eChapters

ABSTRACT

Soil samples from pepper growing tracts of six districts of Kerala viz., Ernakulam, Idukki, Kollam, Kottayam, Thrissur and Pathanamthitta were assessed for total microbial population. Thirty two fungi, 17 bacteria and three actinomycetes were isolated and studied for their antagonistic potential against the foot rot pathogen, Phytophthora capsici. All the 32 fungal isolates were found antagonistic to the pathogen and majority of them belonged to the genera Trichoderma, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Pythium, Cunninghamella and Rhizopus. Among these maximum inhibition was recorded by Trichoderma spp. which included T. pseudokoningii, T. longibrachiatum, T. polysporum and T. harzianum. The laboratory studies were followed by field trials laid out in farmers’ fields (newly planted pepper gardens) in six districts of Kerala. Effect of biocontrol agents in wilt incidence revealed that the two-time treatment of combined application of Trichoderma local isolate and potassium phosphate was superior in checking the foot rot incidence. The treatment, Trichoderma local isolate + Bordeaux mixture applied twice came in the second position. Data on biometric observations revealed a significant increase in the number of laterals in plots treated with Trichoderma local antagonist and potassium phosphate as compared to plots treated with Bordeaux mixture and copper oxychloride. Results of quality analysis of berries revealed that oleoresin content ranged from 6.98 - 11.84 per cent and piperine content from 3.61 - 5.92 per cent and the quality remain unchanged due to various treatments. The study has provided an ‘eco and health friendly’ biological control for the management of Phytophthora foot rot, the most devastating disease of pepper.

ABSTRACT

Trichoderma spp. are important group of fungi which are mycoparasitic on several plant pathogenic fungi. Trichoderma spp. are, therefore, used as commercial biofungicides. Genetic manipulation through induced mutagenesis and molecular cloning are two important tools in improving the biocontrol potential of Trichoderma spp. In the present study, attempts were made to induce genetic variability in Trichoderma virens using UV- induced mutagenesis. In the process, a simple protocol was developed for obtaining high frequency mutations in Trichoderma virens. Using a UV-crosslinker, four stable mutants of T. virens have been developed, which are distinctly different from the wild type in appearance and in antagonism against Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotium rolfsii. One of the mutants, designated as TI is very slow in growth, but sporulates densely, and retained its mycoparasitic potential against R. solani. Though all the mutants were able to antagonize R. solani, all of them were overgrown by the test pathogen S. rolfsii. These mutants could be used to identify genes involved in growth and conidiation in T. virens.

ABSTRACT

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), known as the ‘King of Spices’ is an important export- oriented spice crop, valued for its medicinal and condimental properties. A perfect protocol for the rapid in vitro multiplication of this plant is available. However, systemic bacterial contamination is the single major constraint in the large scale in vitro production of plantlets. Based on morphological and biochemical characters, this bacterium was identified as Beijerinckia indica It grows profusely on nitrogen-free Jensen’s agar and solubilizes CaCO in the medium by acid production. It is resistant to a range of antibiotics and produces indole acetic acid. The bacterium is slow growing and has pH optima of 5.5 and temperature optima of 27oC. It has both endophytic as well as epiphytic association with the plant, the colonization being more in the stem and petiole. A single plasmid of 4.0 kb size was isolated from the bacterium and characterized. Competent cells of E. coli DH5a, transformed with this plasmid survived on Jensen’s nitrogen free agar, indicating its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. We stipulate that the nif genes are located on the plasmid of the bacterium. Since endophytic bacteria are known to stimulate plant growth through antagonistic activity against pathogens, production of growth promoting substances and inducing systemic resistance in several other agricultural crop species, the symbiotic association between Bejerinckia indica and black pepper could be further exploited through integrated nutrient management for improved growth and yield of this spice crop.

ABSTRACT

Atotal of 45 Gram positive, spore forming and rod shaped bacteria identified as Bacillus species were isolated from the rhizosphere of Chickpea plants. They were studied for their interaction with root borne fungal pathogens was studied using spot test method. Isolates CBS 29, CBS 113, CBS 123, CBS 132, CBS 153 and CBS 155 inhibited the growth of four or more fungi with inhibition zones varied from 1-5 mm. Two isolates CBS 153 and CBS 155 produced siderophores on CAS supplemented agar medium. Further inoculation of these Bacilli on seeds of Chickpea cultivar C235 and H8618 showed inhibitory, stunting or stimulatory effects on plumule and radicle growth depending upon cultivar, bacterium used and stage of seedling growth. Studies on co-inoculation of these isolates with Mesorhizobium and their plant growth promoting activity are being carried out. These co-inoculation studies are important areas of exploitation to improve crop productivity.

ABSTRACT

In Kerala, apart from cultivated sesame species (Sesamum indicum L.) three wild species were identified viz. Sesamum malabaricum, Sesamum mulayanum and Sesamum radiatum. An investigation was carried out to determine the intensity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal colonization in cultivated and wild species of sesame. The percentage of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal infection in roots of different sesame species were found to be variable. The highest percentage of root colonization of arbuscular mycorrhial fungi was found in wild species S. malabaricum, which promotes tolerance to the plant under drought stress conditions.

ABSTRACT

Detection of disease tolerance with enhanced defense mechanism is a practical approach in crop variety improvement programme. Toxins being responsible for pathogenicity and virulence of the fungi, regenerating plants from toxin treated calli is an effective and easy approach. The response of tomato calli to the crude toxins of the foliar pathogens viz., Alternaria solani and Septoria lycopersici was studied and the changes in phenol metabolism due to toxin treatment were analysed. Crude toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici extracted under optimum conditions were serially diluted and tomato calli were treated with different dilutions of the toxins to find out the optimum dilution at which minimum survival percentage was obtained, based on a 1-4 score. Minimum score of 1 was obtained at 1:10 dilution for A. solani and at 1:20 for S. lycopersici.

The calli of resistant (LE-625) and susceptible (CO-3) tomato varieties were treated with desired dilutions of the toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici. Total phenolics and ortho- dihydroxy (OD) phenolics were estimated at 24 h interval to study the extent of necrosis on resistant and susceptible calli due to toxin treatment. The total and OD-phenol contents of calli of susceptible cultivar (CO-3) progressively decreased with increase in time interval consequent to the treatment of toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici. In the resistant calli of LE-625, an initial reduction of total phenol and OD-phenol content was observed following the application of the toxins of A. solani and S. lycopersici at 24 hours after treatment. Later with lapse of time, the total phenol content and OD-phenol contents progressively increased reaching a maximum at 120 h after treatment. The results clearly indicated the enhancement of biochemical defense in the resistant calli and a fall in defense mechanism in the susceptible calli due to toxin treatment. Such techniques are useful in the preliminary screening of resistant genotypes in crops like tomato.

