eChapters

Introduction

The rapid growth and socio-economic upliftment of a developing country are directly related to the intensity of industrial growth of that country (Bastian et al., 2019; Kniivila, n.d). The emergence of new enterprises is the main source of a healthy and growing industrial ecosystem. They represent 99% of businesses in developing countries and account for two-thirds of employment creation (Secretary-General and UNCTAD, 2022). Enterprises hence create employment, drive inclusive growth, promote innovation, and improve socio cultural conditions along with addressing sustainable development goals- No poverty(SDG-1), Industry, innovation and infrastructure(SDG-9), Reduce inequality(SDG-10)of the UN’s 2030 agenda (Forbes, 2022; Secretary-General and UNCTAD, 2022). Their innovative outputs in the form of goods and services, address local as well as global requirements of the customer market and bring them on the path of sustainability (Szopik-Depczynska et al.,2018; Rivera et al.,2020). The entrepreneurs have a long vision of success, engaging their primary activities with No poverty (SDG-1), Zero hunger(SDG-2), Gender equality(SDGs-5), Decent work and economic growth(SDG-8), Industry, innovation and infrastructure(SDG-9), Reduce inequality(SDG-10), Responsible consumption and production(SDG-12), Climate action(SDG-13), Partnership for goals(SDG-17) and addressing challenges of society and the environment in return for optimal economic profit (Alagpuria,2021; Lammers et al.,2022; Secretary-General and UNCTAD,2022; Vig,2021; Del-Aguila Arcentales et al.,2022; Sadiq et al.,2022).

For effective and economic control of pests, besides selection of appropriate plant protection chemicals, application of the chemicals at the most vulnerable growth stage of the pests and use of chemicals at the correct dosage, selection of proper plant protection appliances to carry out the operation is also of vital importance, so as to ensure uniform application of the chemicals.

Plant protection chemicals are mostly used as sprays and dusts using sprayers and dusters respectively. However, in most of the cases spraying is preferred to dusting. Different types of sprayers and dusters are being used for these operations and in both, there are manually operated as well as power operated equipments and in sprayers there are both hydraulic and pneumatic types of sprayers.

The nature of the pesticide formulations to be used and the purpose for which they are used also determine the type of equipment to be used. Dusters are used for dusting insecticidal dust formulations. Sprayers are used for spraying insecticidal liquid formulations. Granular applicators are used to apply granular formulations. Fumigators are used to apply fumigants to fumigate godowns, warehouses, rat holes etc. Soil injectors are used to inject pesticides at a particular depth of soil under pressure. Flame throwers are used to throw f lames at specified targets.

Introdction

Fruits are an important supplement to the human diet, as they provide minerals, vitamins and fiber required for maintaining good health. Fruits are also rich in phytochemicals (7, xanthophylls, polyphenols, flavonoids, phenolic acids, organic acids etc.) which possess good antioxidant properties. India’s diverse climatic conditions ensure availability of almost all the varieties of fresh fruits and vegetables. According to FAO (2021), the country ranks first in the production of bananas (26.45%), mangoes (including mangosteens and guavas) (43.80%) and papayas (39.30%). The scenario of horticulture crops in India has become very encouraging. The percentage share of horticulture output in agriculture has become 33 per cent (Anonymous 2021). India has witnessed increase in horticulture production over the last few years. Significant progress has been made in area expansion resulting in higher production. Over the last decade, the area under horticulture grew by 2.1 per cent per annum and annual production increased by 3.9 per cent. During 2020-21, the production of horticulture crops was 334.60 million tonnes from an area of 27.74 million hectares. The production of fruits has increased from 76.42 million tonnes in 2011-12 to 108.34 million tonnes in 2022-23 (Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2022). The area under cultivation of fruits stood at 7.05 million hectares. The total production of fruits in the year 2020-21 was highest in case of Andhra Pradesh (17.70 million tonnes) followed by Maharashtra (11.73 million tonnes) and Uttar Pradesh (11.23 million tonnes) (Anonymous 2021). India now is the second largest producer of vegetables and fruits in the world. The country ranks at first position in the production of banana, mango, lime and lemon, papaya and okra. The area and production of fruits in India is presented in Table 1. The fruits namely banana, mango, citrus, papaya, guava, grapes, apple, pineapple and sapota account for more than 85 per cent of the total production of fruits. The other fruits which are produced in India are almond, walnut, jackfruit, bael, ber, custard apple, kiwi, passion fruit, peach, pear, plum, strawberry etc.

I. Rock Phosphate

Rock phosphate is natural source of phosphorus. It occurs as natural deposits of rock in Morocco, U.S.A., Egypt, Poland, Russia, Tunisia, Algeria, Brazil, Nauru and some Islands in the Pacific and the Indian ocean. It contains 20 to 35 percent phosphoric acid (P2 O5 ) but this phosphorus is in insoluble form. In India, some of rock phosphates occur in Udaipur and Jaisalmer districts (Rajasthan), Purulia (West Bengal), Singhbhum (Zharkhand) and Mussorie (Uttrakhand). Most of these phosphates are classified as low grade phosphate since its phosphoric acid content is less than 20-25%. The total reserve of low grade rock phosphate is estimated to be around 165 million tonnes of which nearly 70 million are reported to occur in Rajasthan. The other economically viable deposits are in Mussorie (Uttarakhand), Jhabua district (Madhya Pradesh), Singhbhum (Zharkhand) Kasipatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Purulia district (West Bengal). Rock phosphate is the basic raw material for manufacture of superphosphate and other kind of phosphatic fertilizers. It is reported above that India has mostly low grade rock phosphate. Hence India has to spent huge amounts of foreign exchange to import high grade rock phosphate containing around 32-35%, P2 O5 for manufacture of phosphatic fertilizers.

Frankia is potent nitrogenous biofertilizer for forest trees since it establishes symbiotic association with non-leguminous plants. Nitrogen fixing non leguminous trees thrive in temperate condition. The species belong to Casuarinaceae are an exception and grow successfully in tropical areas. Alnus for temperate regions and the genus Casuarina for tropical and sub-tropical regions stand out examples of the benefits they provide to ecosystem by the way of nitrogen fixation. They have an excellent potential to adapt themselves to grow under diverse geographical and environmental conditions providing enough fuel, fodder, pulp and timber. The microsymbiont within these root nodules of non-leguminous plants has been identified and designated as Frankia (Becking, 1970).

Historical Developments

First of all Boussingault, a French farmer during 1838 drew attention that non-legumes were capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The roots of Alnus were described as warty brownish biomass as large as man’s fist (Woronin, 1866). Frank and coworkers (1887a, b, 1891) studied the nodulated nitrogen f ixing trees regardless of whether they were leguminous or non-leguminous (actinorhizal). Frank believed that the bacteroids were protein deposits but subsequently he named the causative organism as Frankia subtilis. Moller (1885, 1890) reported the causative organism in the nodules as plasmodia and Frank also revised his opinion and pointed out that the causative organism was a fungus. Such conflicting results were due to imperfect techniques to differentiate between vesicles and sporangia. Later the organism was renamed as Frankia bruchorstii to honour Frank and his coworker, Brunchorst (Moller, 1890).

Introduction

Agriculture has always been linked with prosperity, man power and the ability to feed and raise human population. In earlier times, humans as man power were deployed on the fields to do all the necessary operations to cultivate the crops, but during the industrial revolution, with development of different farm machines the uses of human labor on the fields were drastically decreased. Further, with advancement of technologies and more availability of computers, Artificial Technology (AI) has been gaining momentum in recent years.

AI has the potential to transform the agricultural sector through cost reduction and increased crop yields, and minimizing environmental impacts. AI can help farmers better manage their land, improve crop quality, and increase their productivity In addition, AI can be used to monitor and analyze the health of crops, livestocks, and soils to identify issues and assist in their resolution. The primary idea of using artificial intelligence in agriculture is due its adaptability, superiority, and cost-viability. The customary techniques that were utilized by the farmers were not adequate enough to satisfy their necessities. (Khan et al. 2022) With the right implementation and technology, AI can be an invaluable tool to help farmers increase their efficiency and profitability. In today’s rapidly evolving world, where the demand for food continues to escalate amidst concerns over environmental sustainability and resource scarcity, Artificial intelligence (AI) has become a transformative force in agriculture, from optimizing crop production and resource management to enhancing decision-making processes. Globally, AI is changing how we approach farming techniques.

