eChapters

1. Tyson Foods Inc. 
2210 W. Oaklawn Drive, Springdale, AR 72762-6999 
Phone  : 479-290-4000; Fax  : 479-290-4061; Web site  : www.tyson.com

Executives : Chairman : John Tyson; Pres./CEO : Richard Bond; SVP-Intl. Ops. : Mike Baker; SVP-Commodity Trading & Risk Management : Jean Mrha Beach; Group VP-Research & Development, Logistics & Tech Services : Hal Carper; SVP & CIO : Gary Cooper; Group VP & International Pres. : Rick Greubel Jr.; SVP, Controller & CAO : Craig Hart; VP, Assoc. General Counsel & Secretary : R. Read Hudson; Group VP-Ops : Donnie King; SVP-Human Resources : Ken Kimbro; EVP & CFO : Dennis Leatherby; Group VP-Food Service : Bernard Leonard; Sr. Group VP-Fresh Meats : James Lochner; SVP-External Relations : Archie Shaffer III; Group VP-Consumer Prods : Donnie Smith; EVP & General Counsel : David Van Bebber; SVP-Renewable Products : Jeff Webster; VP-Investor Relations & Asst. Secretary : Ruth Ann Wisener

    1.    Cereals are grown over 73% of the total world harvested area and contribute over 60% of the world food production providing dietary fibre, proteins, energy, minerals,  vitamins, b-glucans , Oligosaccharides, such as lactulose, fructo-oligosaccharides, transgalacto-oligosaccharides

    2.    Finger millet is a potent source of antioxidants and has potent radical-scavenging activity that is higher than that of wheat, rice, and other millets; these results corresponded to their phenolic content

    3.    The brown or red variety of finger millet, which is commonly available, had higher activity (94%) than the white variety (4%) using the DPPH method.

    4.    Most of the herbal plant polyphenols are known to have multi functional properties such as reducing agents, hydrogen donating antioxidants and singlet oxygen quenchers and flavonoids and their derivatives are the largest and most important group of polyphenols.

    5.    Phytosterols are found in plant foods and are structurally and functionally analogous to cholesterol in vertebrate animals. a-sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol are the most commonly occurring phytosterols and constitute 95% of total phytosterols in the diet.

    1.    Wohler (1828) synthesized the first organic compound, urea from inorganic components.

    2.    Emil Fischer (1894) demonstrated the specificity of enzymes and the lock and key relationship between enzyme and substrate.

    3.    Michaelis and Menten (1913) developed kinetic theory of enzyme action

    4.    Watson and Crick (1953) Proposed the double-helical model for DNA structure

    5.    Ingo potrykus (1999) Golden rice- rich in b-carotene.

    6.    Glyoxysomes : Glyoxysomes are temporary in that they occur during transient periods in the life cycle of a plant such as in certain beans and nuts which store fats in their seeds as energy reserves. Glyoxysomes appear in the first few days after seed germination in endosperm cells and associate closely with lipid bodies. They disappear after the storage fats are broken down and converted into carbohydrate.

    1.    Control points are the points in the food processing chain where it is possible to control or remove hazards.

    2.    Critical control points are the control points in the processing chain where it is essential to a hazard, usually because there is no later step at which to establish control.

    3.    Preventative measures are the actions and activities needed to remove hazards or control them by reducing them to acceptable levels.

    4.    Critical limits for critical control points are measurements such as temperature and time, that must be met, or characteristics such as appearance and texture. Critical limits need to be validated.

    5.    Monitoring is the regular measurement or observation of a critical control point to ensure it is not beyond its critical limits.

    6.    Take corrective action to bring the process back under control before the problem (‘deviation’) leads to a safety hazard. Consider proper management (disposition) of any adversely affected product.

    7.    Verification procedures are tests and programmes that make sure the HACCP system working properly

    8.    Record keeping and documentation systems must meet the needs of the business and be adequate to show that the food safety programme is working.

Food Safety and Standards Rules and Regulations-2009

    1.    The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 has been passed by the Parliament with the intention to integrate all present food laws into one and to have a single regulatory body.

    2.    Accordingly the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has been established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act, 2006) with the mandate to lay down science based standards for articles of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import, to ensure availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption.

    3.    In exercise of the powers conferred by section 91 of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (34 of 2006), the Central Government hereby makes the rules and regulations.

    4.    ‘‘Anti-oxidant’’ means a substance which when added to food retards or prevents oxidative deterioration of food and does not include sugar, cereal, oils, flours, herbs and spices.

1. Food Labelling

Food labelling is the primary means of communication between the producer and seller of food on one hand, and the purchaser and consumer on the other.

Basic Terminology in Food labelling

‘‘Food” means any substance, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for human consumption, and includes drinks, chewing gum and any substance which has been used in the manufacture, preparation or treatment of “food” but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances used only as drugs.

‘‘Ingredient” means any substance, including a food additive, used in the manufacture or preparation of a food and present in the final product although possibly in a modified form.

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System

1. Identify hazards
 
 It is important to be able to identify the possible microbiological, chemical and physical hazards that can occur at every stage of the food business – from growth, processing, manufacture, storage and distribution, until the point where it is sold to the customer and eaten.

    ·    Microbiological Hazards : Any bacterium, virus, or protozoan that is capable of causing illness and that grows or may be carried on food. Well-known examples of bacteria are Campylobacter, Listeria and Salmonella. The most likely food-borne viruses are the Norwalk type viruses. Giardia is an example of a protozoan that may be food borne. It is important to have some understanding of the risks associated with different types of microbiological hazards.

