eBook Chapters

Abstract
This chapter explores the current landscape and future potential of agricultural exports from Bihar, a state with significant agrarian strengths yet modest global trade participation. Despite contributing robustly to India’s production of fruits, vegetables, rice, and livestock, Bihar’s share in national exports remains below 1%. The chapter presents a comprehensive analysis of Bihar’s agricultural export trends, identifying key commodities such as Shahi Litchi, Katarni Rice, Jardalu mangoes, and millets and highlights emerging opportunities through Geographical Indication (GI) tags and high-value crops. A SWOT analysis underscores Bihar’s strategic advantages, such as fertile soil and agro-climatic diversity, alongside weaknesses like infrastructure deficits, low market integration and poor access to export logistics. The chapter further outlines key threats such as flood prone regions, poor irrigation infrastructure, and limited cold storage capacity, while also examining growth potential through investment in multimodal transport, agriprocessing zones, and farmer training. Policy suggestions include the development of export policies financial incentives and SEZs to boost Bihar’s export readiness. Overall, the chapter emphasizes the importance of targeted strategies to transform Bihar into a competitive agri-export hub benefiting smallholder farmers and enhancing rural livelihoods.
Keywords: Bihar Economy, Geographical Indications, Export Infrastructure, Agri-Export Policy and SWOT Analysis

Agri portals

• Website that serves as a gateway or a main entry point (‘cyber door’) on the internet to a specific field of interest or an industry.
• A portal provides at least four essential services.
  1. Search engine(s).
  2. Email.
  3. Links to other related sites and.
  4. Personalized content.
  5. It may also provide other facilities such as chat, members list, free downloads, etc.

Agribusiness and entrepreneurship in the 21st century are evolving rapidly due to technological advancements, changing consumer preferences, and the increasing focus on sustainability. This article delves into the dynamic landscape of modern agribusiness, examining the innovations driving growth and the challenges that entrepreneurs face. It explores key trends such as digital agriculture, sustainable practices, and value chain integration, highlighting the role of startups and established companies in transforming the industry. The article also addresses the economic, social, and environmental impacts of agribusiness and provides insights into the future of agricultural entrepreneurship. By understanding these developments, stakeholders can better navigate the complexities of the contemporary agricultural sector and capitalize on emerging opportunities.

Abstract
The village Kakching Khunou of Thoubal District, Manipur is found highly suitable for Watermelon cultivation. Mr. Thokchom Nganthoi Singh a young
farmer who is a novice in agri-business proved to be successful agri-business of watermelon in Kakching Khunou. The study noted that prominent extension approach was of farmer-to-farmer extension while venturing the enterprise. The total cost for cultivation of watermelon was around `50000-60000/- per Ha with a profit of ` 1,50,000/- per Ha. In three years (2016-18) the farmer mark as success in cultivation of watermelon and also started cultivating cucumber and other vegetable crops in his small farm successfully.
Keywords: Watermelon, Agri-business, Farmer, Kakching Khunou
Introduction
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), family Cucurbitaceae originated from West- Africa augurs well as a very promising scrambler and trailer fruit plant.

John H. Davis of Harvard University first used the term agribusiness in 1955. In 1980s it was given three connotations: (1) synonymous with term agriculture, (2) synonymous with agricultural economics and (3) a modified concept of agriculture, excluding farming, or the off-farm aspects of agriculture.

Agribusiness is defined as all business enterprises or sells to farmers/traders/consumers. The transaction may involve either an input or a produce or service and encompasses items such as:

• Productive resources (feed, seed, fertilizer, equipment, energy, pesticides, machinery, etc.)
• Agricultural commodities –(raw and processed commodities of food and fiber)
• Facilitative services (credit, insurance, marketing, storage, processing, transportation, packing, distribution, consultancy, soil testing etc.).

Over 85% of the rural population in India is dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. About 50% of them being poor, most of their earnings are spent on meeting their basic needs, particularly food. With the increasing population over the last five decades, their per capita share of land and water resources has reduced substantially. As a result, rural people are faced with the problem of unemployment.

Inspite of agriculture being a major source of livelihood, the productivity as well as profitability in agriculture have been significantly low in the country. While the productivity can be attributed to illiteracy, lack of awareness, poor dissemination of technology, inadequate investment in agricultural inputs and poor communication and information services, lack of profitability is mainly due to inadequate and inefficient infrastructure required for forward and backward integration, poor post harvest and processing facilities and poor connectivity with market, resulting in exploitation by large number of middlemen. Traditionally, the farmers have been dependent on the Agricultural Extension Agencies of the State Government for information, input supply and marketing services. Over the years, these agencies are not being able to cope up with the growing responsibilities and specific needs of the farmers. To overcome this problem, Farmers’ Cooperatives have been promoted to supply various agricultural inputs and organise the marketing of farm produce. Although, this was an excellent concept, most of these cooperatives could not carry out the work economically and efficiently due to lack of commitment from the elected leaders and unfair trade practices by the competing traders. The farmers, not realising the inability of the extension agencies, are still dependent on the Government and external agencies to help them in managing their agri-business.