The term entrepreneur is derived from the French word entreprendre, which translates to “to undertake. “In the context of business, this refers to the initiation of a business. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, an entrepreneur is defined as an individual who organizes, directs, and takes risks in a business or enterprise. An entrepreneur can be described as “a person who establishes, organizes, and directs any enterprise, particularly a business, typically involving significant initiative and risk. “ Peter F. Drucker (1985) characterizes an entrepreneur as a person who continuously seeks change, responds to it, and leverages it as an opportunity. Innovation serves as a unique tool for entrepreneurs, enabling them to perceive change as an opportunity for launching another business or service. An entrepreneur is often regarded as an innovator – a creator of new ideas and business processes. Essential leadership skills and effective team-building abilities are frequently considered crucial traits for successful entrepreneurs. Economist Robert Reich (2002) regards leadership, management skills, and team building as vital attributes of an entrepreneur. The realm of entrepreneurship is influenced by a variety of combinations of socio-economic, psychological, cultural, and additional factors, including caste/religion, family background, educational level, level of insight, professional experience, migration capabilities, entrepreneurial spirit, nature of the business, investment capacity, and ambition/moderation. Entrepreneurship is often defined as “the ability and desire to develop, organize, and manage business activities and associated risks for profit”.

Aquaculture is associated with the rearing, breeding, and harvesting of aquatic organisms in cages, tanks, ponds, or other simulated systems, and can be practiced in fresh water, brackish water, or marine water. The practice of cultivating aquatic species in a systematic manner dates back to before 1000 BC. Theories such as oxbow, catch-and-hold, concentration, and trap-and cropexplain how the transition from hunting to farming may have occurred along with the advancement of civilization. Along with rearing the aquatic species for nourishment, advanced techniques have led to the enhancement of economic value through the inclusion of pearl oyster farming. India is among the largest producers of fisheries and has become the world’s second largest producer of aquaculture fish. Globally, aquaculture diversity has reached a maximum value of 428 ± 11 species, of which 29 ± 1 will produce 80% of the global annual production. The total global aquaculture production has increased enormously, from 20 million tons in 1992 to more than 120 million tons in 2020. Fisheries and aquaculture have become essential foods providing commodities worldwide and an important means of nourishment for the poor. A temporal and geographical analysis of global aquaculture diversity reveals an original and hopefully enlightening vision of modern aquaculture and its perspectives.

Ruminant, major source of meat and milk for human consumption, whose digestive system has evolved in such a way that it provides an additional advantage of being non-competitive to human food chain. Global warming is real and rising with a pace threatening lives of all flora and fauna on earth. Methane produced by ruminant bacteria predominately by methanogen group of bacteria acting as hydrogen sink cause loss of dietary energy to the animal affecting its potential productivity as well as a major source of global warming. The use of plant secondary metabolites is preferred as a feed additive in ruminant diet to improve fatty acid production by reducing enteric methane. The study was carried out using 10% aqueous and ethanolic extract of Psidiumguajawa leaves powder, citrus fruit peel powder to assess in vitro rumen fermentation parameters. The in vitro trial was conducted by taking different concentrations @ 0.2 ml, 0.5ml, 1ml and 2 ml of plant extracts with substrate media containing rumen fluid. After 6 and 24 hours of incubation, pH, total gas production, ammonia- nitrogen, TVFA and total nitrogen were measured. Bacteroides and methanogenic bacterial profile was done by Real time PCR. The results revealed that the total gas production decreased in plant extract supplemented samples with respect to control. Total nitrogen production increased in aqueous P. guajawa and increase in TVFA was observed in all plant extract supplemented samples. Ammonia- nitrogen production does not vary significantly, indicating no change in NPN degradation due to supplementation of different plant extracts at different concentration. Total bacteroides expression were increased in rumen samples treated with P. guajawa and citrus peel powder, while a decrease in methanogenic bacterial expression was observed in plant extracts supplemented samples as compared to control indicating an improvement in rumen fermentation further enhancing productivity.

1. Use of banana pseudostem in fish pond to enhance productivity of f ish: Pseudostems of banana, after harvesting the bunch, are added to the pond by cutting longitudinally, which increases the pH and oxygenation of pond water. This practice increases the fish yield. As it involves low cost, it is being followed by 80% of the farmers in Bastar village of Balasore district in Odisha.

2. ITKs on Craft and Gear Making / Maintenance (Vipinkumar et al., 2013): The major ITKs of scientific rationale identified in the craft and gear making and maintenance were ‘Sardine oil smearing on craft wood for improving the durability’, ‘Smearing cashew kernel oil on craft wood for durability’. Similarly, the durability of cotton nets was believed to be improved by dipping in banpu bark decoction. In the same way, beating nets with thalampu plant for ensuring strength was another one identified in craft and gear maintenance. The scientific validity assessment indicated that the boats of about 6.5 ft size length and 4.5 ft width require 3.5 to 4 litres of oil of sardine. The oil coasts about Rs 70/- per litre. Three cosequitive coatings followed by natural drying under sun are required for good results. Cashew smearing: The boats of about 6.5 ft size length and 4.5 ft width require 3.5 to 4 litres of cashew nut oil and the oil costs about Rs 40 -50/- per litre. Here also three cosequitive coatings followed by natural drying under sun are required for good results. Smearing Cashew kernel oil on craft wood for durability in Karwar of Karnataka is shown in photograph 1. For improving durability of nets, dipping nets in banpu bark decoction was practiced. The thalambu beating is nowadays not practiced due to the non-availability of those items. Instead, fisherfolk use a powder available in the market especially in the net shops. 1 kg of the colour powder (red/ blue) is required for 1 kg of net. The advantage is that the wastage due to mud coating and dirt can be rectified to a great extent.

Millets are highly nutritious and play a significant role in many people’s diets around the world. They have traditionally been transformed into a range of products through fermentation and malting for centuries. In the era of sustainable development, we still lag in using millets as a primary source of nutrition even after knowing that they are rich in terms of nutrition and other essential elements as compared to cereals. Today we have lots of information regarding different millets; nutrition content, methods of preservation, fermentation, malting, its products etc. Foods made from millet are regarded as potential prebiotics because they can improve the availability or functionality of probiotics, which has major positive effects on health. Foods have been fermented in order to enhance their flavor, texture and palatability. Although fermentation can result in a variety of products, the most prevalent ones are ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas (H2 ). Commercial applications for these materials include use in food, vitamins, medications and industrial chemicals. Additionally, fermentation increases the amount of protein present, improves the accessibility of carbohydrates and reduces antinutritional components like tannin and phytic acid. Even though it has some drawbacks, such as the potential for contamination with dangerous microbes, fermentation technology is proven to enhance the nutritional quality of food products. This chapter covers the millet fermentation technology’s effects on the nutritional composition of the millets, contemporary developments in fermented millet-based products and technological improvements examined in the millet fermentation technology.

3.1 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
i) Define primary data and secondary data and their applications in various contexts;
ii) Identify and briefly explain the various methods used for collecting primary data;
iii) Recognize the significance of secondary data and its advantages and disadvantages;
iv) Create a pie chart, histogram, bar chart, column chart, and line chart using appropriate data sets;
v) Evaluate the advantages and limitations of each data presentation method.

3.2 Introduction

Presently, the role of data has transcended from mere numbers and figures to a powerful driving force behind informed decision-making, efficient problem solving, and insightful analysis. This chapter delves into the crucial aspects of data collection and presentation and it will help in unraveling their significance across a spectrum of professional fields. The chapter will help to explore the fundamental concepts of data collection and its differentiation into primary and secondary categories. We will learn about the methods employed to gather firsthand data and from existing sources. Furthermore, we will delve into the realm of data presentation, understanding how various visualization techniques such as pie charts, histograms, bar and column charts, and line charts transform data into digestible and meaningful representations

Introduction
Agriculture is an age-old income generation activity in India. It plays a vital role in India’s economy. One in every two Indians relies on agriculture for livelihood. Over 58% of the rural households depend on agriculture as their principal means of livelihood. Over the period of time, the contribution of agriculture and allied sector in Gross Domestic Products (GDP) in India has declined to 14.4% in 2018- 19 from 51.8% in 1950-51. At current prices, the contributions of industry and services sector are 31.5%, and 54.1%, respectively as against the contributions of industry and services sector were 15.1% and 33.1%, respectively in 1950-51. This decline in share of agriculture and allied sector is result of the shift from traditional agricultural economy to industry and service sectors, this performance are very meagre if we consider the size of the employment in this sector. Presently, more than 50% of the total workforce of the country is employed in agricultural sector contributing to only 14.4% of GDP. With production of agriculture activity 26of $375.61 billion, India is 2nd larger producer of agriculture product in the world after China which has contribution of $991 billion in agriculture sector. GDP of industry sector is $560.97 billion and world rank is 6th. In services sector, India’s world rank is 8th and GDP is $1500 billion (FAENI, 2018- 19). Interestingly, contribution of agriculture sector in Indian economy is much higher (7.4%) than world’s average (6.4%), while contribution of industry and services sector is lower than world’s average (30% for industry sector and 63% for services sector).