    ·    Chemical Hazards : Examples include excessive or toxic amounts of heavy metals, chemicals, pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, vitamins, minerals, preservatives, disinfectants, detergents and cleaning compounds. Some hazards may be naturally present such as in green potatoes or taro and rhubarb leaves.

    ·    Physical Hazards : Objects that get into food, or are already present in food, may cause illness, injury or distress to the person eating it. Some examples are glass, metal fragments etc. Other contaminants such as hair or insects may be offensive but not necessarily a danger to health. They should nonetheless be considered and controlled

1. The Stability and Shelf-Life of Food

    1.    In the UK, the date coding to be used is determined by the total life of the product: for microbiologically highly perishable foods, a ‘use by’ date is needed, while for other foods, including foods with more than 18 months’ shelf-life, a ‘best before’ or a ‘best before end’ date is needed.

    2.    IFT (1974) definition of shelf-life, is : The period between manufacture and retail purchase of a food product during which the product is of satisfactory quality.

    3.    Shelf-life is defined as the time during which the food product will :

        i.    remain safe;
        ii.    be certain to retain desired sensory, chemical, physical and 
    microbiological characteristics;
        iii.    comply with any label declaration of nutritional data,

    1.    Water activity (a_w) affects food chemistry and can be controlled by removal (dehydration or drying) or by chemically binding the water, reducing its activity. Water activity in foods ranges from 0.95 to 1.00 in fresh meats and vegetables to 0.20 in dried milk.

    2.    Water activity (a_w) may be defined in a number of ways, qualitatively, aw is a measure of unbound, free water in a system available to support biological and chemical reactions.

    3.    Water activity, not absolute water content, is what bacteria, enzymes, and chemical reactants encounter and is affected by at the micro environmental level in food materials.

    4.    Two foods with the same water content can have very different aw values depending upon the degree to which the water is free or otherwise bound to food constituents.

    5.    The term “water activity” is related to relative humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in the air to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

    6.    Water activity or aw is a property of solutions and is the ratio of vapour pressure of the solution compared with the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Under equilibrium conditions water activity equals:

Food and Industrial Microbiology

    1.    Microbiology often has been defined as the study of organisms and agents too small to be seen clearly by the unaided eye—that is, the study of microorganisms

    2.    Two bacteria that are visible without a microscope, Thiomargarita and Epulopiscium.

    3.    Procaryotic cells [Greek pro, before, and karyon, nut or kernel; organism with a primordial nucleus] have a much simpler morphology than eucaryotic cells and lack a true membrane-delimited nucleus. All bacteria are procaryotic.

    4.    Eukaryotic cells [Greek eu, true, and karyon, nut or kernel] have a membrane- enclosed nucleus; they are more complex morphologically and are usually larger than procaryotes. Algae, fungi, protozoa, higher plants, and animals are eucaryotic.

    5.    The ordinary microscope is called a bright-field microscope because it forms a dark image against a brighter background

Food Packaging

    1.    Food packaging : A wrap, pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle and jar are some of the many forms of packaging that contain food products. It must contain a food product as well as protect and preserve it for a specific length of time. Each package must, by law, display product information for the consumer.

    2.    Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) is an economical material with low WVTR; however, it has high permeabilities to flavours/volatiles, poor grease resistance and are limp.
 
    3.    High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) is stiffer, more translucent and has better barrier properties but needs higher temperature for sealing.

    4.    A copolymer of polyethylene and poly vinyl alcohol, and EVOH has outstanding gas barrier properties especially when dry.

    5.    High-density polyethylene is stiff, strong, tough, resistant to chemicals and moisture, permeable to gas, easy to process, and easy to form. It is used to make bottles for milk, juice, and water; cereal box liners; margarine tubs; and grocery, trash, and retail bags.

    6.    Low-density polyethylene is flexible, strong, tough, easy to seal, and resistant to moisture. Because low-density polyethylene is relatively transparent, it is predominately used in film applications and in applications where heat sealing is necessary. Bread and frozen food bags, flexible lids, and squeezable food bottles are examples of low-density polyethylene.

Instructions for establishment registration and processing, filing for acidified and low-acid canned foods

Acid Food
 
A food that has a natural pH of 4.6 or below.
 
Acidified Food
 
A low-acid food to which acid(s) or acid food(s) are added and which has a finished equilibrium pH of 4.6 or below and a water activity (aw) greater than 0.85.
 
Authorized Company Representative
 
The person authorized by the company to sign the registration and process filing forms on its behalf. That person should possess the knowledge necessary to answer technical questions concerning filed processes.

1. Fundamental Concepts of Unit Operations

    1.    Process is the set of activities or industrial operations that modify the properties of raw materials with the purpose of obtaining products to satisfy the needs of a society.

    2.    Food process engineering includes the part of human activity in which the knowledge of physical, natural, and economic sciences is applied to agricultural products as related to their composition, energetic content, or physical state.

    3.    Food process engineering can also be defined as “the science of conceiving, calculating, designing, building, and running the facilities where the transformation processes of agricultural products, at the industrial level and as economically as possible, are carried out.

    4.    In a discontinuous operation the raw material is loaded in the equipment; after performing the required transformation, the obtained products are unloaded. These operations, also called “batch” or “intermittent,” are carried out in steps:

    1.    Microbial Risk Assessment (MRA) can be considered a tool for use in the management of the risks posed by food borne pathogens and in the elaboration of standards for food in international trade.

    2.    MRA comprises risk assessments of particular pathogen - commodity combinations

    3.    According to codex alimentarious commission (CAC) microbial risk assessment is defined as a scientifically based process consisting of 4 components.