Introduction

Adversities of climatic factors in arid and semi-arid regions accelerate soil moisture deficit and chance of crop failure throughout the world (Lawless et al., 2008). Increasing human population is placing unprecedented demand for food and natural resources. It has been estimated that an increasing population and changing dietary intake will lead to about 80–120% increase in global food requirement by 2050 (FAO 2006; Foley et al., 2012). This large amount of food production cannot be achieved by the agricultural sector alone, rather through a combination of technological innovations and involvement of other natural ecosystems (Licker et al., 2010).Traditional tree-integrated farming systems are adopted since time immemorial for security of food, fodder and fuel wood in drought-prone arid region (Harsh et al.,1992; FAO 2013), but are unable to meet the requirement of the ever increasing population.

Introduction 
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has emerged as a transformative force in agriculture, significantly enhancing access to information, improving productivity, and promoting sustainable practices. The integration of ICT tools facilitates the dissemination of critical agricultural knowledge, enabling farmers to make informed decisions regarding planting, pest control, and market trends. This technological advancement is particularly beneficial for small-scale farmers who often face challenges in accessing timely and relevant information. ICT platforms such as mobile phones and radios play a crucial role in providing small-scale farmers with access to essential agricultural input information, aiding them in making informed decisions (Fosu & Giba-Fosu, 2024). Furthermore, ICT tools, including e-learning platforms and mobile applications, have revolutionized agricultural extension services by providing direct access to advisory services and expert knowledge. The use of social media and mobile communication has also improved interactions between farmers and agricultural experts, thereby increasing the effectiveness of extension programs (Bhat et al., 2024). The advent of digital and smart agriculture, supported by ICT, incorporates technologies such as remote sensing, precision agriculture, and automated machinery to optimize farming practices and reduce labor dependency (Yoe, 2024). Agri-informatics, a specialized branch of ICT in agriculture, leverages emerging technologies like Big Data and the Internet of Things (IoT) to develop sophisticated agricultural systems, promoting smart farming practices (Jena, 2024). While ICT provides numerous advantages, challenges such as infrastructural limitations, economic constraints, and disparities in digital literacy hinder its widespread adoption. Addressing these barriers through policy interventions and capacity-building initiatives is crucial for maximizing the potential of ICT in agriculture. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is increasingly integrated into agriculture to address contemporary challenges such as climate change, population growth, and the demand for sustainable food production. AI applications in soil and crop monitoring, predictive analytics, and agricultural robotics are gaining attraction, assisting farmers in data collection and analysis (Smith, 2020; Gupta et al., 2023). Moreover, automation in agriculture, driven by AI, addresses issues such as crop diseases, irrigation management, and pest control. Techniques like IoT, machine learning, and deep learning contribute to the automation of farming practices, increasing soil fertility and productivity (Jha et al., 2019). Robotics and automated systems minimize human intervention, thereby enhancing farm efficiency and sustainability (Eli-Chukwu, 2019). The implementation of AI in agriculture yields numerous benefits, including enhanced productivity, costeffectiveness, and sustainability. AI assists in optimizing resource utilization,

India, with 118.7 million farmers, which accounts for more than half of its population, depends on agriculture as its primary source of income. However, the use of technology in the agricultural industry has been limited in India. As a result, the agriculture industry in India contributes merely 17-18% to its GDP. However, in the last couple of years, India has seen a rise in the number of agri-tech startups that are not only making technology more accessible but also helping these farmers to improve their lives. Today, we will take a look at top 10 agri-tech startups helping Indian farmers.
1. CropIn Technology (2010): Founded by Krishna Kumar and Kunal Prasad in 2010, CropIn provides one-stop SaaS-based solutions platform enabling agribusinesses to increase efficiency, productivity
and sustainability. Its platform offers real-time weather updates, ability to manage farm activities, and predicts crop yields to minimize risk and yield better produce.
2. Stellapps (2011): Founded by RanjithMukundan, Ravishankar G. Shiroor, Praveen Nale, Ramakrishna Adukuri and VenkateshSeshasayee in 2011, Stellapps helps dairy farmers and cooperatives to maximize their profits by digitizing and optimizing Milk Procurement &Coldchain Management through its IoT-based SmartMoo platform.
3. DeHaat (2012): Founded by Shashank Kumar and Amrendra Singh in 2012, DeHaat offers agricultural services like access to agricultural inputs like seeds and fertilizers at affordable prices, personalized assistance, soil testing, weather reports, micro-finance, and insurance. DeHaat has raised $19.3 million to help Indian farmers.