ABSTRACT

Apot culture experiment was conducted on tomato with cadmium and lead to identify the selective retention sites of the metals. For this a completely randomized design with five treatments and four replications were laid out at the College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara. The different levels of treatment ranged from 0.5 to 2.0 mg kg -1 soil. Cadmium and lead were directly supplied as a water-soluble source through cadmium chloride and lead nitrate respectively. In tomato the growth and fruiting was permitted only at lower levels of cadmium application. At 1.5 mg kg-1 soil, fruiting failed. While at 2.0 mg kg-1 soil, the very establishment of plant was totally affected. At higher levels of application, cadmium preferred to get accumulated in roots while on the contrary at lower levels, cadmium uptake increased in shoots than in roots with the least content of the metal in fruits. However, in the case of lead, all levels of application in soil permitted growth and fruiting. With increase in rate of lead application, significant selective retention was observed in roots (1.48-6.69 ppm), shoot (0.29-1.62 ppm) and fruits (0.39-1.45 ppm). On comparison of retention sites of lead in tomato, it could be seen that fruits maintained the maximum lead uptake (637.2-2933.0 mg pot-1). Hence, the consumption of such tomato fruits contaminated with heavy metals may result in kidney damage, lack of memory, dissolution of phosphorus in the bones etc.

ABSTRACT

The potato is one of the most important food crops both in developed as well as in developing countries. Developing countries today produce 37 per cent of world’s output of potatoes. Potato is an important food crop in India. Both area under potato cultivation and production has increased manifolds during past decades. The efforts are being made to improve potato quality and its post harvest life as well.

An experiment was conducted to isolate mitochondria from potato tubers and succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) assay and protein profiling were performed in the tissue. Three varieties namely, Kufri Bahar, Kufri Lauvkar and Kufri Jyoti were taken into consideration for the present investigation. Kufri Bahar showed the minimum values for SDH activity and Kufri Jyoti the maximum SDH activity. On the basis of SDH activity, the mitochondria in Kufri Jyoti were seemed to be more viable, functional and coupled as compared to Kufri Bahar and Kufri Lauvkar. This finding also suggested that the respiratory degradation of starch in Kufri Jyoti was higher as compared to Kufri Bahar and Kufri Lauvkar. Thus these result showed that the shelf life of Kufri Jyoti was less as compared to Kufri Bahar and Kufri Lauvkar. Protein profiling performed by SDS-PAGE was found to be similar in all the potato tubers.

ABSTRACT

Biological lipids are chemically diverse group of compounds. Lipids serve two major biological roles namely a structural one as component of membrane, and storage function, particularly in certain seed tissues. Fats and oils are the principal stored form of energy in many organism, and phospholipids and sterols makeup about half of the mass of biological membranes.

An experiment was conducted to study phospholipids composition qualitatively as well as quantitatively in the roots of mung bean seedlings. Among the four solvents used for phospholipids isolation, solvent II (methanol) and solvent III (chloroform: methanol: NH₃ salt) were proved to be the major phospholipids eluting solvents. The results indicated that Phosphatidyl Choline (PC), Phosphatidyl Inositol (PI), Phosphatidyl Serine (PS), Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine (PE) and Di Phospho Glyceride (DPG) were present in significant amount in the roots of ten days old mung bean seedlings. These phospholipids were also identified by their Rf values using thin layer chromatography. Among all the phospholipids isolated, PI showed the minimum Rf value, whereas PS showed the maximum Rf value. On the basis of column chromatography, four fractions of phospholipids were isolated. The highest amount of phospholipids was found in fraction II and the lowest in fraction I. Fraction II and fraction III contained the maximum phospholipids. In the fraction II PC showed the highest content (μg g-1) and one unidentified phospholipids showed the lowest content (μg g-1), whereas in fraction III, PI showed the maximum content (μg g-1) and PS showed the minimum content (μg g-1).

ABSTRACT

Astudy was undertaken at Department of Soil Science & Agrl. Chemistry, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara to standardize different amelioration techniques to prepare enriched coirpith compost. Twelve treatments were tried using different combinations of coirpith, Pleurotus spp., Schizophyllus spp., urea, rock phosphate, cowdung slurry, mushroom waste, goat manure, glyricidia and water hyacinth. The results of the various enrichment techniques revealed that the temperature in the compost in general, increased to a peak value of 47oC on the 22nd day of composting and later decreased to a stabilized value. The observed temperature of 40-50 °C found during the thermophilic stage is essential for the rapid degradation of lignocellulose, as the thermophilic microfungi and actinomycetes involved in this process thrive at that temperature. Though the pH show a hike at the initial stage of composting, it decreased and stabilized at the later stage of composting which is conducive for growth and proliferation of microbes. The treatment coirpith with Pleurotus spp., glyricidia +20% cowdung slurry and goat manure was found to be ideal for compost preparation.

ABSTRACT

The Cry2A proteins are promising candidates for managing the development of Cry1Ac resistance in insects. The Cry2A class of proteins is different from that of Cry1A, and experiments have shown that insects resistant to Cry1Ac are not cross-resistant to Cry2A proteins. However, the Cry2A proteins are less toxic than Cry1Ac to the polyphagous pest Helicoverpa armigera. Structure-based protein engineering of Cry toxins may pave the way for directed evolution of variants with broad spectrum of insect species specificity, enhanced potency, and stability. In the present study homology modeling of Cry2Ac was done using DeepView software. The template for Cry2Ac protein sequence (accession number X57252) was selected using ExPdb template search. The raw sequence of the Cry2Ac was superimposed over the Cry2Aa PDB template (1I5P). The superimposed model was submitted to the SWISS Model server. After receiving the Cry2Ac model, energy minimization was done using Gromos96. The threading energy and force field energy were calculated. The homology model of Cry2Ac made by us along with the Cry2Ac model from the SWISS-MODEL Repository was used for comparative analysis of receptor binding regions of Cry2Aa. Results showed variation between the two highly homologous Cry2A proteins in their receptor binding regions which may account for differences in spectrum of insecticidal activity.