        ·    Hazard identification
        ·    Exposure assessment
        ·    Hazard characterization
        ·    Risk characterization

Storage Systems

    1.    Low cost storage technology

        ·    In situ : Means delaying the harvest until the crop is required and employed 
    for the root crops.
        ·    Sand and Coir : Used for the Potatoes
        ·    Pits used for the Potatoes
        ·    Clamps used for the Potatoes
             Wind breaks used for the Onions – 6 months 1m height wooden stakes
        ·    Cellars : under ground / partly under ground. Ex: Apples, cabbage, 
    onions and potatoes during winter.
        ·    Barns : In Sudan onions are stored in palm leaf barns called “Rakubas”.
        ·    Evaporative Coolers
        ·    Zero energy cooling chambers
        ·    Night ventilation.

    2.    As a general rule, air circulation of storage room is designed to provide about 25m² / min / 3000 K cal of refrigeration predicated on a 5.5ºC

    3.    Frozen storage refers to storage at temperature where food is maintained in frozen conditions.

    4.    Good frozen storage generally means - 18ºC / below.

    5.    Below – 9.4ºC, there is no significant growth of microorganisms in food.

    1.    Food : defined as something which is eaten / drunk by human beings or something we eat and which can be utilized by our body.

    2.    Milk and milk products like Dahi, yoghurt, paneer, cheese, Khoa etc these foods are rich sources of Vitamin A, Riboflavin and Calcium.

    3.    Meat, fish, poultry etc besides proteins these foods also provide Iron and B- complex Vitamins.

    4.    Eggs and egg products are also rich in Iron, Vitamin A and Riboflavin (B1).

    5.    Pulses, nuts and oil seeds are also a good source of thiamin, niacin, and Iron.

    6.    Strategies and measures for alleviating the world food problem require.

Food Processing Technology

    1.    The transition from solid to fluid and back is known as a phase transition and this is important in many types of food processing (e.g. water to water vapour in evaporation and distillation and dehydration; water to ice in freezing and freeze drying or freeze concentration or crystallisation of fats.
 
    2.    Phase transition takes place isothermally at the phase transition temperature by release or absorption of latent heat, and can be represented by a phase diagram.

    3.    A second type of transition, known as glass transition, takes place without the release or absorption of latent heat and involves the transition of a food to an amorphous glass state at its glass transition temperature.

    4.    The transition is dependent on the temperature of the food, time, and the moisture content of the food.

    5.    The density of a material is equal to its mass divided by its volume and has units of kgm^-3

    1.    Vegetables are less acidic than fruits and food poisoning bacteria are able to grow in many vegetable products

    2.    Different levels of acidity in fruits

    3.    Water for cleaning of fruits and vegetables should contain about 200 ppm of chlorine (by mixing 1 litre of bleach into 250 litres of water)

    4.    Water that is used as an ingredient in fruits and vegetable product should not contain more than 0.5 ppm chlorine (by adding 2.5 ml of bleach to 250 litres of water), to avoid contaminating products with a chlorine smell

1. Herbs and Spices
       
    1.    International Standards Organization (ISO) defines spices and condiments as: Vegetable products or mixtures thereof, free from extraneous matter, used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in foods.

    2.    Rosengarten describes a spice as a product which enriches or alters the quality of a thing, for example altering the taste of a food to give it zest or pungency; a piquant or lasting flavouring; or a relish. The term ‘spice’ is thus used to cover the use of spices, herbs and certain aromatic vegetables to impart odour and flavour to foods.

    3.    Herbs may be defined as the dried leaves of aromatic plants used to impart flavour and odour to foods with, sometimes, the addition of colour. The leaves are commonly traded separately from the plant stems and leaf stalks.

Nutraceuticals and Health Foods

    1.    According to the International Food Information Council (IFIC), functional foods are “foods or dietary components that may provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition.”

    2.    Nutraceuticals : A product isolated and purified from foods that is generally- sold in medicinal forms are usually associated with food. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease (Coined originally by Stephen DeFelice in 1989, founder and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine, USA).

    3.    The International Life Sciences Institute of North America (ILSI) has defined functional foods as “foods that by virtue of physiologically active food components provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition

    4.    Health Canada defines functional foods as “similar in appearance to a conventional food, consumed as part of the usual diet, with demonstrated physiological benefits, and/or to reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions.”

    1.    The heifer is bred (naturally or by insemination) before the age of two years.

    2.    The gestation period is nine months and one week.

    3.    After calving, the cow gives milk for 10 months.

    4.    1 – 2 months after calving the cow will again be bred.

    5.    The cow then continues to give milk for about 300 days. This period is known as lactation.

    6.    Milk should preferably be handled in a closed system, to minimise the risk of contamination. It must be cooled to 4 °C as soon as it is produced.

    7.    The content of protein, lactose and ash is somewhat higher in buffalo milk than in cow milk. Buffalo milk contains vitamin A, but lacks b-carotene, which is present in cow’s milk.

    8.    When milk and cream turn to butter, there is a phase inversion from an oil-in-water emulsion to a water-in-oil emulsion.

    9.    In milk, the whey proteins are in colloidal solution and the casein in colloidal suspension.

Meat and Meat Products

    1.    Meat can be defined as “the muscle tissue of slaughter animals”.
    2.    meat is composed of water, fat, protein, minerals and a small proportion of carbohydrate

Cereal Processing

    1.    The protein content of wheat grain varies widely, but for bread making a value of at least 11% is required.

    2.    Low grain sulphur will result in low concentrations of the sulphur-containing amino acids, cystine and methionine, and may result in poor loaf volume.

    3.    During seed germination endosperm starch is converted into soluble glucose and maltose to support the developing embryo. This is brought about by enzymatic activity, especially the enzyme a-amylase.

