eChapters

Interaction of radiant energy, exhibiting the properties of both waves and particles, with matter is dealt in spectroscopy. Matter may be defined as material, existing in solid or liquid or gaseous phase, which is composed of molecules, atoms, or ions. Atoms, molecules, and ions, irrespective of their physical state, remain in constant motion in a matter. Molecules may rotate, vibrate, and move from place to place in space. While radiant energy interacts with matter, these molecular motions are influenced to some extent. It is observed that radiations from ultraviolet and visible range of electromagnetic spectrum lead to the movement of bonding electrons from lowest energy state (ground state) to higher energy state (excited state) in the molecules, while absorption of IR radiation causes the molecule to vibrate more. Such changes, referred to as transition, are responsible for changing the molecular energy level.

Speculation and hedging are important ways of minimizing price risk in business.

Speculation: Risk is taken by person specializing in business without much consideration of business trends.

Hedging: A calculated risk is taken.

Time, Speed and Distance

This section consists of problems on calculating speed, distance, time, head start and relative speed etc.

Introduction
The increase in the world population coupled with climatic fluctuations such as drought, floods, and high temperatures poses a serious threat to food security (Ray et al., 2013). Many researchers have quoted the importance of enhancing the genetic gain of primary crops at a faster rate to meet global food demands (Lin et al., 2016). It remains a challenging task for plant breeders to evolve resilient varieties in a shorter period by employing conventional approaches. The slow progress in crop improvement is mainly attributed to long breeding cycles/generations (Samantara et al., 2022). To overcome the drawbacks involved in traditional methods and to safeguard food security, speed-breeding methods are now being adopted at large or small units to achieve rapid genetic gains in many crop species. The speed breeding techniques include the use of controlled environments with manipulation provisions for light duration, intensity and temperature. This approach is more advantageous for helping plant breeders hasten crop development in several major photosensitive crops (Singh and Janeja, 2021).
Breeding a new crop variety via a conventional approach requires the selection of complementary parental genotypes with desired traits, followed by crosses and a series of selections and advancements of superior progenies to release candidate cultivars that meet market demands (Shimelis and Laing, 2012). Notable breeding goals in crop cultivar development programs include increased yield potential and nutritional quality and enhanced tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses (Breseghello and Coelho, 2013). In any crop improvement program, the following breeding procedures can be distinguished in the order presented: (a) selection of desirable parents with complementary traits to be combined; (b) crosses involving the selected parents and the development of progenies; (c) selection and genetic advancement of the best progenies based on target traits; (d) selection of the best progenies for screening in multiple target production environments to identify the best performing and stable candidate cultivars; and (e) cultivar registration and seed multiplication and distribution to growers (Shimelis and Laing, 2012). These conventional breeding procedures are used in most crop cultivar improvement

Conventional crop breeding requires a substantial investment of time, space, and resources for the selection process and the subsequent crossing of desired plants. The time taken for the complete seed-to-seed cycle is a critical constraint in the advancement of plant research and breeding. The concept of speed breeding holds the promise of diminishing the duration necessary for the entire process of cultivar development, from creation to introduction and eventual commercial availability, thereby enhancing the improvement of both food and industrial crops. It revolves around optimizing conditions such as light intensity, temperature, and daylight duration (22-hour light, 22°C day/17°C night, and high light intensity). This approach enhances photosynthesis, triggering early flowering, and, in combination with yearly seed collection. The adoption of speed breeding shows promises in realizing nutritional security and promoting sustainable agriculture for the future rising population. The technique’s integration with advanced genomics and gene editing opens doors to precise trait incorporation. Moreover, speed breeding reduces resource consumption, aligning with sustainability goals. As local adaptations become feasible, it empowers diverse regions.

Aim: To perform speed control of D.C. shunt motor by

1. Armature resistance control method.

2. Field (flux) control method.

This method is based on the fact that by varying the voltage available across the armature, the back EMF and hence the speed of the motor can be changed. This is done by inserting a variable resistance RC (known as controller resistance) in series with the armature as shown in Fig. (a).