The crop production has been found to make wide use of chemicals with hundreds of newly imported molecules. Unnecessary and excessive use of inorganic chemicals have led to an upsurge in the ecosystem and imbalance of nature. Natural enemies and bees get destroyed with chemical pesticides. Other side effects include resurgence of target pests and outbreak of secondary pests. Moreover, the residues of the pesticides in food products and environment have caused grave health issues. The contamination of pesticides into the fruits causes a quality decrease of the fruits, which is widely reported. The best available solution for sustainable agriculture can be the non-chemical organic/ natural farming that does not permit the usage of inorganic and synthetic chemicals for crop cultivation. Natural farming is the ecology-based production management system promoting and It provides biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. The basic principles of organic/natural farming are materials and practices that enhance the ecological balance of natural systems that integrate parts of the farming system into the ecosystem. The first purpose of natural farming is to improve the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals, and people, that is termed as ‘one health concept’.
Natural farming is a system in which laws of nature are applied to agricultural practices. It has an advantage of natural biodiversity on every area of farmed resources; it also fosters the intricacy of living organisms, plant and animal alike, which would form each specific ecosystem to grow in harmony with food crops. Insects are indeed very mobile and well adapted to farm production systems as well as pest control tactics. Organic/natural farms focus on management, not eradication, of these insects. Thus, success in organic/natural farms depends on learning the biological, ecological, and behavioural information of the insects. The biological information as to what the insect needs to survive can be used to determine if insect pests can be deprived of some vital resource. Ecological information can be used to inform how the insect interacts with the environment and other species. shape an environment resistant to pests.

Introduction
Vegetable crops are highly susceptible to biotic stresses indicated by disease causing micro-organism (fungi, bacteria, virus and phytoplasma). Indiscriminate use of chemicals for the control of diseases, insect pest have
several disadvantages, particularly increased cost of cultivation, residual toxicity in food chain and development of resistance against pathogen. Management of diseases involves use of resistant varieties and integration of cultural and chemical control measures. Of the biotic stresses much of the breeding efforts have been directed towards developing resistance against diseases. In fact, breeding for resistance, has been one of the most important objective of vegetable breeder in the last half of the century. Genes that contribute to pathogen tolerance/resistance can be obtained from local germplasm resources, or through exotic lines, wild species or genera, or lines from other breedingprograms. In the biotechnological approaches for vegetable breeding also,  most of the achievement has been to generate transgenic plants resistance to disease. Often breeding for resistance has assumed greater importance in a number of vegetable crops.
Major Diseases of Tomato
Early blight: The casual organism is Alternaria solani. The symptoms appears as small, black spots with enlarged and concentric rings in a bull’s eye pattern in the center of the leaves. Tissue surrounding the spots may turn yellow. On fruits, dark brown concentric rings are seen that affects the market quality.

Introduction
Preservation by using common salt, spices and vinegar is a common method for the preparation of pickles, sauce and chutneys. Salt is mostly used as a preservative in pickles in combination with acid. Sodium chloride is used in brines and curing solutions or is applied directly to the food. The quantity of salt necessary to inhibit growth or harm the cells varies with the type of microorganisms. However, the minimum concentration of salt to act as a preservative is about 12%. Salt (sodium chloride) exerts its preservative action
by performing the following functions:
? Causing high osmotic pressure resulting in plasmolysis of the microbial cells.
? Dehydrating food by tying up the moisture thus making it unavailabl for the growth of microorganisms.
? Salt lowers the water activity and thus has adverse effects on microorganisms.
? Affecting the solubility of oxygen in the food and thus inhibiting the growth of aerobic microorganisms.
? Salt ionizes to yield chlorine ions, which is harmful to microorganisms.
? Chlorine in sodium chloride is a good oxidizing agent & is, therefore, toxic to microorganisms.
 

As the agricultural sector progresses, brands must implement a cohesive strategy that harmonises developing technologies, adaptive regulations, and a profound comprehension of changing consumer psychology. This chapter examines how the strategic integration of these three factors can augment brand value and foster enduring consumer loyalty. The chapter initiates by delineating the fundamentals of brand development within the agricultural sector, emphasising the essential components of brand identification and the principal economic and psychological factors influencing customer endorsement of agri-brands. It subsequently explores the crucial function of technology, analysing how digital instruments, blockchain, artificial intelligence, and immersive technologies might transform branding tactics and enhance transparency and consumer involvement. The policy frameworks that direct brand creation are equally significant. This chapter examines the influence of regulatory requirements, sustainability initiatives, and intellectual property rights on brand integrity, credibility, and access to global markets. It subsequently examines the economic benefits of technology-driven and policy-compliant branding, including enhanced customer willingness to spend, elevated brand loyalty, and competitive advantages. This chapter emphasises the significance of psychological resonance for sustained brand success, while also exploring the roles of emotional branding, persuasive narrative, and the utilisation of cognitive biases. It ultimately offers techniques for the integration of technology, policies, and psychological involvement into unified brand creation, while also tackling the issues of reconciling innovation with compliance. This thorough chapter provides agricultural companies with case studies and forward-looking insights to effectively manage the changing landscape, yielding both substantial economic benefits and lasting emotional ties with consumers.

Historically, humans have utilized animal skins for various purposes including shelter, clothing, weapons, and food containers. In contemporary times, skins and hides significantly contribute to foreign exchange earnings within the animal husbandry sector and are widely employed by the leather industry. At slaughterhouses, hides and skins are generally collected and dispatched to tanneries on the same day. If a tannery is not in close proximity, hides are preserved through salting or curing prior to being transported in batches.
A skin (the outer covering) from a fully grown large animal is termed a hide; it is comparatively large, thick, and heavy, typically exceeding 30 lb (13.62 kg) for cattle or buffalo. Conversely, the outer covering of smaller animals such as sheep, goats, pigs, and young calves is known as skin. This type is smaller, thinner, and lighter. The term “slunk” refers to the skin of an unborn calf, which is often utilized for parchment, light suede, or drum skins. Calf skin is derived from young calves that have not yet reached maturity, and it is generally softer and more delicate than the hides of older animals. Its fine texture renders it highly sought after for premium leather goods. In contrast, kip skin is obtained from older but still immature calves. It is thicker and more robust than calf skin while being more refined than adult hides. Kip skin is recognized for its blend of durability and softness, making it ideal for longlasting leather products.
Hides and skins constitute approximately 4-11% of an animal’s live weight, influenced by factors such as species, age, breed, and health. In cattle, the average hide yield is about 7% of live weight, whereas in sheep and goats, the average skin yield is around 11% of live weight. Hides and skins rank among the most valuable by-products of animals and are transformed into leather through the tanning process. The trimmings are repurposed for the production of glue, artifacts, or as feed supplements.

