eChapters

India’s indigenous poultry breeds play a crucial role in rural livelihoods, providing a sustainable source of nutrition and income. These native breeds are well-adapted to the local environmental conditions, demonstrating remarkable resilience and disease resistance. Despite their lower production potential compared to commercial breeds, their economic value and cultural significance make them indispensable in the rural context.

Indigenous Fowls of India

• India has a population of 217.80 million indigenous (Desi) chickens, representing 25.57% of the total poultry population (851.81 million) in India (BAHS, 2023, GOI).

• A total of 20 indigenous chicken breeds, 3 duck breeds, and 1 geese breed have been registered under the ICAR-National Bureau of Animal Genetics Resources (NBAGR) to date (Table 4.1 & 4.2).

• Indigenous fowls are typically reared under a backyard system, often referred to as “backyard poultry,” with minimal focus on housing and feeding.

Scientific name: Pelargonium graveolens L. Herit
Family: Geraniaceae
Geranium, scientifically known as Pelargonium graveolens L. Herit, belongs to the Geraniaceae family. This aromatic plant is highly valued for its essential oil, which boasts an intense rose-like fragrance. Geraniol and citronellol are the primary constituents of this oil. There are approximately 600 species within the genus Pelargonium, many of which possess a pleasant odor, although only a few have attained commercial significance.
Types of Geranium
There are two primary types of geranium: Algerian or Tunisian Type: Characterized by slender, erect plants with dark pink flowers. This variety contains 0.3% oil, with 57% 1-citronellol. It is commonly grown in the Nilgiris and is unsuitable for wet conditions. Reunion or Bourbon Type: Produces more bushy growth with light-pink flowers. The oil has a higher 1-citronellol content (59.4%). This variety is grown in the Nilgiris and Anamalais and is more suitable for wet conditions.

Bacteroides spp are non-spore forming gram-negative bacilli that are part of the human resident flora. Microbiologically, they are distinguished from other genera by growth in 20% bile. At present, the Bacteroides fragilis group consists of ten species: B. fragilis (the most frequent isolate), B. distasonis, B. thetaiotaomicron, B. vulgatus, B. ovatus, B. eggerrthii, B. merdae, B. stercoris, B. uniformis, and B. caccae. Since 1990, many organisms previously designated as Bacteroides have been reclassified (see chapter on Anaerobes other than Bacteroides). Bacteroides, the predominant genus in the human
intestine, are important in numerous metabolic activities and may provide some level of protection from invasive pathogens. All 10 species are usually isolated from the colon, although infections caused by or associated with them can include virtually any organ.
Characteristics
The gram-negative Bacteroides spp. or closely related genera are capsulated obligatory anaerobic bacilli that are non-spore forming, pale-staining, and some are motile by peritrichous flagella, while other taxa are non-motile. Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, Odoribacter are generally bile resistant, distinguished from genera which are bile sensitive. They are normally commensal, found in the
intestinal tract of humans (mouth, colon, urogenital tract) and other animals. Many cultures of Bacteroides strains display brown to black pigmentation on blood agar media caused by esculin hydrolysis.
Morphology
In general, all strains were stained poorly with safranin, but well with dilute carbolfuchsin. Motility was not observed in any strains. The morphology of Bacteroides fragilis in fresh cultures and in pus is not
especially characteristic. In this form, the bacillus measures 0.5 by 2.0 to 2.5 micra. Older cultures tend to develop larger forms (0.6 to 0.8 by 2.0 to 9.0 micra) but even in this state the organism cannot be distinguished from aerobic Gram-negative bacilli, by its morphology.

India’s rural economy plays a vital role in the overall development of the country, with a significant portion of the population dependent on agriculture and allied sectors for their livelihood. Despite the structural changes in
the Indian economy over the past decades, agriculture continues to be the primary source of income for a majority of rural households. However, the income levels of farmers and rural people vary widely due to factors such as landholding size, access to resources, market linkages, climatic conditions, education, and government support systems.
The average monthly income of agricultural households in India has been a matter of concern and active policy intervention. According to reports from the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) and other government bodies, many small and marginal farmers earn less than what is required for a sustainable  livelihood. This income typically comes from multiple sources, including crop production, livestock rearing, wages, and non-farm activities. Yet, the increasing input costs, fluctuating market prices, and the vulnerability to climatic shocks make farming a risky and often unremunerative occupation. To address these challenges, various initiatives have been undertaken by the Government of India, such as the Doubling Farmers’ Income (DFI) strategy, minimum support prices (MSP), crop insurance schemes like PMFBY (Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana), rural employment guarantee schemes like MGNREGS, and efforts to promote farmer producer organizations (FPOs).