Sperm abnormalities may be genetical or morphological. They are directly related to the male infertility. • The wet mount method and phase contrast microscopy facilitate sperm visualization for abnormalities. Semen stained with vital stain can also be used for evaluating sperm abnormalities. Sperm morphology or related abnormalities can be evaluated by using eosin-nigrosine stain, carbolfuschin, aniline blue-eosine etc. • Generally, for head and tail abnormalities rose Bengal and William’s stain can be used while for acrosome and head abnormalities Giemsa stain can be used. Categorization of Sperm Abnormalities 1. On the basis of site of abnormality on the spermatozoa • Head abnormalities e.g. microcephalic head, macrocephalic/giant head, narrow or short sperm head, pyriform head, detached glea capitis (acrosomal cap), detached head and double head etc

13.1 The Normal Sperm Morphology

A mature spermatozoa is an elongated cell consisting of a flattened head containing the nucleus, a neck and a tail containing the apparatus necessary for cell motility. The sperm cell consists of the following parts covered by the plasmalemma or plasma membrane: 
    
13.1.1    Head
    
13.1.2    Neck
    
13.1.3    Tail / flagellum – The sperm tail consist of     
    
a.    Mid piece
    
b.     Main piece / Principal piece
    
c.     End piece

Sperm Plasma Membrane

The sperm plasma membrane is three layered membrane. It lies in close contact with the underlying cytoplasm and attached at three places i.e. over anterior outline of the sperm head, around the base of the head, in circle around the distal end of the midpiece (Jensen’s ring). This attachment causes creation of three compartments with probably no communication with each other. The sperm plasma membrane is invisible under normal light or phase contrast microscopy but can be visualized after addition of substances with light refractory index e.g. bovine plasma albumin or synthetic polysaccharides. It is very easily permeable to water but there is low permeability for inorganic cations (Na, K, Ca etc.) and even lower permeability for anions (NO3, Cl). Exposure of sperm cells to hypertonic media will cause the water to go from sperm to the surrounding media leading to shrinkage of sperm cell whereas exposure of sperm cells to hypotonic media will induce influx of water causing swelling of the sperm cell. The more water that goes into the tail the more it changes its shape and becomes rounded to give room for increasing amount of water. As the length of the tail decreases as it becomes round, the tail fibrils have less space and tail bends and coils within the membrane vesicle. Tail fibrils are not damaged initially and will continue to contract till the critical volume of bull sperm is 3.8-3.9 times of its volume in an isotonic solution. The swelling and change in shape of the spermatozoa are momentary processes and can be corrected if hypotonicity of the media is corrected before the sperm cells reach the critical volume for rupture.

Sperm membrane is responsible for maintenance of the intracellular biochemical environment. Damaged plasma membrane is responsible for the leakage of electrolytes and organic substances such as enzymes and may also lead to damage of sperm cells by foreign substances from the surrounding media.

Semen • Semen, a fluid released from the male reproductive system during ejaculation, is made up of a liquid phase called seminal plasma and a cellular component called spermatozoa. • The term “spermatocrit” refers to the percentage of spermatozoa(v/v) in semen, which varies from less than 2% in pigs to more than 30% in sheep. It is about 10% in bull. Semen= Spermatozoa + seminal plasma Spermatozoon • In 1677, the scientist Van Leeuwenhoek first discovered the spermatozoa and called them ‘‘animalacula’’. • Spermatozoa or sperm cells or male gametes, develop within the wall of the seminiferous tubules as a result of a complex process known as spermatogenesis. • The spermatozoon is a highly specialized cell that performs the sole function of fertilizing an oocyte.

The spermosphere represents a short-lived, rapidly changing, and microbiologically dynamic zone of soil surrounding a germinating seed. It is analogous to the rhizosphere, being established largely by the carbon compounds released into the soil once the seed begins to hydrate. These seed exudations drive the microbial activities that take place in the spermosphere, many of which can have long-lasting impacts on plant growth and development as well as on plant health.