Agri-tourism, also known as farm tourism or agro-tourism, is a growing sector that combines agriculture with tourism. It offers visitors an opportunity to experience rural life, farm activities, and the natural beauty of agricultural landscapes. Agri-tourism serves as a supplementary source of income for farmers while promoting cultural exchange, environmental awareness, and sustainable development.
Concept and Scope of Agri-Tourism Agri-tourism encompasses a range of activities, including farm stays, organic farm visits, dairy farming experiences, vineyard tours, livestock interaction, and agricultural festivals. It allows tourists to participate in farm-based activities such as milking cows, plowing fields, harvesting crops, and tasting farm-fresh produce. This form of tourism not only educates visitors about agriculture but also fosters a deeper appreciation for rural traditions and lifestyles.
Benefits of Agri-Tourism
1. Economic Benefits: Agri-tourism provides an additional source of income for farmers, reducing their dependence on traditional farming. It creates employment opportunities in rural areas and contributes to local economies by promoting the sale of agricultural products, handicrafts, and local cuisine.
2. Environmental Benefits: By encouraging eco-friendly tourism, agritourism helps in the conservation of natural resources, promotes organic farming, and reduces the environmental impact of mass tourism.
3. Socio-Cultural Benefits: Agri-tourism facilitates cultural exchange between urban and rural populations. It preserves traditional farming practices, promotes rural heritage, and strengthens community bonds.
4. Educational Benefits: Tourists, especially students and children, gain hands-on knowledge about farming techniques, biodiversity, and sustainable agricultural practices.

Introduction

Where there is water, there is fish. India is country accounts 4.2 percent of global water and has competitive advantage in fisheries production. But, unfortunately the sector has been upholding the tag line of fishy (something unpleasant) in spite of its importance in food, income, society and health1. Even, the livelihood of backward communities near to the seashore and other water basins cannot be ignored and could be strengthened by enriching their life through fisheries sector development who will be a barricade for the intruders in future. Panigrahy & Nayak (2023) highlighted that sustainable Development Goal also emphasized upon the importance of fisheries in various segments like no poverty (SD 1), zero hunger (SD 2), good health and wellbeing (SD 3), gender equity (SD 5), responsible consumption and production (SD 12), and climate action (SD 13). Day by day the country has also improved its export share both in volume and value through fisheries that stimulate employment, investment, consumption, and future income of the people who integrate them with fisheries. However, fisheries in our country have been facing the tragedy of commons, conflicts, and loss of biodiversity due to target fishing in absence of effective market intelligence on which the complete business ecosystem of the stakeholders are revolving round through day and night.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in its report highlighted that marine f isheries consumption suits the developed country whilst inland fisheries for developing and underdeveloped one according to the consumer surplus and disposal income is concerned (FAO,2014). Even growing consumer surplus also triggers protein consumption over carbohydrate that stimulates more fish consumption in future in our country as well. Study says, fish can be taken with rice as better lysine content of former compensate in diet of the consumer. In this juncture, fish as a functional food has an immense importance across the country where marine fisheries target to Southeast Asia, China, European country, Japan, and US and Inland fisheries find its customers in the national sphere2 (Panigrahy, Vahoniya & Kumar, 2017).

Agribusiness as a concept is dynamic in nature and kept on evolving over time since it was first used during 1950s. Downey & Erickson defined agribusiness to include “all those business and management activities performed by firms that provide inputs to the farm sector, produce farm products, and/or process, transport, finance, handle or market farm products”. Chait, referred to it as agriculturally related businesses including warehouses, wholesalers, processors, retailers and more. In the developed countries, agribusiness is defined as the total output arising from farm production and product processing at both pre- and post-farm gate levels. However, in developing countries like India, the agribusiness sector encompasses four distinct sub-sectors, viz. agricultural inputs; agricultural production; agro-processing; and marketing and trade. All these add value or utility to the goods. Agribusiness is emerging as a specialized branch of knowledge in the field of management sciences. In this context, agribusiness can be defined as science and practice of activities, with backward and forward linkages, related to production, processing, marketing, trade, and distribution of raw and processed food, feed and fiber, including supply of inputs and services for these activities.
Examples
• Vermi compost
• Poultry Farming
• Mushroom Farming
• Bee Keeping
• Livestock Feed Production

Agribusiness: A Dynamic Concept
Agribusiness, an ever-evolving concept since its introduction in the 1950s, encompasses a broad spectrum of business and management activities linked to agriculture. Downey and Erickson defined agribusiness as encompassing all activities undertaken by firms that supply inputs to the farming sector, produce agricultural products, and process, transport, finance, or market these products. Chait extended the definition to include agriculturally related businesses such as warehouses, wholesalers, processors, and retailers.
In developed countries, agribusiness is broadly defined as the total output from farm production and processing at both pre- and post-farm gate stages. In contrast, in developing nations like India, agribusiness is categorized into four distinct sub-sectors:
1. Agricultural inputs
2. Agricultural production
3. Agro-processing
4. Marketing and trade
These sub-sectors contribute to adding value and utility to agricultural goods. Agribusiness has emerged as a specialized field within management sciences, focusing on activities and linkages, both backward and forward, related to production, processing, marketing, trade, and distribution of food, feed, and fiber, along with the supply of inputs and services.
Examples of Agribusiness Ventures
• Vermicompost
• Poultry Farming
• Mushroom Cultivation
• Beekeeping
• Livestock Feed Production

12.1. Agribusiness

Concept was born in Harvard University in 1957.

