eChapters

Any commercial plant breeding programme run by the private seed companies typically called as Research and Development (R & D) is carried out through various models operating. There is no fixed organizational set up and different companies adopt the working set up as per size of their programme, availability of manpower and resources, area of the breeding station and several other considerations. One thing is clear that any commercial plant breeding programme will have more numbers of crop breeders than the supporting scientists.

It is a very common disease of mango. It is otherwise known as blossom blight, leaf spot, twig blight or wither tip.

Introduction

Coffee is the second important beverage, ranking second among traded commodities. Its dried beans are roasted, ground, and brewed to make a stimulating and refreshing beverage. Arabica coffee originated in Ethiopia, from a place called Caffa. The word “coffee” is derived from a place called “Caffa.” Here it occurs naturally in the forest between 1,400 to 1,800 feet of elevation. Nearly 80 percent of the world’s coffee is produced by Coffea Arabica. Robusta coffee is thought to have originated in Central Africa (Congo and Zaire). Arabica coffee was introduced in 1670 by Muslim pilgrim Baba Budan. He brought seven seeds from Yemen and cultivated them in Chikmagalur, Karnataka. The original seeds he brought were probably Mokka seeds. Robusta coffee was introduced from the Indochina region at the close of the 19^th century for planting in the states of lower elevations. World: Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, India, Ethiopia, Peru, Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras. It is also growing in India in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.

Losses caused by Eimeria in Intestine of poultry are well known from more than century (Chapman, 2014) and their important information like life cycle, pathogenesis, global distribution are well established (Shirley et al., 2005). Heavy infection of coccidiosis in poultry leads to necrotic enteritis, reduced feed conversion ratio and even some species of Eimeria are responsible for mortality of birds (Shirley et al., 2005; Williams, 1999).Due to economic losses caused by Eimeria, prophylactic use of anticoccidial drugs and live parasitic vaccine are used in poultry industry (Blake and Tomley, 2014).

INTRODUCTION

In nature water is considered as the most important natural resource which is utilized in large quantity throughout the world for drinking, washing, bathing, recreation, irrigation, aquaculture and many industries. Water also plays a fundamental role in regulation of water cycle in nature. India is a agriculture based country totally based on different water sources. The quality of water plays a important role to mankind because it is directly linked with human health. Lake water’s are mainly used for farming and domestic activities like cloth washing. Increasing human activities continuously in lake basins is posing a great threat to all forms of life in aquatic environment. Most of the people who live in villages use irrigation facilities for farms and use excessive use fertilizers and pesticides for agriculture purposes and subsequently and degrade the aquatic ecosystems of lakes. We need to conserve water for future generations and safeguard our natural resources for sustainable development and biodiversity conservation.

Many researchers investigated the freshwater lakes and ponds in the Indian subcontinent viz. Bagde and Verma (1985), Desai (2014), Patel and Patel (2012), Nirbhavanae and Khobragade (2017), Mehta et al (2016), Gupta (2018), Bastola (2013), Raj and Sevankodiyane (2018), Rana Phul Kunwar Singh (2016), Shyamala and Hemvathy (2018), Meshram et al (2014), Fule and Nimgare (2018), Chaudhary and Sitre (2020), Pimpalshende and Sitre (2021).

Organisms in the order Rickettsiales form a diverse group of small (0.3 to 0.5 x 0.8 to 2.0 pm), non-motile, pleomorphic Gram-negative bacteria which replicate only in host cells. They can be cultured in the yolk sac of embryonated eggs or in selected tissue culture cell lines. Because they stain poorly with aniline dyes, these organisms should be stained by Romanowsky methods such as Giemsa or Leishman. In addition to host-cell dependence and poor affinity for basic dyes, a requirement for an invertebrate vector distinguishes them from conventional bacteria and the Chlamydiales.
Epidemiology
Animal hosts and arthropod vectors are the reservoirs for most rickettsiae. A number of rickettsia1 organisms, including Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma marginale and Haemobartonella felis produce latent infections. In arthropods, rickettsiae replicate in the epithelial cells of the gut before spreading to other organs, including the salivary glands and ovaries where further replication may occur.
Organisms are transmitted when the arthropod feeds on the animal host. Some organisms such as Rickettsia rickettsii are maintained in a tick population by transovarial transmission. Trans-stadial but not transovarial transmission of E. canis and E. phagocytophila occurs in ticks. With the exception of Coxiella burnetii, which produces endospore-like forms and can remain viable in dust for up to 50 days, most rickettsiae are labile outside host cells. Aerosol transmission of C.burnetii commonly occurs in domestic animals and humans. In addition, a silent cycle involving ticks and small wild mammals may constitute a possible source of infection for some domestic species.
Pathogenesis and Pathogenicity
Many Rickettsia species including the causal agents of typhus (R. prowuzekii), murine typhus (R. typhi) and scrub typhus (R. tsutsugamushi) are primarily human pathogens. Rocky Mountain spotted fever, caused by Rickettsia rickettsii, which is a common rickettsia1 disease of humans, also affects dogs.

