variety of other bee hive products viz.; royal jelly, pollen, propolis, bee wax, bee venom, etc. Honey Bees have their vital role in sustaining plants bio-diversity resulting in environmental stability. Mainly five species of honeybees viz.; Apis cerana, A. mellifera, A. florea, A. dorsata, Stingless bees are in used in India.  Beekeeping industry has quadruple benefits: 1) providing self employment to rural and forest based population; 2) production of honey, pollen and beeswax, venom, royal jelly, etc., 3) providing employment to rural educated youths in collecting, processing and marketing of bee/beehive-products; and 4) cross-pollination of various agricultural and horticultural crops and improving their quality and increasing yields.

A gene microarray is a (mxn) matrix, containing n-experimental conditions, also called attributes for m-genes. Gene clustering refers to partitioning a microarray of genes based on the commonality of attributes. Genes belonging to a cluster often do not coexpress or coregulate. This calls for biclustering that segregates the (mxn) matrix into small windows. In other words biclustering refers to simultaneous clustering of rows and columns of the microarray. This chapter reviews some of the well known biclustering algorithms, and proposes an alternative solution to the problem using evolutionary multi-objective optimization technique.

Introduction

Clustering is process to automatically partition a set of p-dimensional data points (p³1) into classes, where the data in each class have similarity with respect to a given distance metric. Each class usually has an ideal member that possesses the necessary characteristics of the class.

Abstract

The bio-drainage system used to control the water logging hazards and restore the ground water table depth at a level favourable for other crops to grow. The water utilization efficiency per unit area of land improved through bio-drainage and associated cropping activities. The huge quantity of shallow and good quality groundwater that remains perpetually unutilized by the prevalent lowland cultivation system was effectively used by the biological drainage system. Thus the bio-drainage is expected to alleviate the land degradation problem due to high depth of water stagnant, to restore the crop cultivation programme on a sustainable way, to improve the water management practices, to improve the economic conditions of the lowland farmers and finally, to conserve the ecological values of this fragile agro-ecosystem.The objectives of efficient bio-drainage system are to evaluate ET and depended on growth characteristics of different trees and vegetation species having bio-drainage potential in the waterlogged land thereby to study the water table behaviour in the land under plantation and in the surrounding region and use the result in developing suitable plantation geometry to ensure desired water table draw-down, to assess interaction between bio-drainage plantation and co-existing crops and/or companion crops, to assess the value of the tree species through fodder, fuel wood and timber use, and to development of a new technology for land reclamation and evaluating its impact on soil, water and plant bodies in the basin.

INTRODUCTION

Insects are the major group of arthropods and the most diverse group of animals across the Earth. Though some of them are beneficial to environment and to humans, many insects are considered as pests as they transmit diseases and damage the crops and forests. Chemical, biological, cultural and mechanical methods are being used to eradicate, control or manage these pests. The main strategy used for controlling pests has been the use of chemical pesticides because of their long residual action and wide spectrum toxicity (Casida and Quistad, 1998). However, the indiscriminate usage of chemical pesticides are toxic to mammals, birds and fish, also pollute the environment, besides the development of pest resistance and the emergence of secondary recalcitrant insect pest populations (Li et al., 2007). These negative impacts prompted the change of strategies in managing the pests by resorting to ecofriendly and cost effective pest control strategies (Ferre et al., 1991). 

Abstract
 
Adoption of agricultural practices is cost effective bioremediation techniques to mitigate arsenic problems and can contribute substantially to the cause of removal of arsenic and other heavy metal contamination of soils and water thereby quality enrichment in marketable agricultural produce leading to increased crop productivity in the area of intensive cropping under irrigated eco system. Though the farmers are already practicing some traditional techniques to mitigate the arsenic problems in soils and water, like cultivation of crops which are less affected to arsenic and heavy metals pollution, growing hyper accumulating crops and so many practices wherein the modern methods are not prevalently used by the farmers due to the lack of scientific validity of these techniques, particularly in the context of prevailing socio-economic conditions. Moreover, acceptance of these improved practices by the small farmers of this region is an evolutionary process and should be intensively proved. Hence, extensive studies need for bio or phyto-remediation of heavy metals including arsenic contamination for quality marketable agricultural produce, which ultimately can realize better crop productivity.

1. Introduction

The growing prevalence of obesity and obesity associated disorders as well as its impact on public health has received increased attention in recent years. As a result, obesity is now considered one of the world’s leading public health problems. A study published in the noted medical journal Lancet says India is just behind US and China in this global hazard list of top 10 countries with the highest number of obese people. The study - titled ‘Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013’ - used data collected by international bodies and organizations in various countries like India over three decades. China and India together accounted for 15 per cent of the world’s obese population, with 46 million and 30 million obese people, respectively. According to the study, the number of overweight and obese people globally increased from 857 million in 1980 to 2. 1 billion in 2013. This is one-third of the world’s population.