John David and A. Goldberg wrote a book ‘A concept of Agri-business’.

In early 1966, University of Philippines offered an Agri-Business Management (ABM) UG program.

In 1969, first Advanced Agribusiness Management seminar held in Manila.

1.    The concept of agribusiness was born in Harvard University in the year____________.

(a) 1947

(b) 1956

(c) 1967

(d) 2006

2.    In agriculture education system, the concept of “Agribusiness” was first time used by

(a) John Davis

(b) P F Drucker

(c) Henery Foyal

(d) F.W. Taylor

At present producers and consumers are concerned about products and their uses. In farm sector agribusiness is gaining momentum because of marketing of farm produce and its availability to the consumers at affordable rate. Agribusiness thus has been identified as important element in improving farm business. The farm business is otherwise known as agribusiness. Agribusiness is an off farm activity mainly concerned with processing and marketing. It implies that in addition to production of farm produce farmers responsibility increases to process the out-put and its sale in the market for better price. The farmers like to approach different organizations, corporation and regulated markets. Therefore attempt has been made at government level to encourage cultivators to invest in the farm business. In order to increase the efficiency of farmers there is need of keeping the business flexible encouraging farmers to invest in farm and allied sector business.

Mushrooms have been part of fungal diversity for around 300 million years. A mushroom is a macro fungus with a distinctive fruiting body, which can either be epigeous (above ground) or hypogeous (underground) and large enough to be seen by naked eye and to be picked up by hands. They lack the green matter (chlorophyll) present in plants and grow on dead and decaying organic materials, as phytoparasite or in mycorrhizal association with plants. From these decaying substrate, they absorb their nutrition with the help of fine thread like structures (mycelium), which penetrate into the substratum and are generally not visible on the surface. After the mycelium has grown profusely and absorbed sufficient food materials, it forms the reproductive structure which generally comes out of the substrate and forms fruiting body, commonly known as mushroom. Mushrooms can be divided into four categories (i) Those that are fleshy and edible fall into the edible mushroom category i.e., Agaricus bisporus; (ii) Mushroom that are considered to have medicinal applications are referred to as medicinal mushrooms i.e., Ganoderma lucidum; (iii) Those that are proved to be or poisonous or suspected of being poisonous are named poisonous mushrooms i.e., Amanita phalloides; (iv) those in a miscellaneous category, which include a large number of mushrooms whose properties remains less defined. The toxic/poisonous species commonly referred to as ‘toadstools’ are objects of fear and distrust and have led to certain amount of inhibition and taboo towards mushroom consumption.

Use of mushrooms as food by man has been practiced since time immemorial and probably predates any historical records. The early civilizations of Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, Chinese and Mexican appreciated mushroom as delicacy, knew something about their therapeutic value, often used them in religious ceremonies. Greeks regarded them as strength food for warriors while Romans considered them as ‘Food of Gods’ and Chinese regarded mushrooms as ‘Elixir of life’. Much referred ‘Somrus’ in ancient Indian literature is actually a decoction of mushroom. Archeological and other accounts reveal that ancient man used mushroom in religious ceremonies. The Aztecs of South America referred mushroom as ‘teononacte’ (God’s flesh) and worshipped a group of mushrooms as being divine. The high esteem in which mushrooms were held in different civilizations is also indicated by the restriction of the use of many species to the rulers.

Currently 14000 mushroom species are known to exist. Of these about 50 % or 7000 species are considered to posses varying degrees of edibility and almost 3000 species from 31 genera are regarded as prime edible mushrooms. To date only 200 of them are experimentally grown, 100 of them economically cultivated, approximately 60 commercially cultivated and about 10 have reached to industrial scale production in many countries. Furthermore, about 2000 are medicinal mushrooms with varieties of health attributes. The number of poisonous mushroom is usually reported to be relatively small (approximately 1 %), but there is an estimate that about 10 % may have poisonous attributes while 30 species are considered to be lethal.

ABSTRACT

Rural youth are the future of the agricultural sector in the country. A rising number of rural youth are migrating to urban areas from villages in search of better employment as well as better life. They are migrating towards cities due to limited resources, weak infrastructure, and unemployment in rural areas. Thus, the number of young people in rural areas is falling and the exodus of rural youth means fewer small-scale farmers for today and tomorrow. Agribusiness may prove important tool to stop the exodus of rural youth from rural to urban areas. Agribusiness provides the various employment opportunities in the areas of agricultural inputs, crop production, agro chemicals, fruit and vegetable cultivation, agricultural marketing and processing of agricultural produce. Agribusiness helps in remunerative farming which increases the level of income, employment and living standard of people in rural India. The present paper will discuss the role and importance of agribusiness in attracting and retaining rural youth in farming.