Muscle structure
• All muscles are composed of muscle fibres which are the structural unit of muscles
• In turn, every single muscle fibre is made up of numerous smaller components called myofibrils
• Functional unit of myofibril is sarcomere
Connective tissues associated with muscle
• Whole muscle is surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue called epimysium
• Whole muscle is divided into muscle bundles by perimysium formed out of connective tissue septa originating from the interior surface of the epimysium separating the muscle fibres
• The perimysium contains the blood vessels and nerves

Introduction
• The source of contamination of meat plant is largely from the animals entering in the plant
• Severely contaminated hide/skin are the major source of abattoir contamination
• If proper hygiene of employees, equipments and clothing is not followed, then even after skinning 10,000 to 100,000 bacteria/ in2 can be detected
• Blades of knives can carry 80,000 to 40 millions bacterial per blade & hands of meat operative can have 3x109 bacteria/g of scrapings
• The chance of contamination of carcase is greater at the point of incision and minimum at the farthest point from the incision place
‘Scotoma effect’ or ‘factory-blindness’
• Persons working in any factory or abattoir on routine basis slowly and slowly becomes unaware (mentally ‘blind’) about any sub-standard hygiene or cleanliness problem existing in the surrounding
• This effect is known as ‘scotoma’ or ‘factory-blindness’
• Effect can be powerful and the any visitors to that factory or abattoir will instantly notice that sub-standard hygiene or cleanliness problem neglected by the persons working there

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), famous as “Black Gold” and also known the “King of Spices” is the most important agricultural commodities of commerce and trade in India. It is the most important, most popular and most widely used spice in the World. Of the total spices traded internationally, black pepper accounts for 34 per cent. South West India is the traditional home of this important spice, particularly the Malabar Coast. Black pepper is also grown in tropical zones such as the Asia Pacific Region, mainly India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, Vietnam and Cambodia. Outside the Asia Pacific region, the crop is distributed in Brazil, Mexico, Guatemala, etc., totaling about 26 countries. It is grown successfully between 20°N and 20°S latitude and from mean sea level to 1500 meters above sea level. World’s black pepper production varies in the range of 2.7 to 3.35 tonnes annually. The major production share is contributed by Vietnam with an annual production of 80,000 tonnes. About 85 per cent of the World trade of pepper is determined by the largest pepper producing countries in the International Pepper Community (IPC). World export fluctuates around 1.5–2.5 lakhs tonnes per annum. Global black pepper supply has shown a drastic increase over last ten years except in 2008–09. Vietnam’s sudden increase in production has resulted in the massive global out put of 3–3.5 lakhs metric tonnes from 1.9–2.0 lakhs metric tonnes in late nineties. 

Coffee is grown at higher elevation across the Western Ghats between 750 and 1200 m amsl. It requires a certain degree of shade for its better performance.  The annual rainfall over the coffee growing tracts varies between 1400 and 2600mm, having uni/bi-model rainfall with prolonged dryspell from November to May. It is more so over North of the Western Ghats. The mean annual maximum temperature varies between 24 and 300C while the minimum between 15 and 180C. The difference between maximum and minimum temperatures (temperature range) varies between 5 and 160C across the coffee tract. The ‘Monsooned Malabar Coffee’ is a specialty coffee produced from the erstwhile ‘Malabar Region’. It undergoes certain changes in physical and biochemical characters when the coffee beans are processed during the summer monsoon (June to September). It is processed at Mangalore, located in Coastal Karnataka. The processing location experiences heavy rainfall of more than 1000 mm in July, followed by 950 mm in June and 600 mm in August. Out of 3264 mm of annual rainfall, 2852 mm is received during the monsoon period. It accounts more than 80 per cent of annual rainfall. The maximum temperature during the coffee monsooning period varies between 28 and 30°C while night temperature revolves between 22 and 24°C. Being located in the tropics along the West Coast, the crop processing environment in terms of surface air temperature is relatively uniform and moderate with a characteristic feature of heavy clouds and continuous rainfall during the monsoon period. These monsoon features are more predominant from the middle of June to August during which the coffee beans are subjected to monsooning. The coffee beans
bulge in the process of monsooning and the volume increases significantly due to absorption of atmospheric moisture. It is directly related to the monsoonal wind during which coffee beans are processed. The bulging was less in all the samples processed during monsoon 2003, which varied from 2.1 to 2.7 ml/100 number, while it ranged between 2.7 and 5.8 ml/100 number in the samples processed during monsoon 2004.

A) Conventional breeding techniques
Conventional breeding techniques for spices involve various methods to improve traits such as yield, quality, disease resistance, and adaptability. Here’s an overview of conventional breeding techniques applied to specific spices:
1. Black pepper (Piper nigrum)
• Selection: Choose superior plants based on traits like yield, quality of peppercorns, and disease resistance.
• Hybridization: Cross-breed different varieties to combine desirable traits.
• Mutation breeding: Induce mutations to develop new traits or enhance existing ones.
2. Small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)
• Selection: Select plants with high yield, better quality, and disease resistance.
• Hybridization: Cross different varieties to improve traits such as pod size and essential oil content.
• Seed production: Improve seed production and quality through selection.
3. Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum)
• Selection: Identify plants with higher yield and better resistance to pests and diseases.
• Hybridization: Develop hybrids to enhance flavour and size of the cardamom pods.

Abstract
As the agricultural sector progresses, brands must implement a cohesive strategy that harmonises developing technologies, adaptive regulations, and a profound comprehension of changing consumer psychology. This chapter examines how the strategic integration of these three factors can augment brand value and foster enduring consumer loyalty. The chapter initiates by delineating the fundamentals of brand development within the agricultural sector, emphasising the essential components of brand identification and the principal economic and psychological factors influencing customer endorsement of agri-brands. It subsequently explores the crucial function of technology, analysing how digital instruments, blockchain, artificial intelligence, and immersive technologies might transform branding tactics and enhance transparency and consumer involvement. The policy frameworks that direct brand creation are equally significant. This chapter examines the influence of regulatory requirements, sustainability initiatives, and intellectual property rights on brand integrity, credibility, and access to global markets. It subsequently examines the economic benefits of technology-driven and policy-compliant branding, including enhanced customer willingness to spend, elevated brand loyalty, and competitive advantages. This chapter emphasises the significance of psychological resonance for sustained brand success, while also exploring the roles of emotional branding, persuasive narrative, and the utilisation of cognitive biases. It ultimately offers techniques for the integration of technology, policies, and psychological involvement into unified brand creation, while also tackling the issues of reconciling innovation with compliance. This thorough chapter provides agricultural companies with case studies and forward-looking insights to effectively manage the changing landscape, yielding both substantial economic benefits and lasting emotional ties with consumers.
Keywords: Brand development, technological advancement, policy interventions, psychological resonance, developmental procedures.

Abstract
Toxicants, whether naturally occurring or synthetic, present significant threats to aquatic ecosystems, leading to severe ecological damage and health hazards. These pollutants—such as pesticides, heavy metals, microplastics, and pharmaceuticals—contaminate water bodies through various routes, including industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and insufficient wastewater treatment. They interfere with biological processes, causing problems like neurological damage, reproductive issues, and changes in water chemistry. Understanding the processes of bioaccumulation, biomagnification, bioconcentration, bioavailability and detoxification is essential for grasping how these contaminants impact aquatic organisms and human health. The rise of emerging pollutants, like microplastics and pharmaceuticals, adds further complexity, posing new challenges to ecosystem stability. Addressing these issues requires effective management and mitigation strategies, including reducing pollutant sources, improving waste treatment, and utilizing advanced detection techniques. Through research on these toxicants and their interactions, it is possible to better evaluate their effects, craft effective environmental policies, and implement measures to safeguard both aquatic ecosystems and public health.
Keywords: Toxicants, Bioaccumulation, Biomagnification, Bioconcentration, Bioavailability, Detoxification

Respiratory tract disorders in domestic animals
The respiratory system is vital for efficient oxygen exchange, metabolic function, and overall health. Respiratory tract disorders in livestock speciesare among the most significant health challenges, leading to  economic losses in terms of reduced productivity, treatment costs, and mortality. Thesedisorders can affect the upper respiratory tract (URT), lower respiratory tract  (LRT), or both. Overview of common respiratory diseases in livestock, their aetiology, clinical manifestations, pathophysiology, diagnostic approaches, and management strategies are summarized as follows: -
1. Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex (BRDC)
? Species affected: Cattle
? Etiology: Multifactorial; involves viruses (Bovine herpesvirus-1, Bovine respiratory syncytial virus, Parainfluenza-3, Bovine viral diarrhea virus), bacteria (Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Mycoplasma bovis), and environmental stressors

It is a systematic method to solving problems through an examination of policy approaches.
It involves evaluating public policies, including their development, implementation and impacts, to determine their effectiveness in achieving desired outcomes. The process includes identifying relevant issues, assessing potential solutions, weighing the costs and benefits and recommending the most appropriate course of action.
Use of Policy Analysis in Decision-Making
Policy analysis combines qualitative and quantitative methods to assess policies’ implications on economic, social and political factors. It often includes stakeholder analysis, forecasting future scenarios and evaluating policy impacts using tools like cost-benefit analysis, risk assessment and statistical modeling

Weather, while often benign and essential for life, can also manifest in powerful and destructive forms, posing significant threats to human life, property, and the environment. This chapter, “Weather Hazards,” will delve into the detailed nature of these potentially dangerous atmospheric phenomena.
We will explore a range of significant weather hazards, including severe storms such as thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hailstorms, which can bring intense winds, torrential rainfall, and damaging projectiles. We will also examine the characteristics and impacts of tropical cyclones (hurricanes, typhoons), known for their devastating winds, storm surges, and widespread flooding. Furthermore, we will discuss the dangers associated with extreme temperature events, including heat waves, characterized by prolonged periods of excessively hot weather, and cold waves, marked by extended periods of dangerously cold temperatures. We will also cover the challenges posed by heavy snowfall, blizzards, and ice storms.
For each hazard, we will investigate the meteorological conditions that lead to its development, the typical characteristics and intensity scales used to classify it, and the primary impacts it can have on society and the natural world. Understanding the formation, behavior, and potential consequences of these weather hazards is crucial for effective forecasting, issuing timely warnings, and implementing mitigation strategies to enhance safety and resilience.
Join us as we embark on a detailed exploration of the forces of nature that can transform familiar weather into formidable hazards.