Introduction

Cultivation under house are framed or inflated structures covered with plastic material or glass in which crops can be grown under partially controlled environment.  This technology was well adapted in Europe and USA by the end of the nineteenth century. Presently, China, Netherland, Israel, Canada, Spain and Japan are the leading countries. Other countries where this technology is being widely used are India, Egypt and some Arab countries. Under protected structures are suitable for growing a variety of vegetables, fruits and flowers. Year-round cultivation even under extreme climatic conditions is possible.

Introduction

Studies have indicated that four significant forces viz. IT, Mobile, Cloud and Social Media would create unique work environment in the coming years. Social media presents both opportunities and challenges. It has reached a stage where a single tweet can make or mar an organization. It has emerged as a force to reckon with.

Purpose-The term ‘Grafting’ includes all forms of grafting and budding. It is the art of joining the part of together in such a manner that they will unite and continue their growth as one plant. A grafted plant consist of two parts a rootstock, also known as understock or stock, and a scion. The part of the graft combination which is to become the upper portion or top and performs the function of flowers production and fruits is known as scion and the part which is lower portion or root which performs the function of fixing itself in the soil, absorbs moisture and nutrient from the soil is known as rootstock.

When the scion part is a small piece of bark containing only one bud the operation is termed as budding, but when the scion part is a branch containing more than one bud, the operation is termed as grafting.

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Establishment of an orchard incurs long term investment for which it needs a very critical planning. As it is a long-term investment, plants planted in the orchard should suit to the prevailing climatic condition of that area. The land remains occupied as long as 40 to 50 years. Any mistake committed during initial year is hard to rectify later on. Proper layout of the orchard ensures optimum utilisation of land and resources for successive economic production. It becomes easy for different inter-cultural operations, harvesting and transportation of the produces. Uniform distribution of plants in the selected land in various systems of planting is done after proper layout.

9.2 LAYOUT

The proper layout of orchard aims at accommodating maximum number of trees per unit land area, maintaining adequate space for proper development of the trees and convenient orchard management practices.

Paratition Value

Median is calculated for dividing the series into two equal parts. If the series is divided into four, eight, ten or hundred parts then the measures are called Quartile, Octile, Decile and Percentile respectively denoted by Q_(1,2,3), O_(1,2..7), D_(1,2…9) and P_(1,2…99).

Soils vary greatly in their organic matter content. For all practical purposes the organic matter content of the soil parallels the soil N content. The C/N ratio of soil organic matter generally falls in the range of 10 to 12. Because of the ease with which Kjeldahl determination can be made, N is often used as an index of soil organic matter content.

3.1. Composition of Organic Matter in Soil

Organic matter constitutes 1 to 6% of the topsoil weight of most upland soils. In a typical grassland soil, 5 to 6% of organic matter may be present in the top 15 cm. Top soils with less than 1% organic matter are mostly limited to desert regions. On the contrary, the organic matter content of soils in low, wet areas may be as high as 90% or even more. Soils with more than 12 - 18% organic carbon (approximately 20 - 30% organic matter) are called organic soils.

INTRODUCTION

India is rich in biodiversity and possesses about 108276 species of insects. Indian subcontinent is one of the mega biodiversity countries of the world occupying ninth position in terms of freshwater mega biodiversity (Mittermeier et al., 1997) comprising 30 order (Dijkstra et al. 2013). Inland wetlands of India serve as the habitat for more than 500 species of aquatic insects which are represented predominantly by Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Odonata (dragonflies) and Trichoptera (caddisflies), (Subramanian and Sivaramakrishnan, 2007). Aquatic insects play important ecological roles in keeping freshwater ecosystems functioning properly (Choudhary and Janak, 2015). The aquatic insects are important part of aquatic ecosystem which play vital role in ecosystem functioning and are known to be representative of structure and function of freshwater ecosystem due to their high abundance, high birthrate with short generation time, large and rapid colonization (Choudhary and Ahi 2015). Aquatic insect function on multiple trophic level such as shredders, collectors, scraper and predators on animal debris, wood and leaf litter reaching the wetland from the surrounding landscape. Nutrients processed by aquatic insects are further degraded into absorbable form by fungal and bacterial action. Plants in the riparian zone absorb this nutrient soup transported through the wetlands. In addition to this significant ecosystem function, aquatic insects are also a primary source of food for fishes and amphibians (Tachet et al., 2003 ; Kumar, 2014).They interact in nutrient cycling within lentic and lotic systems and are regarded as an effective bioindicator (Lundquist and Zhu 2018) and serve as an important component of natural foodweb in aquatic ecosystem. However, the aquatic insect fauna of this part in India is inadequately documented. Therefore, present study carried out to delineate the baseline status of aquatic insects of Anandwan lakes at Warora Dist: Chandrapur.