Principle of field drainage and methods of drainage, Benefits of drainage
Biological drainage
Importance of bio-drainage in water logged conditions
Bio-drainage and soil salinity
Agricultural Drainage
Excess water in the crop root zone soil is injurious to plant growth. Artificial drainage is essential on poorly drained agricultural fields to provide optimum air and salt environments in the root zone. Crop yields are drastically reduced on poorly drained soils, and, in cases of prolonged waterlogging, plants eventually die due to a lack of oxygen in the root zone. Waterlogging in irrigated regions may result in excess soil salinity, i.e., the accumulation of salts in the plant root zone.
Sources of excess soil water that result in high water tables include: high precipitation in humid regions; surplus irrigation water and canal seepage in the irrigated lands; and artesian pressure. Agricultural drainage is the removal of excess water from the soil surface and/or soil profile of cropland, by either gravity or artificial means. In some soils, the natural drainage processes are sufficient for growth and production of agricultural crops, but in many other soils, artificial drainage is needed for efficient agricultural production.
Agricultural drainage improvement can help reduce the year-to-year variability in crop yield, which helps reduce the risks associated with the production of abundant, high quality, affordable food. Improved access of farm equipment to the field provides more time for field activities, can help extend the crop production season, and helps reduce crop damage at harvest.
Agricultural drainage conditions around the world can be grouped according to three agro-climatic zones: the temperate zone, the arid and semi-arid zone and the humid and sub-humid zone.
In the temperate agro-climatic zone the major role of drainage is to prevent waterlogging, i.e., excess water in the root zone of crops from surplus rainfall.

Public Finance

Public finance is a branch of economics which deals with the income and expenditure of public authorities such as Central Government, State Government, Corporations, Municipalities etc. Public finance, according to Adam Smith, is the study of the nature and guiding principles of government spending and revenue.

Micro Finance vs. Macro Finance

Microfinance and macro finance represent two types of funding-related activities. The difference lies in their scope. Microfinance is an individual-focused, community-based approach to provide money and/or fnancial services to money to poor individuals or small businesses who lack access to mainstream or conventional resources. 

Important Points to Remember

• The term Biochemistry (biosG = life) was first introduced by a German chemist Carl Neuberg in 1903. Biochemistry may be defined as a science concerned with the chemical nature and chemical behavior of the living matter.
• Major organic molecules present in the living beings are: carbohydrates, proteins (of course, including enzymes), lipids and nucleic acids.
• Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. They are primarily composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• The name carbohydrate literally means ‘hydrates of carbon’. The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides that have the general formula (CH2O)n where n is 3 or more.
• Carbohydrates may be defined as polyhydroxyaldehydes or ketones or compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. The term ‘sugar’ is applied to carbohydrates soluble in water and sweet to taste.

Abstract

The present investigation on “Agro bio-diversity and genetics of fibre characters, yield and its components in intra and inter specific hybrids of allo-tetraploid cottons (Gossypiumspp. Linn.)” was carried out at College Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, to study the combining ability and heterosis for quality and yield characters. Further, an attempt was made to trace out best parents and crosses for future breeding programmes and also to know the gene action controlling the traits through generation mean analysis for designing appropriate breeding strategy. In this direction, seven lines and four testers were crossed in L x T design to generate 28 hybrids and evaluated with check NHH 44 to know the combining ability of parents and crosses. Since L x T design does not provide comprehensive picture on gene action governing the traits, the generation mean analysis through joint scaling test was done in four crosses for eleven characters. High PCV and GCV were recorded for number of monopodia per plant and seed cotton yield per plant and moderate estimates were observed for number of bolls per plant, boll weight. High heritability estimates coupled with high genetic advance were observed for number of bolls per plant, boll weight and seed cotton yield per plant. Estimates of components of variance and their ratios (?2 gca/?2 sca) indicated the preponderance of non-additive gene action for days to 50 % flowering, number of monopodia per plant, number of sympodia per plant, number of bolls per plant, boll weight and seed cotton yield per plant, whereas additive gene action was observed for the fiber quality traits viz., 2.5 % span length, uniformity ratio, micronaire value and bundle strength.