Introduction
In the contemporary digital era, Information Technology (IT) has emerged as a pivotal tool in transforming business and governance processes, enabling greater efficiency, transparency, and innovation. The process transformation facilitate by IT is not merely a technical upgrade but a fundamental rethinking of how organizations operate, deliver services, and interact with stakeholders. This transformation affects every facet of an organization, from internal workflows to customer engagement, and extends to how governments interact with citizens. Integrating IT into processes fosters greater flexibility, scalability, and adaptability, allowing organisations to respond swiftly to changing environments and demands.

Polysaccharides comprise several monosaccharide units (more than ten) linked by glycosidic bonds; therefore, they are high molecular weight carbohydrates. They are also called polyanhydrides of simple sugars. The most common monosaccharide unit of polysaccharides is D-glucose. The polysaccharides may differ in their monosaccharide units, molecular weight, chain nature, glycosidic bond types (alpha, beta), and linkages (1-2, 1-3, 1-4, or 1-6). They are tasteless, colorless, amorphous powders that are a little water-soluble. Some may form colloidal solutions. The polysaccharides provide structural stability (structural polysaccharides) to cells, prevent cells and tissues from drying out due to their water-binding properties, and reserve food for the future. Reserved polymeric carbohydrates are osmotically less active and can be stored in large quantities within the cell.
The right and left end of polysaccharides, respectively, are called the reducing and non-reducing ends. Based on the functional aspects, they are grouped in two ways.
• The first way depends on its digestibility—1. Nutrient polysaccharides are (digestible) starch, dextrin, and glycogen, and 2. Structural polysaccharides are (indigestible), chitin and cellulose.
• The second way, depending upon the constituent monosaccharide units, they are 1. Homoglycans (same units), and 2. Heteroglycans (different units).

Trenching and diversion structures are engineering methods employed to control water flow, especially in agricultural fields and construction sites. Trenching involves the creation of narrow and deep excavations, primarily used for laying utilities, drainage systems, or other underground infrastructure. These trenches, often deeper than they are wide, require careful design and adherence to safety protocols to prevent cave-ins and ensure worker safety.
Diversion structures, such as ditches, channels, or small dams, are designed to redirect the flow of water away from vulnerable areas. They help manage surface runoff, reduce erosion, and provide controlled irrigation. In construction settings, these systems protect worksites and foundations from water damage, while in agriculture, they optimize water usage and prevent soil degradation. Together, these techniques play a vital role in water management and land preservation.
PURPOSE AND UTILITY OF TRENCHES
Trenching serves a wide range of purposes in civil engineering and construction projects. It is commonly used for installing essential underground infrastructure such as water pipes, electrical cables, sewage systems, and telephone lines. In residential settings, trenching is frequently employed for tasks like laying irrigation systems, connecting plumbing lines, installing electrical cables, and placing pipes for heating systems.
At the municipal or city level, trenching plays a critical role in establishing and maintaining public utility networks. It enables the installation of extensive drainage systems, sewer pipelines, and city-wide electrical and communication lines. Proper trenching ensures the safe and efficient placement of these utilities while minimizing surface disruption and ensuring long-term functionality

4.1 Agroeconomic Features of Manipur in Brief
Nestled in the North-Eastern region of the India sub-continent, Manipur is a beautiful state located between 23°81’ N to 25°68’N latitude and 93°03’E to 94°75’E longitude an area of 22,327 sq. km. and sharing an international boundary with Myanmar in the East which also lies to its south along with Mizoram. It is bounded by the Cachar District of Assam in the West and to its North lies Nagaland.
Physio-graphically, Manipur is one of the most enchanting place in the country. It can be broadly classified into three well defined geographical region viz. the hilly region, the central plain or the Manipur valley and the Jiribam plain. The hilly region of Manipur covers about 90% of the total land area of the state. It stretches mainly from North to South or North-South parallel folds with an altitude varying altitude of 833m to 3030m above MSL. The Manipur valley is situated in the central part in Manipur covering an area of 1843km2 which account for about 9% of total land area of the state having an oval shaped elevated plain surrounded by hilly on all sides and extended about 58 km from North to South and 31 km from East to West. The central valley has an elevation ranging between 700 m and 800 m above MSL. About 70% of the total population of the state resided in the central plain of Manipur. The whole valley slopes from North to South. The Jiribam plain lies beyond the Manipur Western hill tract covering an area of 1% of the land area. The central valley along with the Jiribam valley situated at a lower altitude of 400 m in the southwest part of the state outside the western hill ranges of Manipur occupies 11.72 percent of the total geographical area of the state. The rest of the state is hilly. Manipur is endowed with a wide range of climatic, physiographic and geological conditions resulting in the formation of different kinds of soils.
4.2 Climate
The impact of terrain diversity, altitudinal variation and river regime has become eloquent in the seasonal variability of climate from one place to another. The Barak basin and lower foothills of Manipur Western hills have

Agricultural professionals continuously confront challenges in preventing pest infestations and managing temperature and moisture levels to protect grains from decay. They recognize the critical importance of safeguarding these valuable resources and rely on quick, dependable solutions to tackle common grain storage issues. Let’s take a closer look at the challenges faced by growers, handlers, transporters, and processors in long-term grain storage, and the strategies they employ to overcome these obstacles.
ABIOTIC FACTORS
There are also abiotic factors, which are non-living elements, that influence the quality of stored grains. Factors such as air, humidity, and temperature play a significant role in grain storage. If these factors are imbalanced in terms of quantity or quality, they can have a detrimental effect on the stored grains.
SPACE CONSTRAINTS
As crop yields continue to rise, farmers face the challenge of finding enough storage space to accommodate the increased harvest. Often, last year’s grain still fills storage bins when the new crop arrives, prompting the agricultural industry to seek innovative storage solutions.
The most straightforward solution to a shortage of storage space is to build additional bins. However, this option is not always feasible for smaller farms or processing facilities with limited budgets. As a result, many choose to repurpose existing barns or store surplus grain outdoors in piles. Unfortunately, this outdoor storage method comes with its own set of challenges, including faster spoilage and pest issues. To counter these problems, some facilities use temporary storage options such as grain bagging systems or outdoor storage tents. Mechanical ventilation systems are also employed to ensure proper aeration, reducing the risk of spoilage before the grain is moved to its final destination.

Introduction
The identification of crop varieties is crucial in improving agricultural productivity, ensuring quality control, and supporting breeding programs. The correct identification helps improve food security, conserve biodiversity, and manage pests and diseases. Traditionally, farmers were relying on visual traits and phenotypic characteristics, but these methods had their own limitations. Modern molecular techniques, such as DNA fingerprinting and genotyping, have revolutionized variety identification, rendering it both more accurate and efficient. This has allowed for early identification of varieties, assisting in the selection of desired traits and enhancement of crop resilience, thus contributing to more sustainable and productive agricultural practices (Azizi et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2024).
Importance of Crop Variety Identification in Agriculture
Crop variety identification remains one of the most important components in agriculture since it can improve crop production, enhance food security, and improve adaptability of the crops to diverse environmental conditions (Hasan et al., 2021). The major aspects related to correct identification of crop varieties include:
• Quality control and standardization: It is often to measure the quality of crops that could meet market demand, for optimum consumption, and for export.
• Biodiversity conservation: This helps to conserve native crop varieties and regards the preservation of genetic diversity that is key for breeding and in future agricultural resilience.
• Breeding program: It allows the identification of a variety for selecting traits such as disease resistance, drought tolerance, and yield potential for improving agricultural productivity through its effectiveness.
• Pest and disease management: It contributes to pest and disease management too since different crop varieties may express varying levels of resistance which also reflects in pest control strategy.
• Market preferences and economic value: This helps the farmers to supply some specific markets depending on the market demand of certain varieties so as to gain a profit (Hussain & Nisar, 2020; Sharma & Singh, 2021; Tazeb et al., 2018; Dheer et al., 2020; Jamali et al., 2019).