Abstract

Spices are aromatic substances of plant origin which are commonly used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in foodstuffs. They are cultivated in an area of 5.98 million ha globally with a total production of 7.31 million tons. India is considered as the home of majority of these spices from ancient times and sizable area of the country is under spice cultivation. The latest statistics shows that the total cultivated area in India under spices is 2.89 million ha with a total production of 3.33 million tonnes. About 109 plants belonging to 31 families are recognized as spices useful as ingredients in food. Many of them have been demonstrated to mediate therapeutic benefits for wide spectra of diseases ranging from multiple sclerosis to colorectal cancer.

Introduction

Advances in molecular genetics in the last 20 years like rapid DNA amplification techniques using PCR, rapid sequencing methods and computational software programs have enabled the placement of molecular markers on to the maps of chromosomes of most major crop species and the subsequent tagging of genes of interest by their placement near those markers^[38]. Unfortunately very little or scanty molecular data of spices are available in the public domain (Table 12.1). ‘Orphan crops’ like spices which have not yet received the investment of research effort or funding can exploit comparative genomics and bioinformatics to assist research and crop improvement provided they are related to a well-characterized model plant species.

Black pepper is popularly known as ‘King of spices’, it is the dried berry of the pepper vine, so important in the International Trade Market. The crop has its origin in the tropical rain forests of Western Ghats of India.  Kerala is the leading State in the production of black pepper with the ubiquitous presence of this crop in coconut, arecanut and coffee plantations. Chief pepper producing countries are Indonesia, Brazil, Malaysia, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.

Spices are those plants, the products of which imparts strong flavour and aroma to the food. This is attributed to the presence of compounds such as volatile oils present in the plant parts. India is renowned for wide variety of spices and is designated as land of spices. Spices are indispensable ingredient in almost all Indian dishes and cuisines foreign invaders invaded India for spices in ancient times. India is figured as the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices and spice products in the world. Turmeric and Ginger are the major rhizomatous spices of vegetable origin widely cultivating and using in India. They are known for its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, hence using in medicines for the treatment of various ailments. Apart from these rhizomatous spices, India is also contributing a major share in the production of seed spices. Around twenty spices among sixty-three spices growing in our country are classified as seed spices. Major seed spices of India are coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, dill, ajowain, celery, anise, nigella, caraway etc. These seed spices are extensively cultivated in the arid to semi-arid region of India as Rabi crop.

It is estimated that, spice production in our country increased from 67.64 lakh tonnes in 2014-15 to 106.79 lakh tonnes in 2020-21 with an annual growth rate 7.9%. There is a corresponding increase in the area of cultivation also. An increase in area from 32.24 lakh hectare to 45.28 lakh hectare was observed. Among the major spices, cumin (14.8%), garlic (14.7%), ginger (7.5%), fennel (6.8%), coriander (6.2%), fenugreek (5.8%), red chilli (4.21%) and turmeric (1.3 %), showed significant growth rate in production. The export of spices contributes around 41% of the total export earnings from all horticulture crops in the country and it ranks fourth among agricultural commodities, after marine products, non-basmati rice and basmati rice.

INTRODUCTION
To turn raw spices into usable products like ground powders, whole spices, or blended mixes, a number of processes are involved in spice processing. The procedure guarantees that the spices are safe to eat and appropriate for longterm storage in addition to preserving their flavor and aroma. When processing spices, it is essential to use specialized equipment for tasks like cleaning, grinding, blending, and packaging.
Since they add flavor, color, and aroma to any dish, spices have long been a useful addition to the kitchen. Spices like coriander, cumin, and turmeric are now more than just ingredients; they are a thriving industry. Anyone working in the food industry or just curious about how spices are transformed from unprocessed farm produce to the fine powders we use in recipes needs to understand the processing of spices. Establishing a productive, economical, and superior spice processing facility can have a significant impact on those in the industry. Spice processing might be the solution if you want to improve the quality of your spices. This guide explains the steps involved in processing spices, how it operates, and the advantages it provides.
SOURCING THE BEST RAW MATERIALS
Careful raw material selection is the first step in the processing of spices. To guarantee a consistent and superior supply of spices, Indian spice manufacturing companies form solid alliances with regional farmers and growers. Selecting the right raw material is crucial because it establishes the flavor and aroma that will characterize the finished product.
Second, Cleaning and Sorting
The raw spices are carefully cleaned and sorted once they arrive at the manufacturing facility. In order to eliminate contaminants, foreign materials, and impurities that might have been introduced during cultivation and transportation,