The Distributed Information Sub Center at Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur was set up in May 1995 as the 23^rd center of the BTISNet of DBT, Government of India. The area of specilisation of the Centre is Agricultural Biotech- nology. The Centre passed through several phases involving Internet connectivity through the ordinary C band connectivity, then the Ku band connectivity etc. Now the commu- nication facilities of the Centre have been strengthened by procuring an ISDN Internet connection and a connection through ASIANET. The Center caters to the needs of the students (UG, M Sc & Ph D) and faculty of all departments of the Colleges in the main campus as well as of the other nearby academic and research centers of the University. Over the years, DISC has come to occupy a position in the KAU in the area of Infor- mation Technology , information sources and services based on Internet, CD-ROMs etc. The Centre has procured databases in the field of Biotechnology and developed several databases in the field of Agriculture and related fields. The center regularly conducts training programmes in Bioinformatics. The research activities in the field of Bioinformatics have been enhanced. The Centre has now been upgraded to DIC to facilitate intensive research on Bioinformatics in an effective manner. During the year 2004, the Centre has also started offering a course on Bioinformatics for the M.Sc Biotechnology students of the College of Horticulture.

Biotechnology research in KAU spread over various research stations and cam- puses includes Plant Biotechnology, Animal Biotechnology and Fisheries Biotechnol- ogy. Thrust areas for Plant Biotechnology include developing in vitro protocols for mass multiplication of elite types of fruit plants, ornamentals, medicinal plants, spices, plantation crops and forest species. The other thrust areas include checking clonal stability and genetic fidelity of in vitro derived plants using molecular markers, DNA finger printing and characterisation of germplasm with molecular markers, imparting biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in otherwise accepted crop varieties, genetic trans- formation for imparting/ improving expression of desired traits, in vitro germplasm conservation, enhancement of secondary metabolites production etc.

The crops identified for biotechnology research at KAU include spice crops like black pepper, ginger, turmeric, vanilla, cardamom; plantation crops like cashew, coco- nut and medicinal & aromatic plants such as Kaempferia, Trichopus, Gymnema, Holostemma and Coscinium. For improvement of such crops through molecular breed- ing, it is highly essential to identify/design specific probes/primers, micro-satellites, etc. By combining the research results generated at the Biotechnology Centre and informa- tion retrieved from the Bioinformatics Centre, suitable probes, primers are being de- signed for characterization and improvement of these unique crops through molecular breeding.

WHY, WHEN AND HOW FISH GET PARASITES

Parasites pose a real risk to fishes

All fish are potential hosts to many different species of parasites. Small numbers of parasites are common and probably do little harm. However, all parasites have tremendous reproductive potential and can, under ideal conditions, quickly overwhelm fish in the confines of a tank or pond.

Types of parasites

We can broadly class parasites into two groups. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites are found in the internal tissues and organs.

Endoparasites are uncommon in ornamental fish. However, there is a wide diversity of blood parasites, worms that colonize the intestines and other parasites that can invade various organs and tissues. Many require an intermediate host, such as snails, birds or the introduction of an infected fish, and so are rare in pond/ aquarium fish. There are a variety of clinical signs which might indicate the presence of endoparasites. Lethargy accompanied by emaciation is a common sign, as are worms protruding from the anus. Identification of sporozoan and protozoan endoparasites often requires microscopic examination of tissues (Chanratchakool et al. 1994).

INTRODUCTION

Fish culture as a hobby or business is well established in India. Increased interest in fish culture has also increased awareness and experience with parasites that affect fish health, growth, and survival. Information provided in this chapter is intended for the novice fish culturist as a guide to common parasites of freshwater fish. Identification of parasites and their basic treatment is included; however, any herbal treatment alone or biological cum chemical treatment may be choosen for eradication purpose (Das et al., 1995a).

PREVENTION

This section will discuss ailments that affect the fish kept in our aquariums. We will simply not call them diseases because most are not true diseases but a response to some sort of stimuli such as poor tank water management or the presence of actual parasites. A list of the most common ailments, the reasons behind them and the appropriate action needed to “fix” the problem is given in this Chapter.

If you maintain good water quality, keep the right kind of fish together, feed good quality food and monitor all your water properties you will rarely have any problems. A few common sense precautions when you purchase new fish can save you a lot of trouble.

INTRODUCTION

It can be added that physiological stress as well as the physical offences contribute as primary factor for disease occurrence and fish mortality. Many parasitic diseases due to fluctuation in water quality leads to deplition of stock, and some times total stock will go eg. yellow grub disease.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON PARASITES

Heterophyid Trematode

Cyprinodon variegatus, an estuarine fish, is heavily parasitized in the bulbus arteriosus by the heterophyid trematode Ascocotyle pachycystis. Parasitized fish ventricles were hypertrophied due to mechanical blockage of normal blood flow by metacercariae in the bulbus Swimming performance generally was reduced by the presence of parasites, which had their most significant negative effect at cold temperatures and low dissolved oxygen level ( Felicia C. Coleman , 1993)

INTRODUCTION:

An association of two organisms, one living at the expense of other for food and shelter is called parasitism. Parasite factors associated with recognition and selection of the host and the mechanisms in the host responsible for acceptance or rejection of the invading organism were evaluated. Sensory structures in parasites are able to detect differences between different fish species and this ability to discern between fishes may be based on both chemical and mechanical stimuli on the host surface. Complex glycoproteins, proteins, carbohydrates and simple molecules attract parasites or modify their behaviour. (Kurt Buchmann and T. Lindenstrom, 2002)

INTRODUCTION

Zoonoses are diseases and infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans. The pathogens that cause zoonotic diseases are bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites or protozoa. Disease transfer occurs via direct or indirect exposure to the pathogen. A pathogen is contracted directly through skin to skin contact of an infected animal or through ingestion of diseased animal products (infected faeces, urine, saliva, blood, milk or other bodily fluids). A bite or sting from a diseased animal or through an infected invertebrate host directly transfers the pathogen to humans as well. Indirect exposure occurs through air, water or soil in which the pathogen can survive for a limited period of time without a host ( Acha, et al., 2003).

CLASSIFICATION OF ZOONOSES

The World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Zoonoses came up with the following classification system of zoonoses based on the type of life cycle of the pathogen.