Introduction
The identification of agricultural crops with accuracy determines how precision farming works and affects biodiversity protection and food safety standards in addition to pest control practices. In modern agricultural practice, crop species identification relies on the combination of three traditional methods: morphological characteristics and biochemical markers, and remote-sensing technologies. These methods face a large variety of constraints such as environmental differences, high costs, and time-consuming operations. Genome-editing tools, especially CRISPR, a modern molecular identification tool for crops that increases efficiency and accuracy, have largely solved the problems traditional methods faced. Identifying agricultural crops correctly is an essential operation for resource management to be used efficiently in the hope that businesses meet regulatory standards and do their share in stopping trade-related fraudulent activities with incorrect labeling. The early and exact identification process helps pest and disease control because different crop species need different levels of resistance management (Rahayu et al., 2025). A reliable identification methodology remains important because sustainable agricultural practices and climate-ready crop varieties reach higher popularity in current times. The identification method based on morphological classification takes too much time and gets misdirected because of environmental conditions (Mascellino et al., 2024). High-resolution satellite data together with advanced computational tools needed for remote sensing-based identification cannot easily be accessed by small-scale farmers (Sharma et al., 2024).
The high specific identification of crop species becomes achievable through CRISPR-based technology which utilizes genetic markers as its primary feature. CRISPR enables fast and exact and affordable crop classification through its ability to detect and analyze specific genetic patterns. The accuracy of crop identification improves while real-time evaluation of plant diversity alongside disease. Alert traits becomes achievable through this method (Kanapiya et al., 2024). CRISPR-based biosensors have experienced recent advancements that enabled portable field-deployable identification tools which eliminate the need for complex laboratory setups (Lagener et al., 2025). Crop monitoring and breeding programs will undergo revolution through CRISPR technology integration in agricultural systems which will support the creation of climate-adaptive highyield crop varieties.
The evolution of CRISPR application research demonstrates its expanding function in farming efficiency together with food security establishment. The chapter explores CRISPR-based methods’ identification potential for crops using an evaluation of their superiority over conventional identification techniques and their expected contributions to future agricultural developments

1. Introduction
Soil salinity is a global threat which affects crop production and poses challenges to sustainable development in various regions worldwide. Worldwide, salinity and sodicity impact 20% of cultivated land and 33% of irrigated land, respectively (Kumar and Sharma, 2020). Global map of salt–affected soil (SAS) indicated that 0.424 billion hectares of upper soil layer (0–0.3 m) and 0.833 billion hectares of subsoil layer (0.30–1 m) are salt-affected (FAO, 2021) and by 2050, salinization will degrade 50% of agricultural land (Wang et al., 2003). In India, SAS currently occupy 2.1% of total geographical area. Among the SAS, 2.96 million ha is saline and 3.77 million ha is sodic (Narjary et al., 2024). Due to salinity and sodicity, yearly 16.8 million megagram of agricultural produce are wasted in India, costing of ? 230.2 billion (Sharma et al., 2015).
Salt–affected soils are a significant concern in several regions of India. These soils contain high level of sodium salts (NaCl, Na2SO4, NaHCO3, Na2CO3) which adversely affect soil fertility and crop productivity. Here are some areas in India known to have salt–affected soils:
1. Indo–Gangetic Plain: The Indo–Gangetic Plain, spanning across states like Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and parts of West Bengal, is prone to salinity issues. Over–irrigation, poor drainage, the presence of salt containing parent materials in the lithology and use of saline irrigation have contributed to soil salinity.
2. Coastal Regions: Coastal regions in India, such as parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karela, Odisha and Andaman and Nicobar Islands experience salinity problems due to sea water intrusion and the presence of coastal saline soils. These soils are affected by high levels of sodium chloride and other salts, making them unsuitable for cultivation of most arable crops.
3. Arid and Semi–Arid Regions: Arid and semi–arid regions, including areas in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Madhya Pradesh, face the risk of soil salinization due to low rainfall, high evaporation rates, and poor– quality irrigation water. Waterlogging in these regions can also lead to soil salinization.
4. Irrigation Command Areas: Certain irrigation command areas in different states, including Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, have witnessed salinity problems as a result of improper water management, excessive irrigation, and inadequate drainage infrastructure.

Introduction
It has been universally acknowledged that breeding for hybrids is the most effective conventional plant breeding technique. When two genetically distinct parent lines typically inbred lines are crossed, the resultant progeny is referred as a hybrid. It has been demonstrated that hybrids are larger, more productive, and hardier than their parental lineages. When we talk about hybrids, it is also imperative to understand two other related jargons: heterosis and hybrid vigour. The word “heterosis” was first coined in 1914 by Gottingen to refer the hybridization process in which two homozygous individuals (inbreds) are crossed to produce a hybrid. Darwin first used the phrase “hybrid vigour” in 1876 to denote the superiority of the F1 offspring produced by heterosis (i.e., the hybrids show superior performance with increased characteristics when compared with the two parental lines).
In general, the goal of plant breeding is to create better crop varieties by utilizing genetic variation found in the germplasm of the given plant species. Traditionally, two genetically different accessions of the given crop were selected and crossed to produce a hybrid. The genotype of this hybrid is the outcome of the fusion of the male and female gametes, those produced a zygote, from which the progeny eventually emerged. It would be appropriate to recollect the point that a plant’s life cycle consists of a gametophytic generation that produces gametes. Therefore, the genotypes of the gametophytes reflect the genetic diversity of the gametes.
Gametophytes are derived from spores, which are created via sporophytic reproduction during the course of the plant’s life cycle. Meiosis is a specialized kind of cell division that produces spores from differentiated cells that are located in the reproductive organs of plants. Two important processes (viz., recombination and chromosomal segregation) occur during meiosis and this results into independent assortment and creation of novel combinations of the genetic components of a diploid genome into a haploid genome of the gametophytes. Consequently, the genotype of a progeny is made up of the genotypes of the male and the female gametes that merged to create a new sporophyte. Therefore, meiosis can be viewed as a crucial stage in the life cycle of a plant and is responsible for generating genetic diversity. To generate desired plants with novel traits, this diversity or variability is frequently employed. In many cases, a hybrid plant outperforms a homozygous (parental) plant because it combines the best traits of the two parents. However, the creation of such hybrids is quite difficult. In order to evaluate the combining ability of hybrids, multiple putative parental lines are first produced at homozygous conditions by employing several generations of inbreeding and selection. The best pairs are then kept, and the corresponding parental lines produce a vigorous hybrid. Although hybrids were originally generated in maize during the 1930s, they are now employed in a wide variety of economically important plant species because they significantly surpass their parental inbreds. The main reason quoted for the wide-spread application of hybridization in breeding programs is because of the reason that hybrid seeds are easier and faster to growing homogenous plants

Accurate estimation of embryonic/foetal age play vital role in the developmental anatomy research related to morphogenesis and histogenesis of an organ or system. The observations and recordings of normal developmental features of embryos/ foetuses at successive stages of gestationare very important for studying functional development of an organ in anatomical research. The documentation of normal embryonic and fetal growth can serve as a guide for understanding the consequences of harmful influences at various stages of gestation (Evans and Sack, 1973). Post-mortem studies have provided valuable information on fetal development, identifying stages such as implantation, appearance of forelimb bud, tail development and hind limb development (Alberto et al., 2013). The normal development of external features of animals has been described by Evans and sack (1973), however, subjective assessment of foetal age from the external features alone is not much reliable, although it may be useful adjunct to more precise measurements (Richardson et al., 1990). For accurate estimation of developmental age, fetal measurements are needed which show a consistently rapid rate of growth and which are least variable at a given age (Richardson et al., 1990), however, these parameters are affected by individual variation and by breed differences within a species (Greenwood et al., 2005).
A number of methods have been discussed by many workers for estimation of age of foetus in animals. The method mainly focus on foetal biometry recorded either inside uterus during normal gestation process or after taking out foetus during post-mortem examination. In-utero foetal biometry allows estimating gestational age and time of parturition by ultrasonographic methods (Manning