    4.    Excessive a-amylase levels result in the formation of a darkened loaf crust as a result of sugar caramelization and a sticky crumb structure which can cause problems during slicing.

    5.    Wheat with a protein level below 10% is preferred to reduce gluten elasticity.

    6.    There is a very good correlation between grain nitrogen and the amount of malt extract achieved, low grain nitrogen giving more fermentable extract

    7.    The term ‘coarse grains milling’ is a very broad one that refers to the comminution of the berries of the wheat, barley and other coarse grain crops.

Moisture Content
 
Two maximum moisture levels are provided to meet different climatic conditions and marketing practices. Lower values in the first column are suggested for countries with tropical climates or when long-term (more than one crop year) storage is a normal commercial practice. The values in the second column are suggested for more moderate climates or when other short term storage is the normal commercial practice.

Introduction

    1.    Food Science is the application of the physical, biological and behavioral science to the processing and marketing of foods (Margaret, 1968).

    2.    Technology can be defined as the science dealing with knowledge of doing things efficiently and effectively.

    3.    Food science helps us understand the theory example: what methods can best be used to store and preserve food to maintain quality and prevent spoilage.

    4.    Food technology demonstrates how the food is stored, preserved, processed and transported and has been responsible for development of new techniques for processing and preservation of food on a commercial scale and for packaging it in such a way that it can be sold conveniently.

    5.    Food science deals with the study of facts of the physical, chemical and biological sciences as they influence the processing and preservation of food.

    6.    Food technology deals with engineering and other scientific and technical problems involved in transforming edible raw materials and other ingredients into safe, nutritious and appetizing food products (Desrosier, 1977).

    7.    Food science is concerned with basic scientific facts about food, where as food technology concerned with the processing of raw materials into foods that meet human needs and wants.

    8.    Indian agriculture has undergone a sea change during the past half a century. Starting with the campaign for “grow more foods” in the forties, India reached self sufficiency during the eighties.

Instrumentation and Advanced Analytical Techniques

    1.    Chromatography is defined as an analytical technique where by a mixture of chemicals may be separated by virtue of their differential affinities for two immiscible phases. One of these, the stationary phase, consists of a fixed bed of small particles with a large surface area, while the other, the mobile phase or “eluant”, is a fluid that moves constantly through, or over the surface of, the fixed phase.

    2.    The chromatogram evaluated qualitatively by determining the Rf or retention factor, for each of the eluted substances.

    3.    The Rf is a measure of that fraction of its total elution time that any compound spends in the mobile phase.

    4.    If the liquid phase is a polar substance (e.g. polyethylene glycol) and the mobile phase is non polar, the process is termed normal-phase chromatography

    5.    When the stationary phase is non polar (e.g. octadecylsilane) and the mobile phase is polar, the process is reversed-phase chromatography

    6.    The chromatographic separation of mixtures of large molecules such as proteins may be accomplished by a mechanism called size exclusion chromatography or gel permeation chromatography.

    7.    Separation of certain molecules is accomplished by a mechanism called affinity Chromatography in which specific binding between an antibody (stationary phase) and antigen (analyte) occur.

1. Guidelines on Analytical Terminology

    1.    Accuracy : The closeness of agreement between a test result or measurement result and a reference value.

    2.    Analyte : The chemical substance sought or determined in a sample. This definition does not apply to molecular biological analytical methods.

    3.    Applicability : The analytes, matrices, and concentrations for which a method of analysis may be used satisfactorily.

    4.    Bias : The difference between the expectation of the test result or measurement result and the true value. In practice conventional quantity value can be substituted for true value.

    5.    The bias of a measuring instrument is normally estimated by averaging the error of indication over the appropriate number of repeated measurements. The error of indication is the: “indication of a measuring instrument minus a true value of the corresponding input quantity”.

    6.    Calibration : Operation that, under specified conditions, in a first step, establishes a relation between the values with measurement uncertainties provided by measurement standards and corresponding indications with associated measurement uncertainties and in a second step uses this information to establish a relation for obtaining a measurement result from an indication.

    7.    Certified reference material (CRM) : Reference material accompanied by documentation issued by an authoritative body and providing one or more specified property values with associated uncertainties and traceability, using valid procedures.

Physical Chemistry of Foods

    1.    Thermodynamics is primarily concerned with energy and entropy. Energy, also called internal energy (U), comprises heat and work; it is measured in joules (J).

    2.    Energy may be recalled that work generally equals force times distance (in N_·m = J) and that force equals mass times acceleration (in kg ·m· s^-2 = N).

    3.    According to the first law of thermodynamics, the quantity of energy, i.e., heat (q) work (p) potential energy, is always preserved.

    4.    Entropy (S)  is a measure of disorder; it is given by   
        S = K_B ln Ω
        Where K_B is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 ×10^-23 J × K^-1) and W is the number of  ways in which the system can be arranged, also called the number of degrees of freedom.

    5.    Colligative solution properties : The lowering of the chemical potential of a solvent by the presence of a solute causes changes in a number of physical properties: vapor pressure, boiling point, freezing point, osmotic pressure, etc. (the magnitudes of these changes all are proportional to the mole fraction of solute).

Percent Solutions

There are three types of percent solutions. All are parts of solute per 100 total parts of solution. Based on the following definitions you may calculate the concentration of a solution or calculate how to make up a specific concentration

    1.    % W/W - Percent of weight of solute in the total weight of the solution. Percent here is the number of grams of solute in 100 grams of solution. 
        Example: 
        A 100% (W/W) NaCl solution is made by weighing 100 g NaCl and dissolving in 100 g of solution

    2.    % W/V - Percent of weight of solution in the total volume of solution. Percent here is the number of grams of solute in 100 ml of solution. This is probably the least significant way of naming a solution, but the most common way of doing it. In fact, any percent solution not stipulated as W/W, W/V, or V/V is assumed to be % W/V. 
        Example : A 4% (W/V) NaCl solution is 4 g of NaCl in 100 ml of solution.