Introduction

Spices are high value export oriented crops extensively used for flavouring food and beverages, medicines, cosmetics, perfumery etc. Spices constitute a significant and indispensable segment of culinary art and essentially add flavour, colour and taste to food preparations. Farm level processing operations are important for value addition and product diversification of spices. It is essential that various operations like washing, threshing, blanching, drying, cleaning, grading, storing and packaging ensure proper conservation of the basic qualities like aroma, flavour, pungency, colour etc. Each of these operations enhances the quality of the produce and the value of the spice.

India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices in the world. India produces more than 65 spices in different varieties out of the 109 spices listed by International Standards Organisation (ISO). India produces around 5.8 million tons of spices annually (2012-13), of this about 10% of the total produce is exported to over 150 countries. The USA, Europe, Australia, Japan, the Middle East and Oceanic countries are the major importers of Indian spices. Estimated world trade in spices is 1.05 million tons valued at 2750 million US $, out of which India has a significant share of 48% in quantity and 43% in value.

8.1 Introduction

Spices are appetizers and hence, esse ntially used in the culinary preparations. They also possess antioxidant, antimicrobial and antibiotic properties. Further, they possess medicinal properties and hence, play an important role in human health.

According to International Organization for Standards (ISO), there is no clear cut division between ‘Spices’ & ‘Condiments’ and as such they have been clubbed together. The term ‘Spices’ & ‘condiments’ applies to “such natural plants or vegetable products or mixtures there of, in whole or ground form, which are used for imparting flavour, aroma and piquancy and seasoning of foods”. Spices are divided into different groups based on their plant components such as floral, fruits, berries, seeds, rhizomes, roots, leaves, kernel, aril, bark, bulbs etc.

About 70 spices are grown in different parts of the world and a major portion of these are grown in India. Hence, India is called “The home of Spices”. It is well known that spices played a significant role in ancient times, in the development of civilization – the life of the people and trade among the nations of East and West. Spices like ginger, pepper and turmeric have an intense and immediate impact on sensory perceptions and exhibit strong physiological effects as food and medicinal constituents. Some spices and herbs like cardamom, saffron and vanilla, which have less intense but more delicate sensory effects, are well known for their contribution to fragrance and usage as food flavouring agents. The history of spices and their use in food and medicine in ancient India have been reviewed earlier [1-3].

Description of important spices and condiments

1. GENERAL INFORMATION

Asian continent, particularly India is known as “Land of Spices”.

Spice crops are largely grown in tropics between 20⁰N and 20⁰S.

Term ‘spice’ was derived from Latin ‘Species aromatacea’ means ‘Fruits of the earth’.

Spices and condiments are grouped under food adjuncts.

India is largest producer of spices and oleoresin.

Home of spices/ Spice bowl of India: Kerala.

Spices: It is defined as vegetable products (non-leafy parts) or mixture thereof, used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in food. It may be whole form or in ground form e.g. Pepper, Cardamom, Clove, Cinnamon, etc.

1 What is the scientific name of Dill

 a) Acorus calamus b) Pimenta dioca

 c) Pimpinella anisum d) Anethum graveolens

 2 Important chemical content present in Asafoetida is

 a) Phenol b) Terbein

 c) Ferumine d) Limone

 3 Karimunda is a variety of

 a) Ginger b) Black Pepper

 c) Cardemom d) Cumin

Introduction

Spices and aromatic herbs have been used since antiquity as preservatives, colorants, and flavour enhancers. Spices, which have long been the basis of traditional medicine in many countries, have also been the subject of study, particularly by the chemical, pharmaceutical, and food industries, because of their potential use for improving health. Both in-vitro and in-vivo studies have demonstrated how these substances act as antioxidants, digestive stimulants, and hypolipidemics and show antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and anti-carcenogenic activities. These beneficial physiological effects may also have possible preventative applications in a variety of pathologies. The chapter presents an overview of the potential of spices and aromatic herbs as functional foods ingredients.