For most people in their right mind, parasites are disgusting little creatures. The mention of them evokes images of tiny crawlers entering the body of innocent victims by devious means, encrusting themselves within various organs (often with very unpleasant effects), living off their host’s tissues, and then exiting the body, sometimes through scatological avenues, leaving behind hosts that are incapacitated, if not mere shells of their former selves (as is literally the case for some insects). The true facts are not always that gruesome (after all, parasites that have to spend a long time inside a host do not benefit if this host kicks the bucket, because then they die as well) but often enough parasitic reality is not pretty. Ask biology students about their parasitology course, and they will tell you that attending class is like visiting a little shop of horrors. I, for one, came out of my parasitology course with newly developed phobias (mercifully temporary) of such innocuous activities as eating meat and bathing in streams – they represent ways of transmission for some parasites. But students will also tell you that parasites are fascinating because of the complexity of their life cycles and the intricate ways in which they complete these cycles. So fascinating, in fact, that many students eventually become parasitologists and devote their entire lives to studying the little critters. Most of these people work with parasites of livestock or humans, but a few with an equal taste for ethology and ichthyology pursue the more esoteric questions that occupy this page: how fishes avoid getting parasitized, and how fishes alter their behaviour once they get parasitized (Barber et al., 2000)

Occasionally anglers catch fish that show signs of infection or parasitism. Is the fish safe to eat? The usual and safest response to this question is, “When in doubt - don’t.” However, very few fish diseases can be transferred to humans. Almost all fish are safe to eat when thoroughly cooked, smoked or frozen.

Fishes are a valuable resources for hill streams and temperate region people. Not only do they provide important recreation, but they are also a valuable supplement to the family food budget. The anticipation of any fisherman, whether he be a young boy with a cane pole and a can of worms or an “old pro,” is a quality fish for the table. It is the unwritten law of any true sportsman to utilize the fish he catches. The purpose of this publication is to help you, the angler, determine if the fish you’ve caught is worthy of your skillet. Remember, a sick fish will not take the hook (Taraschewski, 2000).

INTRODUCTION

A parasite is an organism which exploits another organism for the purpose of staying alive. Some parasitic relationships are harmless, while in other cases a parasite can damage or even kill its host. The word is borrowed from the Greek word ‘‘parasitos’’, meaning “one who eats at the table of someone else.” In case of exotic carps parasites causes a great loss by reducing economy. Some, cannot live once their host dies, while others can continue thriving on dead hosts until their nutrients are consumed. Parasites live inside a host are called endoparasites or internal parasites. Ectoparasites live outside the host, and are generally more capable of switching hosts. A parasite preys on other parasites, is called epiparasite (Anderson, 1974).

Silver Carp

The silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) is a species of freshwater cyprinid fish, a variety of Asian carp native to north and northeast Asia. It is cultivated in China. Pound for pound, more silver carp are produced worldwide in aquaculture than any other species. Silver carp are usually farmed in polyculture with other Asian major carps, or sometimes Indian major carps or other species. It has been introduced to, or spread into via connected waterways, at least 88 countries around the world.Introduced in india in 1959 at the pond culture division of CIFRI. In India in 1963 breed sucessfully by hypophysation. The silver carp is a filter feeder, and possesses a remarkably specialized filtration apparatus capable of filtering particles as small as 4 µm. The gill rakers are fused into a sponge-like filter, and an epibranchial organ secretes mucus which assists in trapping small particles. A strong buccal pump forces water through this filter. Silver carp, like all Hypophthalmichthys species, have no stomachs; they are thought to feed more or less constantly. Silver carp are thought to feed largely on phytoplankton; they also consume zooplankton and detritus. It is used in controlling water quality, especially control of noxious cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), microcystis .

An extraordinary variety of viruses, bacteria, and organisms stand ready to attack us and feed off our bodies’ cells. Using microscopes of varying power, photographers show us a teeming microbial world that we could barely imagine without their help.

1.0. Introduction

Any commodity, produce or harvest in organic or inorganic form to be fit to eat by a particular society, and contributes materially towards growth and repair of tissue is known as food. Food processing is application of techniques in a systematic manner for preventing losses through preservation, processing, packaging, storage and distribution to ensure greater availability of a wide variety of foods. It is a set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food for consumption by humans or animals.

The early stages of food processing were largely confined to primary processing of food crops, commodities and produce whereby all these rendered fit for consumption or sale in the markets. Processing of rice and oil seeds were the necessities of that time for living. Later on, World War II gave a fillip to some of other food processing industries to meet the demand of the defence forces of the country. Fruits and vegetables processing; wheat and sugar milling drew support and sustenance from the exigencies created by war. Post war situation almost merged into the post-independence scenario. However, food processing industry received its first major impulse after independence. During this time, all the primary food processing industries received top most priority and all necessary support from the Governments in the country.

2.0. Introduction

Before dealing with the various processes involved in the processing of fruit and vegetables or any food commodity on commercial scale, it is necessary to consider certain important factors such as investment, site, building, water supply, staff, labour etc. which are essential for the successful running of the food processing plant. Processing plant is the premises, buildings, structure and equipment used in the preparation, processing, handling, transportation and storage of any food commodity / fruits and vegetables / the processed products. The design and layout of the food processing plant is of great importance, besides other important factors. The food processing plant may be single storeyed or multi-storeyed depending upon capacity of production and viability of the plant e.g. if the production of the plant is assumed to be small and processing plant have to run only for short duration during the year then single storeyed processing plant can serve the purpose. Plant layout, product layout and process layout are the most important components for setting up of food processing industry and can determine the working efficiency of unit. Sanitary requirements in food processing plant are also important for marketing of the prepared product in national and international market. Sanitary requirement is as important in food processing plant as is the treatment of the effluent waste. For setting up of the food processing plant certain guidelines have been laid out by FPO, 1955.

3.0. Introduction

A hazard is any factor that may be present in the food or food products and can cause harm to the consumer either through injury or illness. Hazards may be biological, chemical and physical. It may be a biological, chemical or physical property or condition of food with the potential to cause an adverse health effect. Therefore, these hazards can be grouped into three broad categories (Fig 3.1). Further, various stages during which processing hazard can takes place in a food industry is illustrated through Fig. 3.2. Effect of different potential hazards on human health along with symptoms is presented in Annexure IV.