    3.    % V/V - Percent of volume of solute in the total volume of solution %V/V. Percent here is the number of milliliters of solute in 100 ml of solution. 
        Example: A 10% (V/V) ethanol solution is 10 ml of ethanol in 100 ml of solution; unless otherwise stated, water is the solvent. 

    1.    Absorbance (A) - Defined as –log (1-a) = log (1/t), where ‘a’ is the absorbance and‘t’ the transmittance of a medium through which a light beam passes.

    2.    Absorption coefficient (a) - The relative decrease in the intensity of a collimated beam of electromagnetic radiation, as a result of absorption by a medium, during traversal of an infinitesimal layer of the medium, divided by the length traversed.

    3.    Acceleration due to gravity (g) - The standard value (9.80665 m/s2) of the acceleration experienced by a body in the earth’s gravitational field.

    4.    Acid - Historically, a substance that yields an H+ ion when it dissociates in solution, resulting in a pH< 7. In the Brönsted definition, an acid is a substance that donates a proton in any type of reaction. The most general definition, due to G.N. Lewis, classifies any chemical species capable of accepting an electron pair as an acid.

    5.    Acid dissociation constant (Ka) - The equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an acid HA through the reaction HA + H2O1 A- + H3O+. The quantity pKa = -log Ka is often used to express the acid dissociation constant

    6.    Acyl groups - Groups formed by removing the hydroxy groups from oxoacids that have the general structure RC (=O) (OH) and replacement analogues of such acyl groups.

    7.    Adiabatic process - A thermodynamic process in which no heat enters or leaves the system.

    1.    Nutrients : Chemical substances obtained from food and used in the body to provide energy, structural materials, and regulating agents to support growth, maintenance, and repair of the body’s tissues. Nutrients may also reduce the risks of some diseases.
    2.    Carbohydrate, fat, and protein are sometimes called macronutrients because the body requires them in relatively large amounts (many grams daily). In contrast, vitamins and minerals are micronutrients, required only in small amounts (milligrams or micrograms daily).
    3.    The international unit for measuring food energy is the joule, a measure of work energy. To convert kcalories to kilojoules, multiply by 4.2; to convert kilojoules to kcalories, multiply by 0.24.
    4.    Essential nutrients : Nutrients a person must obtain from food because the body cannot make them for itself in sufficient quantity to meet physiological needs; also called indispensable nutrients. About 40 nutrients are currently known to be essential for human beings. Energy-yielding nutrients: the nutrients that break down to yield energy the body can use:

Introduction

Although the concept of IPM, with emphasis on minimum use of pesticides; is well established and widely practiced in India pest population still continue to be unabated, often reaching to alarming levels. Out breaks of Spodoptera litura and hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei have been recorded in soybean and kharif crops recently during 2002 & 2004 in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, respectively. Outbreaks of Helicoverpa armigera populations are well known, appearing more frequently since past few years (1987-88, 1995-96, 1997-98 & 2001) doing extensive damage in cotton and pulses. in many parts of the country. Failures in controlling these populations, even by most potent insecticides, have raised a serious doubt on the success of present day pest management practices aimed to kill the pest in immature larval / egg stage, when infestation spreads out in large areas. Insecticidal treatments require wide coverage of crop area to control them effectively. Insecticide resistance in pest species and destruction of natural enemies are obvious problems, since chemicals are applied indiscriminately to entire crop ecosystem including the non-target beneficial bicontrol species. How to minimize use of insecticide in pest control is often a question of major concern to the entomologists.

Introduction

Many insets inhabit the soil and participate in different activities which will result in changes in soil physico-chemical properties. Thus soil is a very good habitat for some insects. Several insects spend either complete or few stages of their life cycle in soil. Soil provides protection from predators for many soil dwelling insects especially in immature stages. Few insects also undergo diapauses in soil. Soil insects include phytophagous, scavengers, predators and parasites. Among these, soil macro fauna especially termites and white grubs are very important pests of many crops and their activity also brings many changes in soil ecosystem.

Termites

Termites (Order: Isoptera) are eusocial, polymorphic and live in small to large colonies. The colony consists of different castes viz., functional reproductive (queen and king), sterile workers and soldiers, which are morphologically distinct.  The tasks of the latter two castes include foraging, nest building and care of eggs and young ones and defense. All species maintain symbiotic relationships with microorganisms, which aid in digestion. Few species build the often-spectacular mounds or arboreal nests and others build subterranean nests. They constitute important group of soil fauna and play a major role in the arid and semiarid tropics. Worker castes are dominant and are responsible for major functions in the colony. During the process of food collection, the workers generally attack the plants that are weakened due to some internal growth factors or environmental causes such as drought or poor soil conditions (Roonwal, 1978).

Introduction

India is the largest developing economy of the world and about 70 per cent of its population is dependent directly or indirectly on this profession.  To meet the food requirement of the ever-multiplying population of this country, agriculture production has to be maximized by using genetically improved varieties, fertilizers improved implements, seed, and other agronomical technologies. Beside these improvements the agriculture production has remained static for the last decade. For further improvements in agricultural production we have to adopt comprehensive strategies. One of such strategies is the pollination management that is a very vital process of agriculture crop production. Pollination is a process involving reproductive parts of a flower and an external agent in the form of a vector. According to Prof. E.C. Martin, the value of bee pollination of fruits, vegetables and seeds in the United States of America totaled very close to $8 billion in the 1960s; the figure 20 years later is probably close to $20 billion.