Introduction 
Nestled in the heart of Karnataka, Tumakuru District is renowned for its verdant landscapes dotted with vast expanses of coconut and areca nut plantations. The region’s unique climatic conditions, characterized by a harmonious blend of sunshine and seasonal rains, create an ideal environment for the growth of coconut palms, which have become a staple of both the local economy and the cultural fabric of the community. Historically, coconut trees have not only provided sustenance but have also played a pivotal role in the livelihoods of many families in Tumakuru. The fruit is a key ingredient in various local dishes and is widely utilized in traditional ceremonies and celebrations. However, the task of harvesting coconuts from these towering trees has long been a physically demanding endeavour. Traditionally, skilled climbers would ascend the tall, slender trunks, utilizing their agility and experience to pluck coconuts by hand. This craft, which once flourished, has now seen a decline, making it increasingly challenging for coconut planters to find professionals who can perform this labour-intensive task. The decline in manpower has made it evident that traditional methods are no longer sustainable. If coconut farmers wish to keep pace with growing market demands, a new approach is necessary one that balances traditional harvesting practices with modern technology. Recognizing this need, innovative minds have introduced the “Coconut Tree Climber”, a mechanized device specifically designed to address the challenges faced by coconut planters. The Coconut Tree Climber is a user-friendly and efficient device that significantly simplifies the process of climbing and harvesting. Built with a strong and adjustable mechanism, the device allows a person to securely climb tall coconut trees with minimal physical effort. More importantly, it drastically reduces the risk of accidents, ensuring the safety of the user. Unlike traditional methods that rely solely on human strength, the device takes advantage of mechanical power, enabling planters to harvest coconuts faster, safer, and more efficiently. This innovation has proven to be a game-changer in the coconut farming industry. Not only does it empower farmers to become self-reliant, but it also minimizes their dependence on skilled climbers. Additionally, the device can be operated by individuals of varying ages and physical strength, making it accessible to a broader range of people. This, in turn, provides new employment opportunities for those who may not have had the physical ability or training to climb trees in the past.

The Late Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam is described as a great patriot, visionary leader and the 11th President of India ( 2002 – 2007 ). The country would have celebrated his 84th birth day on 15th October 2015. To many like me, he was the most ideal role model that the youth of India needed, in recent time. He emerged as a complete human-being who touched the lives of people.

My first meeting with him was when he visited IPCL in eighties - as the DRDO Chief to discuss about Carbon Fiber and Composites. I was heading GSFC’s R&D Centre and other facilities like engineering plastic Nylon – 6 and their Composites and hence was invited to join the discussions. That interaction left a strong impression in my mind. Later when I became Vice Chancellor of Gujarat Agricultural University, I had many more opportunities to meet him and was often surprised at his deep rooted interest and knowledge in every sphere of Science & Technology. Subsequently, to my delight, I received an invitation from his office on the eve of 26th January evening - at home with the President and later was given more time for a one-to-one meeting the next day. Walking across the corridors of the Rashtrapathi Bhavan, the atmosphere looked rather formal and uneasy for me, but, as I was ushered into his room, I saw Dr. Kalam wearing his favourite blue shirt and smiling. He moved forward and greeted me with the same friendliness and warmth. As we started talking about Agriculture scenario, the work I was planning and the future prospects, I marveled at his understanding and insight and left the room truly inspired. 