The agriculture sector faces significant challenges in mitigating the detrimental impacts of pests and diseases on crop yield and quality. Traditional methods of pest and disease management often fall short in providing timely and precise interventions, leading to substantial economic losses and environmental consequences. In recent years, the integration of geo-spatial technology has emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges by enabling more accurate monitoring, prediction, and management of pests and diseases.

The integration of geo-spatial technology in pest and disease management within agricultural practices represents a significant stride towards precision agriculture. This chapter delves into the innovative application of geospatial tools in identifying, monitoring, and mitigating pests and diseases, thereby optimizing crop yield and quality while minimizing environmental impact. Beginning with an overview of the challenges posed by pests and diseases in agriculture, the chapter highlights the limitations of traditional methods in effectively addressing these issues. It then explores how geo- spatial technology, encompassing Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and global positioning systems (GPS), revolutionizes pest and disease management by providing real-time, spatially explicit data. The discussion extends to the utilization of satellite imagery and aerial drones for early detection and monitoring of pest infestations and disease outbreaks. Through case studies and examples, the efficacy of geo-spatial technology in mapping pest distribution patterns, predicting outbreaks, and implementing targeted interventions is elucidated.

When a plant is unable to perform its functions normally, then it is diseased. The two major causes of disease in crops and trees are pathogens and environmental conditions. There are many kinds of disease pathogens: viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, mycoplasma-like organisms, and parasitic higher plants. Fungal pathogens are the most common type. They cause seed rots, seedling damping-off, root rots, foliage diseases, cankers, vascular wilts, diebacks, galls and tumors, trunk rots, and decay of aging trees. Deterrents to establishment include unfavourable weather and environmental conditions such as Temperature and moisture extremes, high winds and ice may directly injure a tree and predispose the trees to pest attack.
Biodiversity plays multiple roles in development as well as ecological sustainability. It has received increased attention in agricultural ecosystems for the past few years regarding the reduction of plant diseases; however, the knowledge of using biodiversity to manage plant diseases is Still incomplete. For crop diversification, the interaction of genetic diversity per se in host populations with identifiable resistance and other functional traits of component genotypes to mitigate disease epidemics is not well understood, and neither is the best way of structuring mixed populations. The mixing of crop varieties can significantly reduce disease epidemics in the field. To achieve the best disease mitigation, growers should include as many varieties as possible in mixtures or, if only two component mixtures are possible. The many strategies, tactics, and techniques used in disease management can be grouped under very broad principles of action. The differences between these principles are often not clear. The simplest system consists of two principles, prevention (prophylaxis in some early writings) and therapy (treatment or cure). The first principle (prevention) has to do with disease management practices applied before infection-that is, the plant is protected from disease.

Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacteria with an unusual developmental cycle during which unique infectious forms are produced. They replicate within cytoplasmic vacuoles in host cells. On account of their apparent inability to generate ATP, with resultant dependence on host cell metabolism, they have been termed ‘energy parasites’.
The family Chlamydiaceae belongs to the order Chlamydiales. Currently two genera, Chlamydia and Chlamydophila, and nine species are described. Formerly a single genus and four species, Chlamydia trachomatis, C. psittaci, C. pneumoniae and C. pecorum, were recognised. This classification was based on phenotypic characteristics such as host preference, inclusion morphology, iodine staining for the presence of glycogen, and sulphonamide susceptibility. However, recent nucleic acid sequencing studies of the 16s and 23s rRNA genes confirm two distinct lineages.
In the developmental cycle of chlamydiae, infectious and reproductive forms are morphologically distinct. Infectious extracellular forms, called elementary bodies (EBs) are small (200 to 300 nm), metabolically inert and osmotically stable. Each EB is surrounded by a conventional bacterial cytoplasmic membrane, a periplasmic space and an outer envelope containing lipopolysaccharide.
The periplasmic space does not contain a detectable peptidoglycan layer and the EB relies on disulphide cross-linked envelope proteins for osmotic stability. Elementary bodies enter host cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Acidification of the endosome and fusion with lysosomes are prevented by mechanisms which are not fully understood. A process of structural reorganization within the pathogen, of several hours duration, results in the conversion of an EB into a reticulate body (RB). The RB, about 1 μm in diameter, is metabolically active, osmotically fragile and replicates by binary fission within the endosome. The endosome and its contents, when stained, is called an inclusion. When a number of inclusions containing RBs of C.trachomatis are formed in an infected cell, fusion of these structures may
occur.