Introduction

Leafhoppers belong to the family Cicadellidae and constitute one of the largest families in the exopterygotan Hexapoda. Recent estimates of species for the world range between 35,000-45,000 species though little over 22,600 species are now described (Dietrich, 2004a). The leafhoppers belong to the order Hemiptera and suborder Auchenorrhyncha.
 
Leafhoppers can readily be recognized from other members of the Auchenorrhyncha by the presence of two or more rows of spines on hind tibiae and by the pronotum not extending back over abdomen. Their close relative, the Membracidae, have pronotum extending back over the abdomen. From planthoppers (Delphacidae) with which they are often confused, they can be recognized by the position and structure of antennae. The leafhopper antennae are placed between eyes compared to beneath the eyes in planthoppers; the second segment of the antenna (pedicel) is small without externally visible sensillae in leafhoppers compared to enlarged pedicel with prominent sensillae in the planthoppers. The movable large spur at the apex of hind tibia in plant hoppers is absent in the leafhoppers.

INTRODUCTION

Phytophagous mites have long been considered as potentially serious pests of a wide range of food and fibre crops, and ornamentals. They are covered under subclass Acari of class Arachnida and phylum Arthropoda. Mites unlike insects are 8-legged creatures and lack compound eyes, antennae and wings. Plant feeding mites measure from 200µ to 600µ. Majority of the plant feeding mites belong to suborder Prostigmata, and phytophagous mites belong to family Tetranychidae (spider mites); Eriophyidae (bud or gall mites) ; Tenuipalpidae (false spider mites); Tarsonemidae (broad mites) and Tuckerellidae, in the decreasing order of their importance. Before one can develop integrated management of phytophagous mites in different agri-horticultural ecosystems, knowledge about the following fundamentals of phytophagous mite management principles is a big must.

Introduction

Indiscriminate use of acaricides not only causes the development of resistance in phytophagous mites but are also harmful to their natural enemies, therefore, poses a serious problem of pest resurgence. Hence, worldwide attention has been focused to utilize the natural biocontrol agents and minimize the use of chemical pesticides for the control of mite pests in agriculture with a view to develop a suitable IPM strategy. Among natural enemies of phytophagous mites, predatory mites have been found to be most effective and efficient tool in IPM programme because of the fact that many of these are not only abundantly available in nature but are also voracious feeders and have proven ability to suppress the pest mite population below economic injury level. Beside this, predatory mite can locate, run and catch hold of the pest mites even the pest mite is hiding in rolled leaves, under webs or even in the galls or erinium, etc. Some of the predatory mites require very low population of pest mites as prey, for their survival and multiplication, which is an added advantage for potential predation. Some predatory mites such as Typhlodromus pyri have good synchronization with the prey mite, Panonychus ulmi as, both hibernate and remain active in orchards.

INTRoDUCTION

In developing countries, cereals and legumes are the principal source of daily energy and protein intake. The major economic loss caused by grain infesting insects in not always the actual material they consume, but also the amount contaminated by them and their excreta which makes food unfit for human consumption. Today million of tones of the food grains are damaged by the ravages of the pests that not only cause quantitative but also qualitative changes in food grains. Stored product insects depress the food value of a product, introduce pathogens, parasites or toxins or make it less palatable. Insect infestation in high in the tropics and may lead 100 per cent damage in severe cases.
 
In order to cope with the requirement of the increasing population and food problem, at present as well as for the decades to come, the world will have to raise agricultural production very substantially, both by increasing the production and by reducing losses on account of post harvest spoilage especially of cereals and legumes which are the primary sources of food for men kind. This is a major problems during agricultural production, food transfer and processing. Million tonnes of grain worth several hundred corers of rupees every years are either damaged or loss for want of knowledge of scientific methods of saving the foodgrains during storage. In India, post-harvest losses caused by the unscientific storage, rodents, insects, micro-organisms, moisture etc. account for about 10 per cent of total foodgrains (Anonymous, 1971). A world survey by F.A.O. indicated about 5 per cent loss of cereals, in storage annually (Herford, 1952).

Introduction

Rapeseed-mustard is attacked by more than 43 insect species. Out of which, mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach); mustard sawfly, Athalia proxima (Klug); painted bug, Bagrada hilaris (Burnmerister); pea leaf miner, Chromatomyia horticola (Goureau) and Bihar hairy caterpillar, Spilarctia obliqua (Walker) are of major importance. Other pests are of sporadic occurrence. Status of important insect pests attacking rapseed mustard in India have been given in detail by Bakhetia and Arora (1993) and Singh 2005. The occurrence of various insect pests on rapeseed-mustard is stage-specific. This has been a gift provided by nature to help avoid inter-competition among them for their fullest exploitation of the host. The insect pests attacking rapeseed- mustard as given in Table 1 and at various stages of the crop in Table 2.

INTRODUCTION

Potato is a crop of major significance in human nutrition, ranking fourth in world production, after wheat, maize and rice. Potatoes are grown on over 44 million acres in more than 125 countries, with annual production of about 250 million tons. Potatoes are grown across India, with production concentrated in several areas of the North Indian plains and West Bengal. Indian potato production is significant and accounts for 8.5 per cent of the world total (Dahiya et al., 1999).