4.0. Introduction

Quality is a measure of the degree of excellence or degree of acceptability by the consumer. By quality, one can differentiate the individual unit of a product from the other units and can determined the degree of acceptability of the individual unit by the consumer. The quality may also be defined in term of end use and may vary depending upon consumer’s perception and need. According to USDA Marketing Workshop Report (1951) “quality is the combination of attributes or characteristics of a product that have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of the product to the user”. For industry, quality is a measure of purity, strength, flavour, colour, size, maturity, workmanship and conditions or any other distinctive attributes of the product.

According to Code of Federal Regulations “Quality is the inherent properties of any processed product which determine the relative degree of excellence of such product and includes the effect of preparation and processing and may or may not include the effects of packaging or added ingredients/ additives”.

5.0. Introduction

Quality control is generally defined as the regulation by law of food manufacture, distribution and sale in order to prevent health hazards and fraud to the consumers. Thus, it becomes a criminal offence to sell adulterated, filthy or contaminated foods. Quality control is the scientific control of production. There are certain basic fundamentals which are required for successful running of the food processing industry. So, for successful quality control in an industry / organization certain management systems are needed. Depending upon consumer requirement and satisfaction, quality management system is based on four important pillars like management responsibility, resource management, product / service realization and measurement, analysis & improvement. This management system is also important for ISO certification in an organization / industry.

6.0. Introduction

Food is the basic need of all living organisms and hence, its quality should be given top priority. Food processing involves number of unit operations for material handling and there are always chances that the food may be contaminated or adulterated. The food is said to be contaminated if food is injurious to health and contain filthy, putrid rotten odour of insect pests etc. and can affect a large number of the populations at a time and hazards may occur. However, a food is said to be adulterated if it contains any other substance which affects the nature and quality product or substance is substituted with cheaper substance. So, it is essential to set the minimum limits of the desirable characteristics required and the maximum limits of the undesirable components that the food should contain. This helps to set common standards for commodities and to prevent confusion among the consumers.

7.0. Introduction

The food safety is one of the most important of assurance system required for global expansion of trade between developed and developing countries. Assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use is known as food safety concept. It is set of conditions and measures taken during the food chain like production, processing, storage and distribution in order to ensure that, the product consumption does not represent a risk to the human health.

8.0. Introduction

Food additives are the substances not normally consumed as a food by itself and contain or not contain nutritive value but are added to food to improve freshness, sensory and keeping quality of food. So, a food additive is defined as a substance or a mixture of substances other than the food stuff incorporated in food either directly or indirectly as a result of any phase of production, processing, storage or packaging to improve or maintain the nutritional value, enhance quality, consumer acceptability and facilitate the preparation of materials e.g., acid, alkali, bleaching agents, emulsifying & sterilizing agents, flavours, colours, nutrient supplements, clarifying agents, humectants, chemical preservatives etc. Every food available in the market or at home contains food additives. So, now the question arises that whether additives are safe from consumption/toxicological point of view or not? What are the facts or fictions, if additives are to be used in the food preparation? These are the most important questions to be answered and discussed before their use in food industry.

9.0. Introduction

Enzymes are organic biocatalysts which initiate and control biological reactions. A catalyst is an agent affecting the velocity of a chemical reaction without appearing among the final products of the reaction. Unlike general catalysts, enzymes are specific in nature and function at a temperature of approximately 37^o C and pH close to neutrality. All enzymes are proteins but all proteins are not enzymes. These are distributed among the cell and tissues of plants and animals. Use of malted barley in brewing, yeast in the production of alcoholic beverages and wrapping of meat in the bruised leaves of papaya tree for tenderizing meat are techniques that have been used for centuries. In bread and cheese making also, enzymes have been exploited from generation to generation. Thus, enzymes have been used without knowing the nature of enzyme as catalysts and reactions involved. However, it is only recently that nature and action of enzyme is known and its importance in food industry is realized.

10.0. Introduction

Food processing is an important sector in agriculture, the scope of which has increased manifold that can help to prevent wastage of perishable commodities to a great extent. But, at the same time, food processing industries generate a large quantity and variety of food products, provide employment to a large number of people and uplift their economic status. The production, processing and preparation of food, all results in generation of huge quantity of waste material causing health hazards due to environmental pollution. The waste material may be in the form of leaf/ straw, waste during harvesting, food preparation waste, after processing waste, unused material as waste, food processing operation waste etc. The huge wastage of the food material is due to lack of control on such agri-economy practices. So, the disposal of waste material has become a challenge to the processors, as different agencies are pressurizing for an environment friendly treatment of waste material. The utilization of waste for the production of value added products is very important in the management of food processing waste. Different types of food industries wastes are: i) fermentation industry waste, ii) fruit and vegetable industry waste (Table 10.1) iii) Sugar and starch industry waste, iv) diary industry waste, v) meat processing industry waste, vi) coffee industry waste and vii) palm oil industry waste, viii) fish processing industry waste. So, there is great need to find out options which have positive values of food waste. The options having positive values are: i) minimization of the waste generation, ii) development of value added products. Most of fruit and vegetable wastes are a rich source of vital constituents like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, fibres etc. Mango seed kernel is rich in carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals; orange, melon and pumpkin seeds can provide fats and mineral matters. Apricot kernels are rich source of oil (45%) and proteins.

11.0. Introduction

Agricultural marketing is one of the important branches of agricultural economics. Farmers have one commodity or the other in surplus and need to be disposed off or sold to earn some money to satisfy other needs, which otherwise cannot be satisfied on the farm or in the village. Thus, agricultural marketing has two-fold objective i.e. Sale of surplus commodities and buy other commodities to satisfy family needs. In modern commercial agriculture, the surpluses with farmers are steadily rising, so also their family needs are changing with the change in lifestyle. Therefore, agricultural marketing has assumed important place. Traditionally, market is place or building where buying or selling of goods takes place. But, in modern times with fast and long distance communication facilities like telephone, market is no more restricted to a particular place only, but it has become wider and has assumed regional, national or even international status. Buying and selling is finalized on telephones only from distant places. Thus, the concept of market has radically changed.