Abstract

A field experiment was conducted at Mechanized Commercial Farm, College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh (Gujarat) during the Kharif-Rabi seasons of 2006, 2007 and 2008 to study the effect of tillage practices on yield of rainfed castor (Ricinus communis). The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with four replications. The six treatments comprised viz., T_1- Conventional tillage (Cultivator + blade harrowing), T_2-Ploughing followed by cultivator and blade harrowing, T_3-Tillage through rotavator, T_4-Furrow opening through sub-soiling, T_5-Furrow opening through V-notch cultivator and T_6-Zero tillage (pre and post emergence herbicides + 2 hand weeding). Among the different treatments, the different growth and yield attributing parameters viz., plant height, number of spikes per plant, length of main spike, number of capsules per spike and test weight, seed and stalk yields, higher gross and net returns were recorded when field was prepared by ploughing followed by cultivator and blade harrowing. It also improved soil moisture content which was closely followed by tillage through rotavator (T₃) and furrow opening through sub-soiling (T₄).

A Scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that images a sample by scanning it with a high-energy beam of electrons in a raster scan pattern. The electrons interact with the atoms that make up the sample producing signals that contain information about the sample’s surface topography, composition, and other properties such as electrical conductivity.

The types of signals produced by an SEM include secondary electrons, back-scattered electrons (BSE), characteristic X-rays, light (cathodoluminescence), specimen current and transmitted electrons. Secondary electron detectors are common in all SEMs, but it is rare that a singlemachine would havedetectors for allpossiblesignals. The signals result from interactions of the electron beam with atoms at or near the surface of the sample. In the most common or standard detection mode, secondary electron imaging or SEI, the SEM can produce very high-resolution images of a sample surface, revealing details less than 1 nm in size. Due to the very narrow electron beam, SEM micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three dimensional appearance useful for understanding the surface structure of a sample.

Introduction

Organic seeds are produced by purchasing conventional non-treated seeds and growing them on organic plot / farm for one season without the use of any synthetic chemical. The seeds harvested are then sold on to organic farmers as organic seeds.

Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Runoff can carry pesticides into aquatic environments while wind can carry them to other fields, grazing areas, human settlements and undeveloped areas, potentially affecting other species. Other problems emerge from poor production, transport and storage practices.

Production of organic seeds without the use of pesticides like herbicides (weeds), insecticides (insects), fungicides (fungi), nematocides (nematodes), and rodenticides (vertebrate poisons) is a matter of skill and expertise. For this purpose, the seeds used for planting, the soil where they are planted, the water used for irrigation and even the air, need to be kept free of pesticides in order to prevent their contamination.

Seed

In natural condition primary soil particles cohere to each other to form a cluster or an aggregate through the cementing action of various agents like organic matter, oxides of iron and aluminium, carbonates, etc. Aggregate analysis tells one about the structural status, pore geometry which in turn influences the movement of air and water in soil, amount of water stable secondary particles (aggregate) as well as the extent of finer particles aggregated to the coarser particles and the erodibility status of surface soil against wind and water.

Methods of Analysis

Among the several methods of aggregate analysis the commonly used methods practiced in agriculture and related fields are wet sieving and dry sieving method of aggregate analysis.

Introduction

India is well-known around the world for its rapid economic growth rates over the last fifteen years or so, fuelled in part by the spectacular growth in its export- oriented software and ICT-based services sector. Many other countries look to India as a model for global outsourcing and try to imitate elements of this in their own strategies (Carmel 2003; Heeks and Nicholson 2004). Success at a particular period of time does not, of course, guarantee its continuation and commentators have expressed concerns such as rising wage rates and skills shortages of ICT professionals (CACM 2007), and increasing competition from countries such as China (Negroponte 2003). It is likely, however, that India will remain a major player in the ICT industry for years to come and thus its global image as an ICT success story will continue. Viewed from a broader development perspective, things are not so simple. The new wealth that has arisen in India from the ICT boom benefits the relatively wealthy and educated in the first instance (Kambhampati 2002). Will this trickle down to the poor and uneducated? Statistics paint a mixed picture of the current situation. On the one hand, India is now the world’s fourth largest economy in purchasing power parity terms, and has enjoyed high growth rates for over a decade rising to an average of over 8% per annum in the period 2004-7 (World Bank 2007).