With lifestyle disorders forcing more and more people to reel under excess body weight, even relatively younger people are developing joint disorders and knee pain. Excessive weight is associated with a series of health problems, including blood pressure, diabetes, and cardiovascular ailments. Therefore there in an urgent need to envision effective anti-obesity strategies through effective interventions.

Introduction

The organic matter added to soil externally as FYM, crop residues, leaf fall, root deposition etc. has been a part and parcel of Indian agriculture. The total carbon added to soil is subject to microbial decay and slowly the major portion of it finds way back to the atmosphere. There is every possibility that atmospheric CO₂ concentration will increase in near future; that will further lead to increased attention of scientific community to make soil a possible sink for atmospheric CO2. when the carbon sequestration is thought with the perspective of reducing carbon dioxide emission for healthy atmosphere at one hand and improving soil health on the other, there is utmost need to opt for technologies that can fulfill both these objectives. There is growing interest in the use of charcoal or ‘biochar’ to sequester carbon in soil and improve soil fertility (Lehmann and Joseph, 2009). There are many types of soil additives and fertilizers used to improve the structure and functions of soil. Biochar has re-emerged as an issue in the last ten years as everyone is looking for sustainable ways to improve soils and decrease use of chemical fertilizers. 

1.     Determination of lmax
    
2.     Verification of Beer-Lambert Law
    
3.     Estimation of Carbohydrate by Anthrone Method
    
4.     Estimation of Reducing Sugar by Di Nitro Salicylic (DNS) Acid
    
5.     Estimation of Protein by Biuret Method
    
6.     Estimation of Protein by Lowry’s Method
    
7.     Estimation of Protein by Bradford Method
    
8.     Estimation of Cholesterol
    
9.     Estimation of DNA
    
10.     Estimation of RNA
    
11.     Determination of iso Electric Point of Amino Acid

1.     Common Solvents
    
2.     Common Buffer Compositions

1.     Chromatography
    
2.     Identification of Sugar in Fruit Juice by Thin Layer Chromatography
    
3.     SDS-PAGE
    
4.     Composition for Native PAGE
    
5.     Silver Staining of Protein Gels

The different biochemical values serve as an indicator of the correct health status, viz important organ functions,  the alteration in values if any, helps in identifying the specific organ damage and exact diagnosis of the  abnormal health condition or disease. Some of the important biochemical values of the animals, which may assist in diagnosing the specific disease  conditions are listed in this chapter.

ABSTRACT
Methanogens are primarily anaerobic Archaebacteria representing the most primitive earthly creatures, alive since about 3.5 billion years. While oxygen inhibit their activity, they adapt well in a variety of ecological niche, viz., the intestinal tracts of insects and animals including ruminants, sewage digesters, groundwater and deep soil/water, etc. They are involved in biomethanation that converts organic polymers, including the complex recalcitrant lignocelluloses, to CH₄ and CO₂. Enhancing the process by optimising the physical, chemical and molecular parameters is an interesting biotechnology. Molecular research is rapidly progressing on the genomics, gene and its regulation, and methanogenesis as it expresses. Identifying novel species expressing methanogenesis and manipulating the genetic make-up including through cloning in recent years will set goals and leads for future investigations. The biomethanation enzyme Methyl-CoM-reductase (Mcr) constitutes about 10% of the methanogen protein. Due to its abundance and significance, elucidating its structure and its synthesis and regulation mechanism has received much attention recently. Mcr-coding genes from methanogens have been cloned and sequenced. An approach at the molecular level to enhance biomethanation seems to lie in metagenomics. The microbiology, biochemistry, the roles of the participating microbes, their molecular biology and applications in methanogenesis are discussed in this chapter.

ABSTRACT
Biomethanation comprises of four interdependent stages in series, hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis. Methanogenesis, the final stage of biomethanation, is accompanied with the reduction of substrates that include organic acids such as CH₃COOH, and others such as CO₂ and CH₃OH to CH₄ by methanogenic and methanotrophic archaea, usually under anaerobic conditions. Strictly anaerobic methanogenic archaea are found in the ruminant intestine, sewage digester, groundwater and deep soil/water etc. In methanogenesis, H₂ acts as the electron donor while substrates CO₂, CH₃OH and probably CoM-S-S-CoB (for CH₃COOH) act as terminal electron acceptors and reduce to methane, a process known as anaerobic respiration. This conversion is associated with the electrogenic proton motive force along with sodium motive force to drive the ATP synthesis by A0A1 ATP synthase, known as respiratory phosphorylation. The mechanism of conversion of methane from CO₂ by methanogens with cytochromes is same as those without cytochromes except that the reduction of heterodisulphide CoM-S-S-CoB is performed by the membrane-bound VhoACG-HdrDE complex for former while by cytoplasmic MvhADG–HdrABC complex for the later.