Old and Modern biotechnology
Agriculture has evolved since the dawn of human civilization, first as a means to guarantee food supply and then, as a source of family income and improved profitability. Domestication of plants and animals that were found in the wild combined with gradual, long-term changes in their quality and quantity were the first signs of what is now collectively termed “Agriculture”. At that time, agriculture replaced the former nomadic habit of food collection for immediate consumption. Domestication of plants and animals, followed by food storage, coincided most probably unintentionally, with the growth of microorganisms. Thus, was born the classical food fermentation, the earliest known application of biotechnology, focusing on the use of microorganisms to produce food products.
Gradual improvements in agricultural techniques, domestication of additional plant and species from the wild, step-by-step selection of better performing and more adapted genotypes, along with intuitive breeding continued at a slow pace. Mendel’s discoveries and laws revolutionized genetics, and led at the beginning of the 20th century, to planned and controlled breeding experiments. Breeding or the “old biotechnology” was harnessed as a most successful tool, resulting in better crops and farm animals, and “Green Revolution” of the 1960s was achieved. Many achievements are still being successfully implemented since then.

1. Important objective of biotechnology in agriculture sector is

   a) To increase the nitrogen content

   b) To decrease the seed number

   c) To produce pest resistant varieties of plants

   d) To increase the plant weight

2. The main technology involved in agriculture biotechnology is called

   a) Tissue culture

   b) Plant breeding

   c) Transformation

   d) DNA replication

1. Agricultural biotechnology: Agricultural biotechnology is a collection of scientific techniques used to improve plants, animals and microorganisms.

2. Gel electrophoresis: Analytical technique by which usually large biomolecules (proteins, DNA) are separated through a gel by application of an electric field.

1. The initiator of a food web is

   a) Carnivores

   b) Herbivores

   c) Plants

   d) Decomposers

2. Fauna is term for

   a) Plant kingdom

   c) Animals

   b) Both (plant and animals)

   d) None of the above

Summary

The huge accumulation of agro-industrial waste-materials generated by the milling, brewing and various agriculture and food based industries which in total amount to be about 500 million tones per year in India. Most of these by-products contain three major structural polymers such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. These are also the main source of feed for domestic animals. A high proportion of this waste material is carbohydrate and phenolic compounds. Accumulation of this kind of biomass not only results in the deterioration of the environment, but also loss of potentially important materials. Biological degradation, now-a-days, has become an increasingly popular alternative for the treatment of agricultural, industrial, organic as well as toxic wastes. Cellulose and hemicellulose being the major constituents of these materials can be referred to as valuable resources for a number of reasons, mainly due to the fact that they can be bio-converted easily into valuable products. These wastes can be processed to yield a number of value added products, such as biofuels like biohydrogen, bioethanol along with a variety of chemicals. Various treatment methods such as physical, chemical, biological are employed for the production of value-added compounds. Various phenolics like ferulic acid and vanillin are world’s most prized flavor compound mostly obtained through microbial treatment of agro-wastes.

Abstract

This chapter explains the cooperation which create social relations that help individuals achieve goals that they could not achieve alone. They also help farmers benefit from economies of scale and reduce risks, and empower their members economically and socially by involving them in decision-making processes.

2.1 Mulkanoor Cooperative Society: An Introduction The Mulkanoor Cooperative Rural Credit and Marketing Society, established in 1956, in Mulkanoor village of today’s Telangana state of India, stands as a beacon of rural transformation. Post-independence, Shri A.K. Vishwanatha Reddy- a freedom fighter- envisioned a better future for farmers. His vision materialized through the formation of the Mulkanoor Cooperative Society, initially with 373 members and a modest share capital of ?2,300. The society has now grown to encompass 7,650 members, ?18 crores in share capital, and ?45 crores in thrift deposits, and offers a wide

1.1. Credit

Defined as a device for facilitating temporary transfer of purchasing power from those who have surpluses of it to those who are in need of it.

6.1 Introduction

The analysis of issues in agricultural credit in India reveals that the credit delivery to the agriculture sector continues to be inadequate. It appears that the banking system is still hesitant on various grounds to purvey credit to small and marginal farmers. The situation calls for concerted efforts to augment the flow of credit to agriculture, alongside exploring new innovations in product design and methods of delivery, through better use of technology and related processes. Facilitating credit through processors, input dealers, NGOs, etc., that are vertically integrated with the farmers, including through contract farming, for providing them critical inputs or processing their produce, could increase the credit flow to agriculture significantly.Agriculture plays a crucial role in the development of the Indian economy. It accounts for about 19 per cent of GDP and about two- thirds of the population is dependent on the sector. The importance of farm credit as a critical input to agriculture is reinforced by the unique role of Indian agriculture in the macroeconomic framework and its role in poverty alleviation. Recognising the importance of agriculture sector in India's development, the Government and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) have played a vital role in creating a broad-based institutional framework for catering to the increasing credit requirements of the sector. Agricultural policies in India have been reviewed from time to time to maintain pace with the changing requirements of the agriculture sector, which forms an important segment of the priority sector lending of scheduled commercial banks (SCBs) and target of 18 per cent of net bank credit has been stipulated for the sector. The Approach Paper to the Eleventh Five Year Plan has set a target of 4 per cent for the agriculture sector within the overall GDP growth target of 9 per cent. In this context, the need for affordable, sufficient and timely supply of institutional credit to agriculture has assumed critical importance.