1. Introduction

India has a rich tradition of plant-based knowledge on healthcare. It is reported that traditional healers use 2500 plant species and 100 species of plants serve as regular sources of medicine (Pei, 2001). Traditional medical knowledge of medicinal plants and their use by indigenous cultures are not only useful for conservation of cultural traditions and biodiversity but also for community healthcare and drug development in the present and future. Medicinal plants have curative properties due to the presence of various complex chemical substances of different composition which are formed as secondary plant metabolites in various parts of the plants such as roots, shrubs, leaves, flowers etc. (Gurib-Fakim, 2006).

A large number of plants are equally used by tribals and folklore traditions in India for treatment of cuts, wounds and burns (Biswas and Mukherjee, 2003). A wound is a type of injury in which skin is torn, cut or punctured, that disturbance in the normal skin anatomy and function. Wound healing consists of orderly progression of series of events that establish the integrity of damaged tissue and thereby the affected parts repair itself after injury. The wound healing herbs encourage blood clotting and induce the healing of wounds (Sudhakar et al., 2003; Nagori and Solanki, 2011; Binu Thomas et al., 2012).

8.1. Major Obstacle to Nigeria Economic Growth

In Nigeria, high transport prices are rightly seen as a major obstacle to economic growth of the region. This has been documented in several studies. One of them (Amjadi and Yeats, 1995) even concluded that, in Nigeria, transport costs are a higher trade barrier than import tariffs and trade restrictions. In this paper, it is analyzed, identified and quantified the factors behind Nigeria’s high prices of road transport, with the purpose of helping policy-makers adopt appropriate actions to reduce transport prices to domestic and international trade. Before the presentation of the results, a distinction has to be made between logistics costs, transport prices, transport costs and vehicle operating costs in order to avoid the usual confusion. This distinction is useful because prices may or may not reflect transport cost:

Maturity indices and their adoption at harvesting and in post harvest management of fruits provide a information against quality loss, microbial decay and deterioration of external appeal. Fruit harvesting at proper stage of maturity has direct effect on quality and market value of produce. Stage of harvesting also influence the after harvest enzymatic activities of the horticultural produce, which determines the levels of different pigments, sugars, acids and vitamins in fruits, flowers and vegetables. Maturity can be described as the attainment of a particular size, stage after which ripening takes place. However, horticultural maturity is defined as the stage of development when a plant or plant part possess the prerequisites for utilization by consumers for a particular purpose. Cucumbers, lettuce and peppers are harvested at various stages (Horticultural maturity) prior to reaching physiological maturity, or completion of growth phase.

There are many methods to determine produce maturity. The most common is the size of the individual commodity.Some other commonly used crude methods are colour change, Softening of the tissues (fig,sapota) ease of detachment from the stalk (Sapota, annona), shrivelling of fruit stalk (water melon), time elapsed from the date of flowering to picking maturity, sound by tapping jack and water melon when ripe produce hollow and dull sound on tapping but produce metallic sound if unripe etc. Another physical characteristic is the firmness and it is determined with a pressure tester. Firmness is often correlated with chemical changes that occur during ripening. Chemical characteristics include TSS, acidity, sugar, vitamins and pigments. There are certain test which accurately gives the maturity measurements such as use of colour charts (judge colour), penetrometers (firmness), brix: acid ratio etc. Other recent methods viz. thermal conductivity X-rays and NIR have also come in practice to judge the maturity of fruits and vegetables. Some commonly use maturity indices are given below in some of the important fruits.

The disease attacks all the growth stages of plant affecting all above-ground parts. Plant covered with powdery patches leads to distortion, malformation and discolouration of leaves especially young leaves. Powdery patches gradually turn to grey and fi nally dark colour. Affected fl ower fails to develop fruit. Young berries turn black, irregular in shape and develop cracks. Sometimes berries ripe partially and rot. Vines get wilted.