The potato has hundreds of recognized pests including many insects, mites, nematodes and rodents. Some of these were transported to new locations alongwith seed tubers. Others were already present in locations where the potato was introduced and then proliferated on this new host plant. Because a potato crop is vegetatively propagated from tubers, which easily carry some pathogens and pests, many pest problems have followed potatoes to areas wherever they are grown. The potato tuber moth was introduced accidentally into India from Italy in 1906, probably through seed potatoes (Lefroy, 1907), and by the middle of century had become well established throughout India (Kumar and Nirula, 1967). Of all the major food crops, potato is heaviest user of chemical pesticides, which often total up to 20 per cent of its cost of production (Anonymous, 1991).

Introduction

India ranks second in the production of vegetables after China. The existing area under vegetable cultivation in India is around 4.5 million ha. There is a need of around 5-6 million tons of food to feed 1.3 billion India’s population by 2020 AD. The major constraint in vegetable production, include the extensive crop losses due to increased pest infestations directly or due to viral diseases vectored by insects. The extent of crop losses in vegetables varies with the plant type, location, damage potential of the pest involved and cropping season. Vegetables are more prone to insect pests and diseases mainly due to their succulence as compared to other crops. The crop losses to the tune of 40 per cent have been observed in vegetable crops. The increased demand and limited productivity of local cultivars, led to introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids. As a result, dramatic changes in pest scenario occurred like minor pests assuming major status (eg., Serpentine leaf miner, Liriomyza trifolii a serious problem in tomato hybrids). Chemical pesticides are the sole panacea to mange the pest by vegetable farmers even today. Indiscriminate use of pesticides has led to severe ecological consequences like destruction of natural enemy fauna, effect on non-target organisms, pesticide residues in vegetables and resistance of the pest to pesticides. The modern pest management is aimed at educating the farmers on various issues of pest management like identification of the pests, natural enemies, judicious use of pesticides with alternate methods of pest control like cultural, mechanical, biological and behavioral (pheromones) management.

Introduction

In India, climatic conditions are very diverse and fruit crops of temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions are grown. Frequently, the fruit crops of one regional environmental requirement are grown in another region. This type of crop husbandry has some typical pest problems as the insect and mite pests have easy access to any of these regions depending upon the fruit crop. The application of management approaches in isolation of insect pests on fruit crops demand a unified strategy to suppress the different pest populations under the concept of ‘crop management’. Thus, to sustain the crop management for the better fruit quality, a judicious integration of safe chemical/biopesticide molecules must be used with other non-chemical approaches namely host plant resistance, bioagents, cultural and mechanical practices etc.

INTORDUCTION

Spices are strongly flavored aromatic substances of plant origin which are commonly used for seasoning, cooking food and for preserving other food stuffs. There are about 70 species of spices grown in various parts of the world. Those which are used most commonly throughout the world are grown in India and other parts of South Asia.

The seed spices are annual herbs, whose dried fruits or seeds are mostly used as spices. The seed spices are used for culinary, confectionary, perfumery, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals industry. There are about 20 seed spices grown in India (Table 1) and nine out of them are prominent. The most important among them are belongs to family Apiaceae (coriander, cumin, fennel etc). about 9 lakh ha area is growing in seed spices in the country with annual production of about 5-6 lakh tones (Anonymous, 2003). India is the world’s largest producer, consumer and exporter of seed spices. The foreign exchange earned through export of seed spices is more than Rs 200 crores annually. India exports raw spices as well as value added items to nearly 70 countries in the world and is meeting 51% of the global demand of these commodities. There is good potential for increasing export of seed spices, if production as well as quality is increased. The level of productivity in various seed spices is comparatively low as compared to other countries. There are many production constrains attributed to low productivity. The lake of suitable high yielding varieties suiting to different agro-ecological regions and more incidences of diseases and insect pests. Among different insect pests, coriander aphid, Hydaphis coriandari (Das) is one of the most destructive and widely distributed pest of coriander (Jain, 1984 and Jain and Yadav, 1989). Recently brown wheat mite was observed attacking coriander and other spices (Jain and Yadav, 1986 and 1989).

INTRODUCTION

Cotton is an important commercial crop and plays a key role in the economy of country. Cotton is grown in different states of India viz Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In India the area under cotton crop is 8.76 m ha and the productivity is 436 Kg lint/ha as against the world average of 682 kg lint/ha (Anonymous, 2005). The productivity of cotton is variable in the country in the range of 287 to 720 kg lint/ha (Anonymous, 2005). The major constraints in cotton cultivation in India are as follows
 
MAJOR CONSTRAINTS IN COTTON CULTIVATION IN INDIA
    i.    Abnormal weather conditions 
    ii.    Cultivation of cotton under rainfed condition 
    iii.    Cultivation of large number of susceptible and undescript cultivars with varied growth pattern. 
    iv.    Poor soil health
    v.    Long duration of crop 
    vi.    Long sowing period 
    vii.    Indeterminate nature of cotton plant 
    viii.    Intensive cultivation 
    ix.    Imbalance use of fertilizers 
    x.    Non judicious use of irrigation water 
    xi.    Higher incidence of insect pests due to 