On the other hand, India was ranked as 128th out of 177 countries on the human development index 2005 (UNDP 2005) which is a composite index based on life expectancy, literacy and education levels, and economic standard of living. Shocking statistics include the percentage of malnourished children under 5 being 46%, the adult female literacy rate as only 48%, and the percentage of the rural population using adequate sanitary services as 18% (World Bank 2007, UNICEF 2004). A major development issue, therefore, is whether India can seriously address the needs of all of its people, including the vast numbers of poor and uneducated in the rural areas and the urban slums. A related sub-question is whether, and to what extent, can ICTs be used to provide development benefits to all Indian citizens. There are increasing attempts to use technology in this way through projects such as e-government services and telecentres in poor areas.

8.1. Kisan Credit Card (KCC)

Credit scheme introduced in August 1998 by Indian Banks.

Prepared by NABARD on recommendations of R.V.Gupta committee to provide term loans and agricultural needs.

KCC holders are covered under personal accident insurance up to Rs.50,000 for death and permanent disability and up to Rs.25,000 for other risk.

Premium is borne by both bank and borrower in a 2:1 ratio.

Validity period is five years with an option to extend for up to three more years.

5.1 Introduction

Citrus is one of the most important fruit crops in the world. It is grown in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. The top ten citrus producing countries are China, India, Nigeria, Brazil, Mexico, USA, Spain, Egypt, Italy and Argentina. The citrus industry in India is the third fruit industry after mango and banana. The important groups of crops in citrus are sweet orange, mandarins, limes, lemons, grape fruits and pummelo. The most important commercial Citrus species grown in India are mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco.), followed by sweet orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) and acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle). The major citrus producing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab.

1. To which family freshwater prawn belong?

 a) Arthropoda b) Crustacea

 c) Palaemonidae d) Malacostraca

 2. Scientifc name of freshwater prawn is .........

 a) Penaeus monodon b) Scylla serrata

 c) Macrobrachium rosenbergii d) Metapenaeus monoceros

 3. Freshwater prawn is also known as .........

 a) Giant river prawn b) Scampi

 c) Banana prawn d) Both a & b

 4. Identification features of freshwater prawn are .........

 a) Presence of grey and longitudinal streaks of light and dark colour

 b) The largest pereiopod of adult male is dark blue.

 c) The eggs of berried female are yellow in colour

 d) All of these

Livelihood refers to the means and capabilities by which individuals and households secure the necessities of life such as food, shelter, clothing, education, and healthcare. It encompasses not just the income-generating
activities people undertake, but also the assets, skills, knowledge, and social networks they use to sustain and improve their living conditions. The concept of livelihood is broader than employment or income; it includes access to natural, financial, social, human, and physical capital that enable people to build a decent standard of living.
A widely accepted definition by the Sustainable Livelihood Framework (developed by the UK’s Department for International Development) states that a livelihood comprises “the capabilities, assets (including both material and
social resources), and activities required for a means of living.” A livelihood is considered sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation. In India, livelihood patterns differ significantly between urban and rural areas due to differences in economic structures, resource availability, access to services, and lifestyle choices.

Diseases of livestock cause massive economic losses in terms of reduced productivity and production and some of them have zoonotic potential posing a serious risk to public health. Vaccination is the most efficient and cost-effective method of controlling infectious diseases both in humans and animals. The eradication of smallpox and rinderpest from the globe; the elimination of hog cholera and brucellosis from many countries; and the control of diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease, canine distemper, rabies, influenza, and pseudorabies would not have been possible without the use of effective vaccines. Vaccination not only protects the vaccinated animals but also reduces disease among non-vaccinated animals through herd immunity. They also reduce antimicrobial usage and minimize the risk of antimicrobial resistance. Vaccines Vaccines are prepared antigens to be used to prevent diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, mycoplasma, protozoa, and parasites.

4.1 THE NURSERY
We distinguish several types of nurseries among which we have Permanent nursery and Temporal or Seasonal nursery.
4.1.1 Permanent nursery
Permanent nursery is a large nursery destined to produce large number of plants for several years or in other words, the place is used for several years even if the plantation center is far. It is also called the central or industrial nursery. For example, the Cameroon Development Corporation [CDC] with head quarter in Limbe has its central nursery in Bota – Limbe. Here oil palm seedlings are being transported from the nursery in Limbe to the Bomboko area in Idenau Subdivision and Illoani in Ndian Division. A special management practices is being carried out in this type of nursery notably:
• Access road for vehicles accessible in all seasons ;
• Forecast annual rotation of surface area and annual production of plants;
• Forecast species with permanent shelter to serve for the protection of pots;
• Anticipated area for irrigation systems;
• Construct a shade, store, office and a guard’s room;
• Forecast methods of plant preservation for plants destined to be transported to far stations.