Introduction

The current population of our country is about 1.27 billion and the world population is predicted to grow from 6.9 billion in 2010 to 8.3 billion in 2030 and to 9.1 billion in 2050. By 2030, food demand is predicted to increase by 50% (70% by 2050). The main challenge facing the agricultural sector is not so much growing 70% more food in 40 years, but making 70% more food available on the plate (UNDESA, 2014). This rising food demand automatically put burden on the shoulder of formers especially for ASEAN countries such as India where population growth rate is high while resources are limited. India has about 141 million hectares area under cultivation out of its geographical area which 329 million hectares (Raghuwanshi, 2012; Parikh and James, 2012). Consequently, agriculture is, thus, one of the most important factors contributing to the economic growth of India (Kniivila, 2007). The production of the agricultural produce should be up to the mark to maintain this contribution. In order to enhance the crop production, fertilizers are needed because they supply the nutrients to the soil. By adding fertilizers, crop yields can often be doubled or even tripled.

ABSTRACT
Recent challenges for fossil fuels, associated environmental issues with disposal of organic garbage, and the rising costs for energy has encouraged researchers to search for alternate energy sources. Massive uncontrolled biogas from landfills, sludge and organic material degradation under anoxic conditions is an environmental management issue. Methane emission to atmosphere has a tremendous green house effect, but this can also be a valuable renewable energy resource. Biogas from kitchen wastes through anaerobic digestion by methanogens is such an alternate technology. Kitchen wastes are considered one of the best raw materials for biogasification. Biogas is mainly composed of 50-74% methane (CH₄), 25-28% carbon-di-oxide (CO₂), other volatile compounds including hydrogen sulphide (H₂S), water vapour and other trace gas compounds. The impurities in it, like Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) which is corrosive, downgrade its quality. Purified biogas of higher calorific value attracts attention as a substitute fuel for additional applications. Its purification using various suitable scalable and economically-viable scrubbing technologies to enhance its quality and performance as an alternate fuel is an important step in this direction. Thus, a technology to generate and purify biogas from kitchen waste has significant prospects in the energy sector, and also as a promising enterprise to employ the youth.

ABSTRACT
There is a quantum global growth in both number and size of dairy industries in recent times. These industries discharge thousands of liters of wastewater characterised by a heavy chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), nutrients, inorganic salts, besides detergents and sanitisers each day (Kushwaha et al., 2011). High carbohydrates, fats and proteins contents in such waste streams originating from milk pose challenge to conventional municipal sewage treatment systems (Demirel et al., 2005). The easily biodegradable dairy effluent leads to precipitation of casein which is toxic and has a strong odour. Without adequate treatment, these effluents could pose serious threats to the receiving water bodies and disturb the ecosystem (Satpathy et al., 2017). For such heavily loaded organic effluents, biogasification through anaerobic digestion seems a promising strategy. This cost-effective energy generation process is also effective in environmental management compared to its other eco-friendly renewable source counterparts, such as, hydro, solar and wind (Satpathy, 2017). The Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactors are the most popular anaerobic systems to treat the fluctuating organic loads in dairy effluents. Anaerobic filter (AF), Upflow Anaerobic Filter (UPAF), Fixed-bed anaerobic reactor, Anaerobic Hybrid Reactor (AHR) etc. are few other systems that are demonstrably competent removing COD upto 90% and generating biogas. Successful anaerobic systems reported yielded (with upto about 85% CH₄ content) 0.32-0.34m3 CH₄/kg COD removed. Biomethanation process and reactors designs are constantly being optimised for effective treatment of the effluents while maximising the biogas production. The energy-rich gas thus obtained could further be utilised for heat and electricity at the domestic level, and also as a vehicular fuel. Residual digestate can also be used as organic manures (Angelidaki et al., 2007).

Introduction

Saffron is a naturally derived plant product from the dried stigma of the Crocus sativus flower  (Gresta et al., 2009).The saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is an Iridaceae family member, herbal perennial, sterile (2n=3x=24) geophyte, traditionally propagated by vegetative corms. Its cultivation dates back to late Bronze Age in the Mediterranean region (Negbi, 1999) in Anatolia since the ancient times (Arslan et al., 2007) and for at least 3500 years in Egypt and Middle East. Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma yielding compounds. The chemical components mainly include carotenoids, crocin, picrocrocin, safranal etc (Abdullaev, 1993, Tarantalis et al., 1995, Karaoglu 
et al., 2007). Saffron is mostly used as spice, food colorant, dye or perfume. The dried stigmas introduce unique color, taste and fragrance and thus making it the world’s most expensive spice (Baghlian et al., 2010). Saffron has been used in folklore herbal medicines for centuries (Basker and Negbi, 1983).

Bioinformatics is a recently emerged frontier discipline, which helps in analyzing biological data with the help of information technology and statistical software packages. In a broader sense, bioinformatics is the application of computer technology in management of biological information. This interdisciplinary scientific tool having no barriers between different branches of science like biology, biotechnology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, has great influence on advanced bio-science research, particularly dealing with genes, proteins and cell biology.

Bioinformatics is the branch of study that deals with the use of information technology (IT) for managing data of biological science. Bioinformatics drew public attention with the announcement of the draft sequence of human genome by the then US President Bill Clinton along with Craig Venter and Francis Collins in 2000 (Uma and Sathyanathan, 2004).