Introduction

Spice – definition and uses

SPICES are aromatic or pungent vegetable substances, used as whole, broken, or ground form, whose function in food is seasoning rather than nutrition and commonly used as a condiment. It may be a dried seed, fruit, root, rhizome, bark or vegetative substance or flower bud. American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) defines spices as “any dried plant product used primarily for seasoning purposes”. Included are tropical aromatics (pepper, cinnamon, cloves, etc.), leafy herbs (basil, oregano, marjoram, etc.), spice seeds (sesame, poppy, mustard, etc.) and dehydrated vegetables (onions, garlic, etc.). Many spices have other uses like food preservation, medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics, and perfumery or as vegetables.

Introduction

According to FAO estimates, about 50% total geographical area in India is under various degraded hazards and about 2.1 million ha of land is getting degraded and deforested annually (Sehgal et al. 1998). Out of that underground water in arid and semi-arid areas is saline or sodic in nature. While spices, medicinal and aromatic plants may be a boon for these areas, which not only withstand under adverse conditions but also could be productive and helps in mitigating these problems. However, other crops are remain less or unproductive in these areas.

Spices are low volume and high value crops and have tremendous export potential, which is witnessed by several invasions faced by this Indian peninsula during ancient time. Medicinal and aromatic plants have unequally market potential with the world demand of herbal products growing at the rate of 7 percent per annum (Aishwath and Tarafdar, 2007). Seed spices and aromatic plants are the natural source of flavour, perfumes and fragrance widely exploited by essential oil industries in the world. Owing to considerably diversity of edaphoclimatic conditions ranging from temperate to tropical and arid to sub-humid that prevails in India and an array of medicinal and aromatic flora occurs in wild state. Many exotic essential oil bearing plants, including mints, citronella, geranium, patchouli, lavender and chamomile have been naturalized in India. As the country has emerged as one of the main producers of seed spices and some of the essential oils, theses plants are significant foreign exchange earners. Some of the aromatic plants especially grasses can sustain both biotic as well as abiotc stresses, even in the areas unsuitable for conventional crops (Aishwath et al., 2008). Most of the seed spices crops are seasonal crops and comes up well with limited moisture and nutrients. Therefore, underutilized natural resources can be utilized profitably by crop diversification.

Introduction

Spices hold a special place in world trade and were a catalyst in many historical events, discoveries, wars and inventions. It has even been cited as an important element in the spread of knowledge and culture. Spices are non-leafy parts of plants used as a flavoring or seasoning. Asia is known as ‘Land of Spices’ as it is the place of origin, production, consumption and export of most spices. Out of the world’s 70 plant species grown as spices, 13 are considered major spices produced in Asia. Spices had many uses, from adding flavour to food to medicinal properties, but only grew in a few places. In the last decade, the annual average growth in spice production was 4.3% and trade in spices grew at an average of 5.8% /year. More sophisticated consumers, health-conscious eating habits (but also the rise in the amount of processed foods that use herbs and spices as inputs), rising incomes, increased world trade and globalisation are driving this new era of profitability. Spices are ideal commodities for international trade. They are normally exported in raw or dried form and are usually easy to store and transport. Consequently they do not need expensive infrastructure such as cold chain management or advanced storage facilities and they are not particularly time sensitive. In addition, they are recognised as high value products that can be produced relatively easily on small farms and do not require investments in advanced technology and machinery.

Spider lily (Hymenocallis littoralis) is a perennial bulbous plant distinguished by its fragrant white flowers, central corona and spider-like appearance. It is an important commercial loose flower crop in western India, particularly Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka, where flowers are used for garlands, Veni, Gajra and ceremonial decoration. The chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics and botanical characteristics. It explains climate and soil requirements, bulb propagation, land preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural operations. Pest and disease management, harvesting and postharvest handling are also detailed. The chapter includes storage techniques for flower buds and discusses the long productive life and commercial yield potential of the crop.