Introduction
Plant protection is a critical component of modern agriculture, aimed at safeguarding crops from diseases, pests, and weeds that can significantly impact yield and quality. Chapter 10 explores the science of plant protection, focusing on the various disciplines that contribute to maintaining healthy crops and ensuring food security. The chapter begins with an overview of plant pathology, the study of plant diseases caused by pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes. Key principles of plant pathology are discussed, including the nature of plant diseases, their modes of transmission, and the factors that influence disease development. This section also highlights the importance of accurate disease diagnosis, which is essential for implementing effective prevention and control measures. Entomology, the study of insects and their interactions with plants, is another crucial aspect of plant protection covered in this chapter. The principles of entomology are examined, with a focus on the identification and management of insect pests that threaten crops. Various pest management strategies, including biological, chemical, and cultural methods, are explored, emphasizing the need for a holistic approach to pest control. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a central theme in plant protection, combining multiple strategies to manage pests in an environmentally sustainable manner. The chapter discusses the advantages of IPM, such as reduced reliance on chemical pesticides and minimized environmental impact, as well as the challenges associated with its implementation. Integrated Disease and Pest Management (IDPM) is also introduced, which integrates plant pathology and entomology principles to develop comprehensive management strategies that address both diseases and pests. The chapter further explores the role of pesticides in plant protection, including their benefits and potential risks. Safety measures for pesticide use are emphasized to protect both human health and the environment. Integrated Weed Management (IWM) is also discussed as an essential component of plant protection, with strategies for managing weeds that compete with crops for resources. The importance of plant protection sciences in food security is highlighted, particularly in the context of pest management, disease control, and weed management. These disciplines contribute to sustainable agriculture by enhancing crop yield and quality while promoting environmental sustainability.

Introduction 
The evolution of governance reforms in India must be situated within the broader global and domestic transitions in public administration. Inheriting its foundational structures from British colonial rule, India retained key institutional frameworks post-Independence in 1947, including the Parliament, Executive, Judiciary, and systems of law and order and revenue administration. Although these institutions provided a degree of continuity and stability, they gradually became mired in procedural rigidity, excessive centralization, and legal formalism. Mathur (2013) notes that the performance of the three core organs of governance, the legislature, executive, and judiciary, has drawn increasing public concern, particularly in their responsiveness to the rising aspirations of Indian citizens. In the early decades post-independence, India adopted a centralized, commandand- control model of economic and administrative governance. State officials wielded considerable discretion over the allocation of licenses, quotas, and permits, while the private sector remained underdeveloped and tightly regulated. This framework, while aligned with the nation-building ethos of the time, ultimately led to inefficiencies, corruption, and citizen disenchantment. The 1990s marked a watershed moment in India’s governance trajectory. With a balance-of-payments crisis and external pressures from international financial institutions such as the IMF and World Bank, India adopted neoliberal economic reforms centered on liberalization, privatization, and globalization (Ramesh Singh, 2013). These reforms fundamentally altered the state’s role from a direct provider of goods and services to a facilitator and regulator. A new governance discourse emerged, emphasizing accountability, transparency, efficiency, and citizen participation. This also marked the diffusion of New Public Management (NPM) ideas, which advocated for performance-based administration, managerial autonomy, and partnership with non-state actors. Simultaneously, the Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002–2007) explicitly identified governance as a key determinant of development outcomes, underscoring that economic growth could not be sustained without reforming the institutions

Introduction 
The transformation of governance through digital means represents one of the most consequential shifts in contemporary public administration. Digital governance or e-governance entails strategically applying information and communication technologies (ICTs) to enhance the accessibility, efficiency, transparency, and responsiveness of government functions and public service delivery. In India, this digital shift has accelerated over the past two decades, driven by imperatives to modernise the state apparatus, promote inclusive development, and meet the rising expectations of a digitally literate citizenry. A complex interplay of demographic diversity, federal administrative structures, and asymmetries in socio-economic development shapes India’s trajectory toward digital governance. The proliferation of mobile devices, growth in internet penetration, and public investments in digital infrastructure have enabled a gradual shift from paper-based systems to platform-based governance. Concurrently, global paradigms such as open government, digital inclusion, and citizen-centric innovation, captured in international indices like the UN E-Government Development Index and the World Bank’s GovTech Maturity Index, have influenced national aspirations and strategy formulation. However, these technological and global catalysts can only be transformative when embedded within a coherent legal and policy framework that ensures institutional legitimacy, citizen trust, and systemic accountability. In this regard, digital governance’s legal and policy foundations are critical for establishing enabling conditions for its practical and equitable implementation. As highlighted by Sachdeva (2002), the transition to digital modes of governance requires not only the removal of outdated regulatory provisions but also enacting new laws on digital authentication, electronic records, data protection, cybercrime, and privacy. Additionally, procedural simplification through single-window systems, interoperability standards, and e-payment protocols is essential to reduce administrative friction and promote

Introduction 
Digital governance in India has made remarkable strides over the past two decades, transitioning from isolated digitisation projects to an integrated, citizen-centric governance ecosystem. Enabled by policy reforms, technological innovation, and infrastructural development, digital governance has become a cornerstone of the country’s public service delivery, transparency, and accountability. However, the ambitious expansion of digital governance has also encountered systemic and structural challenges that continue to hinder its full realisation. These challenges are not merely technological but are deeply embedded in socio-political, administrative, and economic contexts that define the Indian public administration landscape. While the progress has been notable, the sustainability and inclusiveness of digital governance remain contingent on the country’s ability to address these entrenched constraints. Despite substantial advances, several persistent challenges threaten the transformative potential of digital governance in India. Chief among them is the digital divide across rural-urban, gender, economic, and social lines, which inhibits equitable access to digital services. According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019–21), internet usage in rural areas remains alarmingly low, with only 33% of women and 57% of men reporting regular access. Infrastructural constraints, human resource limitations, weak system interoperability, cyber-security threats, and concerns about data protection and digital rights compound these disparities. The post-2015 period has witnessed transformative initiatives under the Digital India Programme, including the proliferation of platforms such as Aadhaar, DigiLocker, Unified Payments Interface (UPI), and MyGov, among others (MeitY, 2022). While these developments have significantly enhanced service accessibility and administrative efficiency, they have simultaneously revealed critical gaps in digital infrastructure, policy coherence, data governance, and institutional capacities. For instance, the rural-urban digital divide, disparities

Early Warning Systems (EWS) have evolved from simple, rudimentary alert mechanisms into complex, multi-hazard, data-driven networks that play a critical role in disaster risk management and climate adaptation. In today’s rapidly changing climate, timely and accurate information is essential not only for saving lives but also for protecting livelihoods, reducing economic losses, and enhancing community resilience. The application of EWS varies significantly by region, geography, type of disaster, and across diverse sectors such as agriculture, aquaculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, fisheries, and allied sciences. Global initiatives - led by organizations such as the United Nations - aim to ensure that every person, particularly the most vulnerable, is equipped with lifesaving early warnings by 2027 (Fig.11.1). Complementary partnerships, such as that between the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), further strengthen these systems by integrating cutting edge forecasting with actionable advisories for critical sectors. A particularly groundbreaking effort is the United Nations’ Early Warnings for All (EW4ALL) initiative, launched in 2022 by UN Secretary General António Guterres, which seeks to provide comprehensive early warning coverage for hazardous weather, water, and climate events to every person on Earth. Underpinning these global efforts is Weather Intelligence - a transformative approach that harnesses advanced data analytics, real time monitoring, and machine learning techniques to refine forecasts and deliver precise, context specific alerts. By integrating diverse data streams and tailoring

Introduction
Work study is a quantification method employed for examining a man’s job in an institution. It encompasses two techniques- they are method study and work measurement. With expansion in size along with complexity of organizations it is becoming very difficult to manage the affairs of a company. There is no quantification technique to compute the efficacy of the human work force. A manager can construct good plans about the requirement of goods and services only when he can predict the amount and type of human work force is essential. It is a very common execution from ages in the organizations but these are not providing the satisfactory results. So in order to attain the predicted results efficiently along with standards, organizations started employing work measurement techniques. Fig. 3.1: Work measurement
Meaning
Work measurement denotes quantity of time required for accomplishing a job without comprising in quality the minimum time needed for executing a task is termed as standard or allowed time. So work measurement aids individuals or corporations to enhance their achievement effectively by good plan and execution. It is very essential to employ these techniques because time is a scarce resource. Work study is investigating the human work with respect to physical, physiological, psychological and economical aspects. It investigates the factors affecting the work and workers efficacy and economy to provide necessary suggestions.