So, marketing of food/ processed food is an important and vital constituent of modern business management. Knowledge about market is critical for the success of the product in such a highly competitive global market place. Now a day, in such modern time, marketing is itself a highly specialized and distinctive discipline. Based on marketing rules and laws, marketing is sometimes regarded as marketing science. Modern marketing strategies, tools and techniques have attained such complexity that marketing is linked with those of the modern warfare. The results of the marketing wars are witness by Cola wars and other brand bars being fiercely fought in the global market. So, the markets have become virtual battlefield for the brand wars. Markets and technologies are the two powerful forces driving the food processing industry. Further packaging has become a powerful tool in the promotion and marketing of the processed food products.

12.0. Introduction

The benefits of food laws to the consumers and the processing industries depend upon the efficacy with which the laws are implemented. The implementation of laws requires not only a well organized national infrastructure for inspection and quality control, but also requires reliable methods of analysis, that can be used to check the quality standards for improvement of the food product w.r.t. nutrition, safety and sensory attributes. Early and accurate analysis of food product prior to preservation, during preservation or post preservation is a crucial component for quality evaluation and their quality control. Quality control in food industries depends upon three principles viz. i) raw material control, ii) process control and iii) finished product inspection. Once a product has gone through the manufacturing process, little can be done to alter its quality or to overcome the faults. Examination of the finished product at the most represents analysis with respect to standards – to accept or reject. Effective control over the raw material and process minimizes the rejection of the products. The food spoilage can be managed most effectively, if control measures are introduced at an early stage of food preparation/contamination. Reliance on symptom is often not adequate because spoilage may occur before symptom appears. The spoilage of the food may affect sensory, physical, chemical or microbiological attributes. Therefore, now a day, food processors want to analyze their food samples quickly without any delay in shipment for which they have to depend on the different methods for their quality evaluation. The analysis and quality control of food products involve physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory methods. So, widely used standard procedures / methods for evaluation of quality of food prior to preservation, during preservation or post preservation has been given in this chapter for easy implementation.

Introduction

India accounts for 16.7 per cent of the world’s food consumers. India’s size in terms of food consumers is many times larger than the average size of the rest of the countries, except China. At the time of independence in 1947, India was in the grip of a serious food crisis, which was accentuated by the partition of the country. The demand for food far exceeded supply, food prices were ruling at high levels and more than half of the populations were living below the poverty line with inadequate purchasing power. With high rates of population growth, the dependence on imported food increased further. However, the situation improved considerably after the mid-1960s, when new agricultural development strategy and food policies were adopted in the country. The production of staple cereals increased substantially, mainly contributed by productivity improvements. The dependence on food imports reduced and the country became a marginal net exporter of cereals. There was also an improvement in physical and economic access of households to cereals and other nutritive food products. The proportion of households reporting hunger went down and the incidence of economic poverty was reduced. The objective of this paper is to review the Indian approach to tackling the severe problem of food insecurity, which it faced immediately after independence. It reviews the evolution of food policy, the major policy instruments deployed, intervention in food marketing system, and the current status of food security/insecurity. The paper also identifies the lessons emerging from the experience of India. The paper has been divided into eight sections. The second section briefly presents the evolution of the food policy in India and the approaches to food security. The current status of food security and insecurity is analyzed in section 3. The next three sections detail the three major instruments of the food security policy. Price support policies pursued in the country are described in section 4. Section 5 examines the magnitude of input subsidies in Indian agriculture. Direct food and other assistance programs for improving household food and nutrition security and magnitude of food subsidy are presented in section 6, while some salient features of food marketing system that affect food security are given in section 7. Lessons emerging from the Indian experience are presented in the last section.

Role of Agriculture in Livelihood Systems

For the developing countries like India, where a majority of families, in both the farm and non-farm sectors, derive their livelihoods from agriculture, sustainability of agriculture cannot be discussed or even defined in isolation of the issue of livelihoods. Livelihood is defined as adequate stock and flow of food and cash with an individual or a family to meet its basic needs. Livelihood security then means secured ownership of, or access to, resources and income-earning activities, including reserves and assets to offset risks, ease shocks and meet contingencies. There are four principal ways of acquiring livelihoods by the rural households. First is the production-based livelihood. A large proportion of the small and marginal farmers gain livelihoods through production on small pieces of land. For these households, availability or access to inputs and improved methods of production are quite critical for their livelihoods. Second is the labour-based livelihood. Most of the small landholders and landless rural households derive livelihoods by selling their labour. For their livelihoods, demand for labour, wage rates and prices of food are the critical factors. Third is the exchange- or market- based livelihood. Those rural households which produce surplus food and non-food agricultural products or non-farm goods earn their livelihoods by selling these surpluses in the market. The marketing system for these products and relative prices of what they sell and what they buy, affect their livelihoods. The fourth set of livelihoods is transfer-based entitlements. The households without any income-earning asset or able-bodied person to work depend for their livelihoods on transfers from the government or other social organizations. Government’s social security and food assistance programmes are relevant for this group of rural households in fulfilling their livelihood requirements. The rural livelihood systems in the developing countries thus encompass a broad range of factors and depend on several macro sub- systems of the economy.

Introduction

India has made impressive strides on the agricultural front during the past three decades. Much of the credit for this success should go to the several million small farming families that form the backbone of Indian agriculture and Indian economy. Policy support, production strategies, public investment in infrastructure, research and extension for crop, livestock and fisheries have significantly helped in increasing the agricultural productivity, food production and its availability. Notwithstanding these achievements, producing additional food with limited land, and providing economic access to food at the household level for ensuring food security would continue to be a major challenge for the nation. India has experienced considerable changes in the crop mix, yield and production since the inception of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution phase displayed a high yield growth per unit of input. The first post-Green Revolution phase (from late-1960s to mid-1980s) was marked by the continued growth in returns from land through the intensification in use of chemical inputs and machine labour. The second post-Green Revolution phase (beginning the mid-1980s) was characterized by high input-use and decelerating productivity growth. It calls for an examination of the issues related to the trends in agricultural productivity, particularly with reference to individual crops in recent years. In the present paper, the temporal and spatial variations in the productivity status of major crops in India have been analyzed using the TFPG estimates. Some policy measures have also been suggested for sustaining TFP of the crops.

Introduction

The importance of food security and its management world over has been recognized long back. The World Food Summit in 1974, called in response to the persistent and widespread under-nutrition and the future role of agriculture, stressed upon establishment of committee to review and recommend location specific action plan in sensitive areas. Asserting that every man, woman and child has the inalienable right to be free from hunger and malnutrition in order to develop their physical and mental faculties, an international undertaking on world food security was set up in which member nations committed to maintain food stocks to ensure routine and emergency food supplies (in case of crop failure, natural disaster, etc.). Monitoring the implementation of such undertaking has since then become the responsibility of the Committee on World Food Security.