Introduction

Agriculture provides unique solution to various developmental issues including poverty and hunger. World Development Report (2008) reveals that the agricultural growth has significantly contributed to the decline in poverty world over (as in China and Latin America). Though the non-agriculture sector pays more dividend, and grows steeply, the capital generated, however benefits a few (mostly urban areas) thus leading to uneven distribution of income. Whereas, the development of agriculture, which employs most of the rural population, is expected to benefit a large section of the population simultaneously and uniformly. It is in this context that this report predicts agriculture as a vital development tool for achieving Millennium Development Goal that calls for halving by 2015 the share of people suffering from extreme poverty and hunger.

Agriculture addresses the essential food wellspring of the world, and it has been confronting serious difficulties because of the rising interest for food items, sanitation, and security worries as well as calls for ecological insurance, water conservation, and maintainability. This improvement is anticipated to go on since the total populace is assessed to reach 9.7 billion by 2050. Since farming comprises the most noticeable illustration of water utilization around the world, it is normal that food interest and water utilization will decisively increment within a reasonable timeframe. Moreover, the rising utilization of composts and pesticides combined with the increase of cultivating exercises could prompt future ecological difficulties. Essentially, arable land is restricted, and the quantity of farmers is diminishing around the world. These difficulties highlight the requirement for imaginative and practical cultivating arrangements.
Consolidating novel innovations has been distinguished as a promising answer for address these difficulties. Brilliant cultivating and Precision farming have arisen because of such discussions. The previous is an overall idea for information communication technologies (ICT) and other state of the art developments in cultivating exercises to build productivity and viability. The last option centers around site-explicit administration in which the land is separated into homogeneous parts, and each part gets the specific measure of agricultural contribution for crop yield enhancement through original advances. Unmistakable advances that certainly stand out in this field incorporate Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI) techniques, including machine learning and deep learning.
Notwithstanding the previously mentioned innovations, remote detecting has been viewed as a mechanical device with high potential to work on savvy and Precision farming. Satellites, human-maintained airplane, and robots are well known remote-detecting advances. Drones, popularly known as Unmanned

Agricultural drought management is a critical aspect of ensuring food security and sustainable agricultural practices, particularly in regions prone to water scarcity. Droughts, characterized by prolonged periods of abnormally low rainfall, can have devastating effects on crop yields, livestock productivity, and the livelihoods of farmers. Effective drought management strategies are essential for mitigating these impacts and enhancing the resilience of agricultural systems. Agricultural drought occurs when the soil moisture is insufficient to meet the needs of crops, leading to reduced growth, lower yields, and increased plant stress. This type of drought can be particularly challenging because it directly affects food production and the agricultural economy. Unlike meteorological droughts, which are defined by the degree of dryness compared to normal conditions over a specific period, agricultural droughts focus on the impact of drought on crops and agricultural productivity.

Water is the lifeblood of agriculture, fundamentally dictating the success or failure of crop production worldwide. While sufficient and timely rainfall, or adequate irrigation, ensures healthy plant growth and bountiful harvests, an imbalance in the water supply can quickly escalate into a crisis. Among the various forms of drought—meteorological, hydrological, and socio-economic - agricultural drought stands as the most direct and immediate threat to food security and farm livelihoods. It represents a critical shortfall in the moisture necessary to sustain crop growth, leading to reduced yields, compromised crop quality, and often, complete crop failure (Fig. 9.1). effective mitigation and adaptation strategies. This chapter will delve into the precise definition of agricultural drought, differentiate it from other drought types, and critically examine its various forms based on the timing of water deficit during a crop’s life cycle. By dissecting the characteristics of early season, mid-season, terminal, and apparent permanent droughts, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of how water scarcity at different stages impacts crop physiology, productivity, and the broader agricultural landscape.

Abstract

This paper illustrates the summary of work by different groups on the potential for agribusiness and marketing research by agricultural economists over the past decade. Methodology to establish research priorities in agribusiness and marketing are reviewed. This review leads to a consideration of the agribusiness research issues including the funding sources, identifying users of agribusiness research, data needs, and limitations of agribusiness research programs. This paper also presents a potpourri of  suggested research initiatives in agribusiness research for agricultural economists. Research in these areas may be difficult for a number of reasons including, decreased reliance on economic theory as the soleparadigm, providing competitive advantage to a single agribusiness firm while balancing public and private needs, funding sources, and data confidentiality. Recommendations for outlets for academic research are presented.

Agriculture economics is the study of how resources are used, distributed, and utilised in order to create agricultural products. A consistent level of farm surplus is one of the sources of technological and commercial expansion, so agricultural economics has an impact on the economics of development.

In general, it may be said that average salaries are low when a sizable portion of a nation’s population depends on agriculture for a living. It is more accurate to argue that a country’s majority of people must rely on agriculture because it is impoverished rather than that a country is poor because the majority of its population works in agriculture.