Morphological characteristics

Nardostachys species is a perennial rooted herb with a strong woody main root that grows 10-60 cm tall. The rootstock is strong and lengthy, with petioles of withered leaves clinging to it. The stems are pubescent above and glabrate below. Leaves are both Cauline and radical. Cauline leaves are sessile, occur in two to three pairs, are 2.0 cm 0.6 cm in size, decrease in size from base to top, and are oblong or sub-ovate in shape. Radical leaves are large (15-22 cm 1.5-2.5 cm), six to eight in number, longitudinally nerved, slightly pubescent, and narrow down into the petiole, whereas cauline leaves are sessile, occur in two to three pairs, are longitudinally nerved, The jatamansi rhizome is dark brown, tapered, and densely coated with the remains of old leaf bases, giving it the appearance of a heavy beard, and hence the name jatamansi. The fibrous rhizome may be 6-9 cm long with about 20-30 cm-long yellowish taproot. A single root may bear 30-50 rhizomes.

Floral characteristics

Flowering shoots are 30–40 cm tall and produce 40–50 blooms in three to seven condensed cymes at the summit. Flowers are campanulate and range in colour from pinkish red to bluish white. The hairy corolla tube is 6 mm long. The 4-mm-long hairs on the fruit are capped by the sharp, often dentate, calyx teeth. Flowering takes place between June and August, depending on elevation, while fruits takes place between September and October. Seeds are gathered in October when they turn pale brown in colour.

Spinach is estimated to have originated in ancient Persia some 2,000 years ago, and was transported to India and ancient China as the “Persian vegetable” via Nepal in 647 AD. The Saracens introduced spinach to Sicily around 827. Spinach (Spinacia oleracea), also known as vilayati palak in Hindi, is a leafy vegetable that grows well in cool or temperate climates. Vilayati spinach is dioecious, unlike beet leaf spinach, which is hermaphrodite. Its production is restricted to household gardens in mountainous regions of India, and it is consumed as a cooked vegetable.

“Every year, 26,688,150 tonnes of spinach are produced over the world.” With a production output of24,484,507 tonnes per year, China is the world’s greatest spinach grower. The United States of America is in second place, producing 323,620 tonnes each year. “Spinach isn’t grown in India.”

Spine gourd or teasle gourd (Momordica dioica : Roxb Syn.Momordica roxburghii G. Don, M. wallichi, M J Roem) is a rhizomatous, perennial and distinctly dioecious species of family Cucurbitaceae and  grows widely in many parts of India, mostly confined to  Eastern and South Eastern states. Vernacular names are kartoli,kakrol,meethakarela, padora, bhatt karela, palupagal, tumba, tumpai, golkandra, kankad, kankera, bara-karela, kankoda, kankodan, kantola and phalguni. In India it is mainly grown in Orissa, Bihar, and West Bengal .It is  found in nature in the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala and Maharashtra especially in areas with the least human interference. This is  a delicacy for its typical taste, attributed to high seed protein content. It also contains high amount of carotene (162 µg/100 g of edible portion) (Gopalan et al., 1982) and its tuberous roots have medicinal value too. It is a cheap source of vitamins and minerals (Bhuiya et al., 1977). This vegetable is gaining popularity  because of its high demand in  market. Certain limitations like lack of awareness among  farmers, non-availability of quality planting materials of standard varieties, unpredictable sex ratio in seedling progenies are arresting the expected spread of this nutritious vegetable (Ali et al., 1991).

Momordica dioica, also known as bristly balsam pear, prickly carolaho, teasle gourd, and kantola, is a flowering plant of the Cucurbitaceae/gourd family that is commonly known as spiny gourd or spine gourd. It is consumed as a vegetable throughout India and parts of South Asia. It is valuable commercially and is exported and utilised locally. The fruits are sometimes served with meat or fish and are prepared with spices or fried. Underground tubers are used to proliferate it. Small leaves, small yellow flowers, and small, dark green, spherical or oval fruits characterise this plant. It is dioecious, which means there are separate male and female organisms.

The cultural history of India is associated with religious believes and any emphasis on arguments dealing with plant-man-God relationship appeals to people even today. This attitude prevails throughout India and many places of worship have continued to preserve in situ biodiversity of specific species of plants.