Introduction

Food being the foremost basic need gets the priority in expenditure of people, especially poor class. Access to food demands affordability, which depends upon the twin factors namely, income of the people and prices prevailing in the country. Slower growth in income than prices would undermine the purchasing power, resulting in inadequate access to food and calorie consumption. Foodgrains account for about four-fifth of the calorie intake of the poor and an increase in cereal prices could significantly reduce the calorie intake of the poor, as it is sensitive to cereal prices.

Introduction

Food is the most important requirement of every section of the society. But, mere availability of food sometimes is not enough and it does not mean that everybody is having access to a fair share of it or that every one has an adequate diet (Oshaug et al., 1994). Therefore, affordable food prices and adequate purchasing power with the people are equally important.

The need of food security was felt due to the gaps in food production and availability of sufficient food from domestic resources. Large proportion of the underfed population starves not because of general food shortage but due to the insufficient access to food supplies or insufficient income to purchase food.FAO (1999) estimated that there were 20.4 million undernourished people in India only).

Importance of maintaining food security over the world has been abundantly recognized since long. However, during 1974, FAO was called by the World Food Conference to establish a Committee on World Food Security so as to keep the world food situation under constant review and to suggest the strategies for rectifying the problems in problematic areas. Later, an International Undertaking on World Food Security was set up wherein member nations committed themselves to maintain food stocks for ensuring uninterrupted supply of foodgrains and to cope up with the problems of shortage in case of crop failure due to the natural calamities etc. Since then, the Committee on World Food Security monitors the implementation of the undertaking.

Introduction

Food security means access by all people at all times to enough food for an active healthy life (Reuntlinger, 1985; World bank, 1986; FAO, 1989). But now-a-days, food security is used differently at national, regional and household level. At regional and national levels, it is related to regional and national balances between availability and need whereas at household level, it is related with food production resources, income available for purchases and assistance sufficient to meet the aggregate needs of all household members.

Availability of food alone may not guarantee access due to poor distribution or lack of purchasing power as co-existence of aggregate food self sufficiency and widespread malnutrition and hunger do exist. As per Chen and Kates, 1994, food security includes combination of criteria as:

Introduction

Poverty has been described as a situation of “pronounced deprivation in well being” and being poor as “to be hungry, to lack shelter and clothing, to be sick and not cared for, to be illiterate and not schooled. Poor people are particularly vulnerable to adverse events outside their control. They are often treated badly by institutions of the state and society and excluded from voice and power in those institutions.” Lack of access to resources is a unifying characteristic of poverty in all its manifestations. The poor lack ownership of or access to assets such as land, water, forest, dwelling units, credit, literacy, longevity, voice and capital-both physical and social. Those who are severely below the poverty line are largely involved in subsistence type activities for which they get exploitatively poor returns despite suffering extreme physical hardship and undertaking grave risks so as to earn a meager income. Since earnings are below even the margins of existence, expenditure and survival needs exceed income. This often results in the need to borrow small amounts of money at usurious interest rates of as much as 120 per cent per annum (Mehta, 1996) when borrowing is not possible, hunger is suffered. Their inability to change the power relationships results in scarcely available common resources (such as even drinking water) or public funds meant for poverty alleviation being misappropriated and diverted through manipulation by the locally powerful or corrupt. Since there are no mechanisms for grievance redressal this could result in social tension, despair or a combination thereof.

Introduction

The concept of food security having relevance at global, national, regional, state, household and individual level is well understood as a core issue over the last three decades in the world. The World Food Conference of 1974, organized in the wake of the world food crisis of 1972-74, was largely concerned with global food security. It was felt as the common responsibility of all nations that international approaches were needed to achieve the goal of improved world food security. The food security at national level means arrangements for providing physical supply of a minimum level of food during all periods including those having harvest failures. FAO (1983) had formulated that the basic concept of food security implied that all people at all times have physical and economic access to the basic food they need. The World Bank (1986) has modified this formulation to indicate that food security is access by all people at all times to enough food for an active healthy life.

In this direction, the conference on Environment and Development held in Rio (1992), the Joint FAO/WHO Conference on Nutrition held in Rome (1992), the World Conference on Human Rights held in Vienna (1993), the International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo (1994), the World Summit on Social Development held in Copenhagen (1995), the Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing (1995), the Habitat II Conference held at Istanbul (1996), the World Food Summit held in Rome (1996), etc. deliberated on various facets of food security like food security and sustainable development, right for nutritionally fit and safe food, population growth and food production, global measures to satisfy the food needs, campaign against hunger, women in food production, rural-urban linkages and so on.

Introduction

The diversifi cation and modernization of the present agricultural and other related activities supported by efficient on and off farm processing of the commodities for the purpose of value-addition is expected to increase food production and create employment and income generation. Adding value to food commodities after harvest is also aimed at minimizing the losses during storage and to maintain the quality of product. Efficient post-production practices, particularly the preservation and processing of agricultural and allied produces may bring a wide range of benefits to the people in this country, generating job opportunities by opening up village-level processing units. The goals of post-harvest and food processing technology are loss prevention as well as adding value to the harvested biomass, which result in more income to the farmers/processors and better quality produce provided to the consumers. Post-harvest and food processing technology are commodity-and location-specific and it is done at home, village and/or cottage levels at small and large industrial scale. On-farm post-harvest storage and primary processing integrated with production technology help to generate more employment opportunities and additional income for rural people. Minimization of the post-harvest losses is an important means to increase per capita food availability. It also helps to generate more employment and income. Investment in post-harvest measures is more economical and time saving than in productivity to obtain the same amount of a particular commodity. Furthermore, post-harvest measures automatically add value to the raw commodities as they pass on their marketing channels. Adoption of postharvest technologies and value additive measures are very strong tools for rural and social development through employment and income generation. Development and adoption of efficient value addition practices will enhance national food supply and sustain food security even at the household level. Fruits and vegetables processing industries have a good deal of potential in serving the rural economy. First, it helps in generating more employment for rural people. It will also check mobility of rural masses towards urban areas in search of employment. Employment opportunities offered by agroprocessing industries are plenty to the farm population and entrepreneur seeking self-employment. Cottage scale units particularly offer self-employment opportunities. Traditionally women handle food and are familiar with skills of food processing. In order to improve the status of living of woman and rural food processing, low cost appropriate fruit and vegetable processing technologies offer excellent opportunities for production of processed foods. The improvement of status of socially backward and landless labor classes will be possible only through providing non-farm employment at their doorsteps. This will generate a sense of security and confidence amongst rural people for overcoming uncertainty in agricultural income and providing self-employment to the land-less labor. The locally available untapped resources should be used effectively.