Abstract

A Mathematical Method for Artificial Neural Networks offers an original, broad and integrated approach that explains each tool in a manner that is independent of specific ANN systems. Artificial Neural Networks are abstract mathematical models of brain structure and functions. They are nothing but a mathematical model that relies on varying the strength of connections between the internal processing elements to interpret data. They can be applied to many pattern classification problems. In this paper, it has been used to predict the level of amino acid in protein sequences. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. It is any molecule that contains both amine and carboxylic acid functional groups. Here, known protein sequences of ingredients are taken as input patterns. The network is trained using back propagation algorithm with sigmoid function as activation function by generating random weights. It is tested again with unknown protein sequence. Error is calculated by the difference between actual network output and desired output. If the training is successful the patterns are correctly classified. The network is trained until the error is minimum. The amino acid level is thus predicted in a particular protein sequence.

Biotechnology can be defined as utilization of materials and methods for benefit of mankind by the utilization of microorganisms and biological agents. It is an area with a tremendous potential in solving basic problems of food, fibre, fuel and medicines in developing countries. According to the office of the Technology Assessment of the US Congress, biotechnology can be defined as any technique that uses living organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals or to develop micro organisms for specific uses. Flower industry has always increasing demand for new forms, colours and types of flowers. Biotechnology has made significant advances in the improvement of ornamental crops and development of new varieties has great potential to be utilized in future. Utilization of this technology can be done in floriculture under two broad subheads viz., tissue culture and genetic engineering.

TISSUE CULTURE

The major commercial utilization of tissue culture has been micropropagation, which is an alternative to vegetative propagation. Micropropagation permits true to type multiplication of a desired genotype using in vitro culture techniques. Micropropagation process can produce a large number of propagules in a relatively short time and space under controlled conditions. It has already revolutionized production process of several nurseries. The dream of multiplying disease free plants in required quantity on the specified time schedule in an industrial way has become true due to micropropagation. Some of the important floricultural crops that are successfully propagated in vitro in Indian laboratories are given below with their explant source:

Carnation: Leaf segments, internodes, petals

Gerbera: Leaf, petiole, flower stalk segments

Gladiolus: Inflorescence stalk, leaf sections

Orchids: Epidermal peelings, leaf segments, root tips

Rose: Internodal segments, petals, leaf segments, immature embryos, root segments

Common groundwater investigations include necessary considerations of the system’s influx sources, flow regime, discharge points and geomorphological characteristics of the area. Often, hydrogeomorphological mapping of an area is required as to determine these characteristics. The primary data can be acquired from the survey of India toposheet map and the satellite images. The secondary data set includes the satellite imageries, the preparation of digital elevation model (DEM) and digitized precipitation maps.

The first step in the procedure of hydrogeomorphological mapping is to calculate the watershed/basin area, which serves as a mask to define the area of interest. The watershed/basin calculation relies on the digital elevation data and assumes that topographic aspect (dip direction of the cell surface) completely controls the extent to which surface flow emanating from each point in the study area can reach the low point in the valley. The calculation of the potential annual recharge of the aquifer combines techniques described above with data for recharge areas, DEM aspect, and precipitation. First, the catchment area of the recharge zones must be calculated in a process similar to the watershed analysis, returning the area associated with the catchment coded as “1”. A simple multiplication overlay with the precipitation data and the catchment areas yields a result giving the amount of precipitation for each catchment cell. Before using the precipitation data, we converted it to meters so as to keep units consistent. The precipitation amounts within the catchment area (i.e. each cell value) are to be summed, yielding the amount of water available for influx into the groundwater system. Finally precipitation per year data can be acquired.

Identifying surface areas of groundwater discharge is based on the observation that such areas provide a relatively constant source of moisture, which is readily exploited by vegetation in semi-arid region. Thus areas with year-round green vegetation are assumed to be indicators of discharge. The relative amount of vegetation in a scene can be estimated by calculating a vegetation index (Reddy et al, 1989 and Tucker 1979).