Leptospira 

Antony Van Leeuwenhoek (1681) first observed the Spirochaetes under the microscope and described them. In 1833, Ehrenberg used the name Spirochaeta for free living spiral shaped organisms. Obermeir (1873) first described a Spirochaete of pathogenic significance isolated from human patients of relapsing fever. Inada et al. (1916) first isolated Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae from human patients of Weil’s disease. In 1980, Nogochi proposed the name Leptospira.

      In India, Taylor and Goyale (1931) first reported Leptospira from human patients suffering from jaundice in Andaman Islands (Srivastava, 2006). Ayyar (1932) first reported Leptospira from dogs in Chennai city. 

Properties of genus

1. Morphology : Leptospira are gram negative, spiral shaped organisms with hooked ends. Length varies from 6-20 µm with 0.1-0.2 μm diameter (Fig.1). They have a typical double membrane covering. The cytoplasmic membrane and peptidoglycan cell wall are closely associated and are surrounded by an outer membrane. Two periplasmic flagella (endoflagella) are found within the cell and are responsible for the motility. No flagella are present as extracellular appendages. One end of the flagella is attached with the pole of the bacterial cell by insertion disc. Other end extends towards the centre of the cell and may overlap the flagella coming from the opposite end. The endoflagella consists of a solid inner core surrounded by tubular sheaths. The FlaA and FlaB proteins constitute these flagellar sheath and core, respectively.

The order Spirochaetales contains two families, Leptospiraceae and Spirochaetaceae. It comprises spiral or helical bacteria (spirochaetes) which share some unique morphological and functional features. Members of the order are motile by means of endoflagella which are located within the periplasm.
The spirochactes are slender, motile, flexuous, unicellular, helically coiled bacteria ranging rrom 0.1 -3.0 μm in width. The outer sheath, the outermost layer of a spirochaete cell, is a multi layered membrane that completely surrounds the peri plasmic flagella (axial filament) and the helical protoplasmic cylinder. The cylinder consists or the nuclear material, cytoplasm, cytoplasmic membraneand the peptidoglycan portion of the cell wall.
The periplasmic flagella are wrapped around the cylinder and are in the peri plasmic space of these Gram-negative bacteria. One end of each flagellum is inserted near a pole of the protoplasmic cylinder and attached by platelike structures called insertion discs. The distal end of each flagellum is not inserted and extends to the centre of the cell and may overlap the flagellum from the opposite end. The periplasmic flagella facilitate the motility of the bacteria in viscid environments.
Leptospira species
Members of this species (leptospires) are motile helical bacteria (0.1 x 6 to 12 μm) with hook-shaped ends. Although cytochemically Gram-negative, they do not stain well with conventional bacteriological dyes and are usually visualized using dark-field microscopy. Silver impregnation and immunological staining techniques are used to demonstrate leptospires in tissues. Leptospirosis, which can affect all domestic animals and humans, ranges in severity from mild infections of the urinary or genital systems to serious systemic disease.

Causative Organism: Borrelia anserina

B. anserina and B. burgdorferi (borreliosis of humans) share common flagellar antigens, suggesting their close relationship. B. burgdorferi infect both mammals and birds (mallards and bobwhite quail). Geese, turkeys, chickens, ducks, pheasants and canaries are natural hosts of B. anserina. All age birds are susceptible.

Transmission

Infection is mainly transmitted by a soft tick- Argus persicus. Transmission is also by ingestion of blood, excreta or tissues from infected or dead birds, through contaminated feed or water. Use of syringe and needles on multiple birds also makes transmission possible.

This chapter focuses on split plot and strip plot designs, essential tools in experimental design known for effectively handling complex experiments. It covers the key principles and applications of these designs, emphasizing how they can be used to address specific research challenges. The chapter also provides practical guidance on conducting analyses of split and strip plot designs using R software, making it a valuable resource for researchers seeking to apply these methods in their work.

Split Plot Design

The split-plot design is a statistical approach widely used in experiments where specific conditions apply:

• Hierarchical arrangement of treatments: This design is ideal for experiments involving two levels of experimental units, typically “whole plots” and “subplots.” The main treatments are applied to the whole plots, while the sub-treatments are applied within these to the subplots.