Introduction

Agriculture provides unique solution to various developmental issues including poverty and hunger. World Development Report (2008) reveals that the agricultural growth has significantly contributed to the decline in poverty world over (as in China and Latin America). Though the non-agriculture sector pays more dividend, and grows steeply, the capital generated, however benefits a few (mostly urban areas) thus leading to uneven distribution of income. Whereas, the development of agriculture, which employs most of the rural population, is expected to benefit a large section of the population simultaneously and uniformly. It is in this context that this report predicts agriculture as a vital development tool for achieving Millennium Development Goal that calls for halving by 2015 the share of people suffering from extreme poverty and hunger.

Introduction

Food security problem has multiple dimensions that range from ensuring the food supply at global, country and local levels to create its effective demand round the year. The ultimate goal of an effective food security policy is to provide individuals with adequate dietary requirements through availability and accessibility of food, which are necessary conditions for nutritional well being. The level of food security existing in a country, however is a complex interactions, operating at different levels from the macro to the micro level. The components of the system would include international trade and macro policies, the agricultural sector, the market economy, consumption pattern, the micro economy or household income, urban-rural differentiation and gender issues, etc.

Food insecurity is a complex issue having several dimensions such as, poverty, unemployment, famine, gender discrimination, inequity, starvation, food and nutritional practices, for human growth, natural calamities and so on. Poverty has been recognized globally both as a cause and consequence of food insecurity. In the mid 1980s, 72 per cent of the world’s poor and 66 per cent of the world’s extremely poor lived in the Asia-Pacific region. In this region, 272 million people would suffer from chronic malnutrition during the next decade i.e. in the year 2010. In Asia-Pacific region, India alone has 204 million undernourished people, which is quite alarming when compared with neighbouring countries like China, which has only 164 million undernourished people despite being much populous than India. World Health Organization (WHO) report (1998) points out that health expectancy is more important than life expectancy. The impact of poverty and malnutrition on health has widened the gap between the rich and the poor.

Introduction

India is more an agrarian economy, wherein about 50 percent of people directly depend on agriculture for employment. Like other developing nations, however, this country is facing some of the challenges like food insecurity, agricultural backwardness and unsatisfied farming community. Though green revolution in 1970s had brought much relief in this direction, liberalized trade polices since mid 1990s created new and complex issues, especially for small and marginal farmers. Also, since recent years the contribution of agriculture to GDP is declining, indicating that there is growth is shifting away from agriculture to industrial and service sectors. The rural-urban migration, primarily due to the poor employment absorption capacity of our traditional agricultural system, lower productivity, changing life styles, etc. is increasing at alarming rate. In spite of all these, the disparity persists within the society and across the region. Such inequalities, as measured through income distribution, consumption pattern and spending of the income, pose a big challenge, as the gaps are widening with the passage of time. Inadequate purchasing power among the poorer communities leads to undernourishment, which in turn affects their productive capacity. Even though huge food grain stocks are distributed among the needy, considerable proportion of the population lack economic access to such food, and have to rely upon the cheap and insufficient food.

Introduction

The availability of food depends on the production and distribution while the access to food is determined by an individual’s purchasing power. Thus, the food security in the framework of economic welfare is the situation in which the lowest income strata has a near zero probability of being vulnerable to famine and in terms of calorie it requires a near zero probability of falling below the poverty line (Rentlinger and Selousky, 1978). Therefore, food security concerns every sovereign country, especially the developing and poor nations, owing to its profound implications for their socio-politico-economic stability and which co-exists with international diplomacy. According to 1998 annual report of International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), about 73 million people would be added to the world’s population every year between 19952020 increasing it by 32 percent to reach at 7.5 billion. Much of the population growth is expected to occur in the developing countries mainly in India where the population is expected to increase by 36 percent to touch at 1.27 billion by 2020 and is likely to overtake China by 2035. Therefore, meeting the food and nutrition needs of growing and urbanized population with rising incomes will have profound implications for agricultural production and food security of the country and Himachal Pradesh is no exception.

Introduction

Food security at the national level refers to the capacity of a country to provide sufficient food for its population, and will depend on such factors as food production in relation to the population, food aid and within-country food distribution. The ability to withstand emergencies arising from drought, floods, and such other calamities, also fall in its purview. While many definitions of household security exist, they agree on a household’s ability to get sufficient food to the household. Gillespie & Mason (1991) gave a more lucid account and defined household level food security as access to food that is adequate in terms of quality, quantity, safety and cultural acceptability, for all household members. Two main factors determining household food security are income generated by the members of the family from the avenues available and food prices in operation at the given point of time. The cost of achieving and maintaining food security is important.

Food security takes into account only the nutritional requirements of the individuals in the society, which is basic to all the living beings for keeping the body and soul intact. Our needs go beyond this and necessarily include fiber and shelter, not only to be called civilized but also to face vagaries of weather. Once we add these dimensions to the food security then it can be termed as livelihood security. In this century, many driving forces are added in the process of evolution of strategies. Loss of biodiversity, global climatic change and information dissemination are some of the major factors that drive the rate of livelihood changes and determine the direction of its evolution.

Introduction

The world’s population is expected to grow from 6 billion people in 2000 to 7.5 billion people in 2020. Availability of land for farming is on the decline, and water for agriculture and other uses is increasingly scarce. Together these and other forces will challenge the capacity of the world’s food production system. The world has experienced an unprecedented increase in population during the past century, with a billion people added every decade during the last three decades alone. Dramatic shifts in production and consumption of food have accompanied this population explosion, including a surge in grain production, a spectacular rise in meat production and consumption, and the emergence of an increasingly vital role for international trade (Fig. 1). High-yielding varieties of wheat and rice swept across much of Asia during the 1970s and early 1980s, easing fears of imminent famine. Cereal yields have risen more modestly in recent years, but they have still outstripped gains in other crops such as cassava, potatoes, and beans.