Features of Agriculture

Agriculture is the principal industry of employment. Nearly 61 percent of the whole population is employed there. It makes up 25% of the country’s income.

Monsoon dependence: The monsoon is crucial to Indian agriculture. The production will increase if the monsoon is good, and the crops will fail if it is below normal. Floods can occasionally ruin our crops. Agriculture depends on the rainfall since irrigation systems are so poor.

‘Importance of Agriculture in National Perspective in India

Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy: The following points emphasize the importance of agriculture in Indian Economy. Indian is an agricultural country, where 70 per cent population is dependent on agriculture. This forms the main source of income. The contribution of agriculture in the national income in India is more, hence, it is said that agriculture in India is a backbone of Indian Economy. The importance of agriculture in the National Economy is explained by the following points.

Role of agriculture in Indian economy: Agriculture is the main sector of Indian economy which is amply powered by the following points:

Share in National Income: The contribution from agriculture has been continuously falling from 55.1% in 1950-51 to 37.6% in 1981-82 & further to 18.5% in 2006-07 and 14.2% in 2011-12 and now 13.1%. But agriculture still continues to be the main sector because it provides livelihood to a majority of the people. The share of the agricultural sector’s capital formation in GDP declined from 2.2% in the late 1999s to 1.9% at precent.

1. ______ an application of the accounting principles to the business of farming.

   a) Farm planning

   b) Farm budgeting

   c) Farm accounting

   d) Marketing

2. ‘Beef’ and ‘hides’ are examples of:

   a) Independent enterprise

   b) Joint enterprise

   c) Supplementary enterprise

   d) Compitative enterprise

Economics definition

Adam smith (1776) defined economics as the science of wealth in his book An Inquiry into Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations.

According to Marshall Economics is primarily a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life.

Agricultural Economics : An applied social science that deals with the production, distribution, and consumption of agricultural or farming goods and services.(or) an applied phase of social science of economics in which attention is given to all aspects of problems related to agriculture.

Subject matter of Economics : It can be studied through a) traditional approach and (b) modern approach.

a) Traditional Approach : Economics is studied under five major divisions namely consumption, production, exchange, distribution and public finance.

Consumption : The satisfaction of human wants through the use of goods and services is called consumption.

Production : Goods that satisfy human wants are viewed as "bundles of utility".

Exchange : Goods are produced not only for self-consumption, but also for sales. They are sold to buyers in markets. The process of buying and selling constitutes exchange.

Distribution : The production of any agricultural commodity requires four factors, viz., land, labour, capital and organization. The land owner gets rent, the labourer earns wage, the capitalist is given with interest and the entrepreneur is rewarded with profit. The process of determining rent, wage, interest and profit is called distribution.

Public finance : It studies how the government gets money and how it spends it.

b) Modern Approach : The study of economics is divided into: i) Micro-economics and ii) Macro-economics.

Important Points

• A farmer with limited funds may operate in a range of increasing returns to capital is however, not an irrational producer.
• A firm is a particular business firm.
• A higher rate of accumulation of capital relative to the rate of population growth adds to the real stock of capital of a nation.
• A profit maximizing farmer will maximize the output for given level of outlay.
• An isolation curve is negatively inclined.

3.1. Agriculture
• The term agriculture originates from the Latin words ager, meaning soil, and cultura, meaning cultivation.
• In its broadest sense, agriculture refers to the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock for production.
• It is essentially synonymous with farming, involving the field-based production of food, fodder, and industrial organic materials.
3.2. Economics • Economics is the science that studies as how people choose to use scare productive resources (like land, labour, capital and organiser) to produce various goods and to distribute these goods to various members of the society for their consumption.
3.3. Agricultural Economics
• Agricultural economics is a branch of applied economics that applies the principles of choice to the efficient use of scarce resources such as land, labor, water, seeds, and fertilizers in farming and related activities.
• It focuses on guiding farmers in the optimal utilization of land, labor, and capital.
• Its significance lies in providing practical solutions to help farmers maximize income while managing limited resources effectively.
3.4. Definitions
1. Prof. Gray has defined agricultural economics as “The science in which the principles and methods of economics are applied to the special conditions of agricultural industry”.

Agricultural education and extension services are crucial for the development and dissemination of knowledge and technologies that enhance agricultural productivity, sustainability, and resilience. This article explores the evolution, significance, and impact of agricultural education and extension services, highlighting their role in empowering farmers, improving food security, and fostering rural development. It examines the various models and approaches to agricultural education and extension, the challenges they face, and the innovative strategies being implemented to address these challenges. The article also discusses the integration of modern technologies and the importance of policy support in strengthening agricultural education and extension systems. By understanding and enhancing these services, stakeholders can ensure that farmers are well-equipped to meet the demands of modern agriculture and contribute to sustainable development.