Introduction

Rice is the staple food of about 50% of the world’s population that resides in Asia, where 90 % of the world’s rice is grown and consumed. In the International year of Rice celebrated in 2004 the theme was “Rice is life” which reflects the importance of rice as a primary food source of human beings. In the world, annually rice is cultivated in about 151.54 million hectares with an annual production of 593 metric tonnes and average productivity of 3.91 tonnes/ha (Rai, 2004). From its Asian homeland, it is now cultivated in 113 countries and plays a variety of roles related to important aspects of food security as well as rural and economic development. In Asia this crop is grown in 136.07 million ha followed by 7.67 million ha in Africa and 5.09 million ha in Latin America with a production of 539.84, 16.97 and 19.54 metric tonnes and productivity of 2.97, 2.21 and 2.84 tonnes, respectively (Rai, 2004). In India, rice is the staple food for more than 65 % people (Pasalu and Katti, 2004). Rice is grown under various geographical, climatic and cultural conditions. The current level of rice production in the country is around 90 million tonnes. Based on the present rate of population growth @ 1.5 % and per capita consumption of 250 g of rice/day in the country, the demand for rice production is expected to be about 100-105 million tonnes by 2010 and 130-140 million tonnes by 2025. To achieve this target, it requires increasing productivity per unit area by the adoption of modern and intensive agricultural practices, such as use of high yielding varieties and improved cultural and management practices. Experience of post green revolution period in last four decades indicates that these practices often aggravate other biotic constraints such as insects, diseases and weeds. However, insect pests are considered to be the major limiting factor in enhancing the productivity of rice.

Introduction

The introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids in late sixties led to accumulation of insect pest problems in cereals. The varieties and hybrids developed during green revolution era with the sole objective to enhance production to feed increasing population were better in quality parameters than traditional locals but were highly susceptible to insect pests. Over 200 pests attack different cereals and insects that were not known or were of minor importance have now become major pests and several new insect pests have appeared on cereals. Out breaks are frequent due to several obvious reasons. Major pests are serious, perennially occurring and persistent species which cause considerable loss in yields every year in large areas require control measures. Occasional pests attack the crops sporadically but cause potential damage and sufficient loss, though in some localities or only in some seasons, so as to warrant human intervention.

INTRODUCTION

Insecticide resistance poses a severe threat to agricultural productivity in India and in other countries of the world. Humans have had the ingenuity to develop thousands of pesticides to protect foodstuffs, livestock, and health and the use of these poisons has triggered a rapid evolutionary response in many target species and some nontarget species of invertebrates, microorganisms, higher plants and vertebrates. Insecticide exposure led to nullify their toxic effects through genetic selection for individuals with the biochemistry or behaviour. Continual development of new compounds and its greater use and increase in input insecticide cost is mainly due increase in resistance. Reduction in insecticide efficacy from insect resistance has major economic, environmental and human health implications. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a convenient descriptor for wide range of still-evaluating pest control program that emerged from chemical prophylaxis practiced. IPM theory has fostered a transition from primarily chemical control to programs tempered with biological information and input tailored to each agro ecosystem, crop and pest situation in production.

INTRODUCTION

“An insect is like an old-fashion soldier: it does what it is ordered to do, and when it has no orders it does nothing” (a citation from Wright, 1963). The orders are very often given as chemical signals that induce certain behaviour or change the course of development in the insect. Chemical communication appears to be the primary mode of information transfer in insects. These chemicals are able to modify the behaviour of a perceiving organism at sub-micro/nanogram levels and are known as semiochemicals. The term is derived from the Greek Word Simeone, meaning a mark of a signal. These behaviour modifying chemicals are divided into two broad categories.

Introduction

The world of living organisms essentially consists of the kingdoms of plants and animals. Myriads of organisms representing these two, interact among them, ranging from symbiosis and mutualism to competition and predator-prey interactions. The last mentioned process is one the important components of ecological dynamics, that determine the balance of nature or equilibrium among the biota. To this category belong the predators, parasites (parasitoids), pathogens, and so on, all of which live at the cost of another organism, without affording any benefit to the ‘victim’, hence the victim is termed the ‘prey’. In an agroecosystem, when an organism, explodes into an unusually high number, devouring cultivated plants it often becomes a ‘pest’ from a man’s point of view. Sometimes the pest can be a human nuisance too. It is here, that the role of predators and parasitoids become relevant as biological agents against the pests.
 
A lion, which preys on herb-feeding antelopes, is also a predator. But, its roles become restricted to maintaining the balance of the antelope population. Left undeterred, antelopes can explode to levels that can threaten grasslands. Here lions play a very crucial role in maintaining (through hunting antelopes) the equilibrium of the grasslands, just sufficient for these plants to surge with every rain. Otherwise, the grasslands potentially may get denuded by the antelopes, or conversely it may override other ecosystems. This is part of the ‘food web’ and is found in every ecosystems; desert, aquatic, mountains, forests, agro-ecosystems, etc.

Introduction

Pesticide in broad term refers to “killer of pests” but is an agent used to control, prevent, destroy, repel and mitigate a pest. Pesticides are thus poisonous substances intentionally applied in situations, which harbour so-called pests. Agriculture including poultry and veterinary (i.e. raising of crops and protection of produce and storage), health (public places-hospitals, restaurants, gardens cinema halls etc.), transportation (shipment, air rail and road transport) are some areas where pesticides are used extensively as spot application, fumigation, aerial and field sprays, soil treatments etc. Plant protection comes to be recognized as an equally important factor of agriculture production as improved seeds, fertilizers and irrigation. Pesticides over time get accumulated in the environment and contaminate all systems i.e. air, water, soil, plants, animals and micro-organisms on being transported from one system to another leading to biomagnifications.

The fate of a pesticide in the environment and the entities, which come in contact, is depicted in the Fig. 1 reflecting the pollution and contamination. Pesticides during manufacturing, transportation, storage and actual use enter the biotic and abiotic components of the environment through air, water and soil and disturb the cohesion causing great disaster sometimes. Pollution is defined as undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, land and water. This change may or will harmfully affect human life or that of desirable species, industrial process, living conditions and cultural assets. It may or will waste or deteriorate our raw material resources. Pollution increases burden of human society causing loss of resources through unnecessary wasteful exploitation, the cost of pollution abatement and deterioration of human health.