For nations where agriculture is intrinsically linked to the rhythms of the monsoon, the need for effective climate guidance and resilient farming practices is particularly acute. The preceding chapters have likely underscored the profound impact of climate variability, especially the unpredictable nature of monsoon patterns, on agricultural productivity and the livelihoods of millions. This chapter turns its attention to the essential infrastructure development and enabling policy frameworks required to empower farmers in monsoon-dependent countries to navigate the uncertainties of their climate and build lasting prosperity. Given the unique challenges and opportunities presented by monsoon climates, this chapter will specifically explore the development of infrastructure that supports climate-resilient agriculture in these regions. This includes a focused examination of:
• Specialized Weather Observation and Forecasting Infrastructure for Monsoon Monitoring: Emphasizing the need for advanced systems dedicated to accurately monitoring monsoon onset, intensity, spatial distribution, and predicting extreme events like heavy rainfall and prolonged dry spells, which are critical for timely agricultural decisions.
• Communication and Dissemination Infrastructure Tailored for Monsoon-Related Risks: Focusing on effective and accessible channels to deliver critical monsoon forecasts, advisories on managing water excesses and deficits, and information on appropriate cropping strategies during and between monsoon seasons, reaching even remote agricultural communities.
• Infrastructure for Enhanced Water Management in a Monsoon Context: Addressing the dual challenges of managing excess water during intense monsoon periods (including flood mitigation and drainage systems) and ensuring water availability during dry spells through efficient irrigation, water harvesting, and groundwater management infrastructure.
• Data Management and Analysis Focused on Monsoon-Driven Agricultural Systems: Highlighting the importance of analyzing historical and real-time data related to monsoon patterns and their impact on specific crops and regions to generate localized and timely agricultural guidance.
The chapter will also critically analyze the enabling policies necessary to support climate-resilient agriculture within the specific context of monsoondependent nations. This will involve exploring:

The pursuit of a dependable and abundant harvest stands as the cornerstone of sustainable agriculture. However, this pursuit is increasingly challenged by the growing complexities and uncertainties of our changing climate. Chapter 9, “Harnessing Climate Intelligence for Assured Harvest,” delves into the critical role of climate analysis in navigating these challenges and securing predictable yields. This chapter outlines a strategic approach to achieving “assured harvest” by effectively leveraging “climate intelligence.” This intelligence encompasses a deep understanding of historical climate patterns, real-time weather monitoring, and future climate projections. By strategically analyzing this wealth of information, we can move beyond reactive measures towards proactive and informed decisionmaking across the agricultural lifecycle. Our strategy to harness climate intelligence for assured harvest will focus on several key pillars:
• Deciphering Climate Variability and Change: We will explore the nuances of both short-term weather fluctuations and long-term climate trends, identifying their specific impacts on crop growth, development, and potential losses. This involves understanding critical parameters like temperature, rainfall, humidity, solar radiation, and the frequency of extreme weather events relevant to specific crops and geographical regions.
• Assessing Climate-Related Risks: A crucial element of this strategy involves identifying and quantifying the risks posed by climate variability and change. This includes analyzing the probability and potential severity of events like droughts, floods, heatwaves, cold spells, and shifts in pest and disease patterns.
• Developing Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices: Armed with a robust understanding of climate risks, this chapter will explore a range of climatesmart agricultural practices designed to mitigate these risks and enhance resilience. This encompasses strategies related to crop selection, optimized planting and harvesting schedules, water management, soil health improvement, and integrated pest and disease management.
• Leveraging Technological Advancements: The power of climate intelligence is amplified by advancements in technology. We will examine the role of remote sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), precision agriculture tools, and sophisticated weather forecasting systems

Introduction 
The preceding chapters have firmly established the conceptual foundations of the systems approach and introduced the diverse world of crop models, highlighting their intricate mechanisms and their transformative potential for agroadvisory. However, even the most elegantly formulated and sophisticated crop model is ultimately a framework; its predictive power and reliability are inherently tethered to the quality and availability of the information it receives. As the adage in data science goes, Garbage in, garbage out– a truth that resonates profoundly within the realm of agricultural system simulation. The chapter shifts focus from the theoretical constructs of models to the vital practical considerations of data requirements. This chapter will delve into the indispensable role that accurate, comprehensive, and well-structured data plays in every stage of crop modeling, from initial parameterization and rigorous calibration to robust validation and reliable application. Without the right data, even a theoretically perfect model cannot accurately mimic the complex dynamics of the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum or provide trustworthy insights for agricultural decision-making. This chapter will systematically unpack the various categories of data essential for crop modeling. It will meticulously detail the specific characteristics and sources of weather data, which serve as the primary atmospheric drivers. It will then explore the crucial properties and measurement techniques for soil data, underpinning the understanding of water and nutrient availability. The discussion will extend to crop genetic and physiological data, which define the inherent capabilities and responses of specific plant varieties. Furthermore, the chapter will cover management data, illustrating how human interventions are integrated into the modeling framework. Beyond merely listing data types, this section will critically examine the challenges associated with data acquisition, including issues of quality, resolution, consistency, and spatial representativeness.

Introduction 
The fundamental goal of agriculture is to harness the earth‘s resources to produce food, feed, fiber, and fuel to sustain a growing global population. At the heart of this endeavor lies the concept of crop production, a complex interplay of genetic potential, environmental factors, and human management. This chapter, Potential and Achievable Crop Production, delves into the crucial distinction between what a crop can produce under ideal circumstances and what it actually produces in the farmer‘s field. Understanding this dichotomy is paramount for addressing global food security challenges, optimizing resource utilization, and developing sustainable agricultural practices. We will begin by exploring the theoretical maximum yield, often termed "potential production," which represents the inherent capacity of a crop variety to produce biomass and yield when all limiting factors are eliminated. This potential is primarily dictated by a crop‘s genetic makeup and the prevailing climatic conditions, such as solar radiation, temperature, and carbon dioxide concentration. Subsequently, we will shift our focus to achievable production, the real-world yield obtained by farmers. This actual yield invariably falls short of the potential due to a myriad of biotic (pests, diseases, weeds), abiotic (water scarcity, nutrient deficiencies, extreme temperatures, poor soil health), and socio-economic (lack of access to inputs, knowledge, or markets) constraints. The disparity between potential and achievable yield, known as the "yield gap," represents a significant opportunity for enhancing agricultural output without necessarily expanding cultivated land. By meticulously examining the factors that contribute to this gap, we can identify targeted interventions and innovative strategies to bridge it, thereby moving closer to realizing the full productive capacity of our agricultural systems. This chapter will therefore provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the science behind crop yields and the practical approaches required to optimize them for a more food-secure future.

9.1 Introduction
In continuation to a comprehensive presentation of the fusion welding techniques in Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8, this chapter presents advanced welding/ joining techniques, which are as listed below.
i. Cold metal transfer
ii. Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM)
iii. Thermal spraying
iv. Thermit welding
v. Ultrasonic welding
vi. Friction welding
vii. Diffusion bonding
viii. Soldering
ix. Brazing
x. Adhesive bonding
9.2 Cold Metal Transfer
A subset of gas metal arc welding is called Cold Metal Transfer (CMT). When it detects a short circuit, it reduces the weld current and retracts the weld wire, which causes a drop-by-drop deposit of weld material. The cold metal transfer was designed for thin materials and necessitates tight weld parameter control. Cold Metal Transfer combines a cutting-edge wire feed technology with high-speed digital management to create a regulated manner of material deposition with little heat input. In order to achieve enough energy to melt a tip of filler wire as well as the base material, the wire feed rate and cycle arcing phase are regulated. The cold metal transfer process has two primary features, viz. the occurrence of a short circuit in a stable and controlled manner, and the point of short circuit with low current correlating to a low heat input