• Adherence to experimental design principles: The split-plot design follows the principles of randomization, replication, and local control, but with a hierarchical twist. The main treatments are randomized across the whole plots, and the sub-treatments are randomized within these main plots. • Resource management in unequal experimental conditions: This design is particularly useful when some factors require larger experimental units or when changing levels of one factor is more resource-intensive than changing levels of another factor.

In factorial experiment it may sometime happen that certain factors require bigger plots than other for convenience of operation of the experiment.  For example, in an agricultural experiment involving two factors, say, irrigation and fertilizer, it is organizationally very inconvenient to apply different levels of irrigation to small neighbouring plots.  But there is no such difficulty for the application of different levels of fertilizer. To meet such situations it is desirable to have different sizes of the experimental units in the same experiment.

Q.1 If two type ot factors, say (A & B) have to be studied in the same experiment where A requires larger plot size and B requires smaller plot size and structure of the experiment is that of plots within blocks and blocks within replication then such layout is known as split plot design.

Split-plot Design

In field experiments, sometimes a factor has to be applied to a large experimental unit. This is true when the different methods of ploughing or irrigation are to be compared. And in such cases it is possible to introduce a second factor, which does not require large plots, with a small number of levels into the same experiment, at a little extra cost. This is done by splitting the plots (called whole plots of the first factor into as many sub-plots as there are levels of the second factor.)

A split-plot design with an RBD for the first set of treatments (called “the whole-plot treatments”) is obtained by allotting the whole-plot treatments at random to the whole plots of a block and then randomizing the second set of treatments (called “the sub-plot treatments”) to the sub-plots within each whole plot.

This enables us to test for the main effects of the sub-plot treatments and the interaction of the whole-plot treatments and the sub-plot treatments more efficiently than the main effects of the whole-plot treatments in a split-plot design.

Introduction

The split-plot design is specifically suited for a two-factor experiment that has more treatments than can be accommodated by a RCBD. In a split-plot design,one of the factors is assigned to the main plot. The assigned factor is called the main-plot factor. The main plot is divied into subplots to which the second factor ,called the subplot factor, is assigned. Thus, each mainplot becomes a block for the subplot treatments (i.e the levels of the subplot factor). The split-plot design is profitably employed under the following situations.

1. An experimenter may have already possessed some knowledge about the main effect of a certain factor so that his interest lies in estimating the interaction effect of this factor with some other more important factor in whose main effect also he is equally interested. In either case he wants to estimate the latter two effects with greater precision for which he is prepared to sacrifice the precision in estimating the first mainfactor.
2. The second common type of situation when the split-plot design is automatically suggestive is the difficulties in the execution of other design. For instance, if ploughing is one of the factors of interest,then one cannot have different depths of ploughing in different plots scattered randomly apart. Similarly, if different levels of irrigation are chosen,then random distribution of these levels in an ordinary experiment may involve difficulties in the practical execution of such plans. This difficulty may,however, be offset partly by having strips of plots (in one unit of block,say), all treated alike ;receiving the same level of irrigation with different depths of ploughing; or different levels of irrigation with same depth of ploughing. Different levels of irrigation or different depths of ploughing can,however,be randomly distributed over such strips.
3. The third situation in which the experimenter may adopt a split-plot design is this. A particular factor (factors) under investigation exhibits large treatment differences which can be easily detected even in bigger plots,while a second factor (factors) requires comparatively smaller plots to detect smaller treatment differences with higher precision. Then the first factor will be tested in whole plots and the second factor whose treatment differences are small will be tested in small plots or subplots.

Split-plot design is particularly useful when certain biological treatments cannot conveniently be applied to small experimental units. This chapter explains how large experimental plots can be divided into smaller sub-plots to accommodate subsidiary treatments. Main-plot treatments are randomly allocated to larger units, while sub-plot treatments are independently allocated within them. The design allows researchers to study main effects, sub-plot effects, and interactions, although greater precision is generally obtained for sub-plot comparisons than for main-plot comparisons. Examples include wood preservation and nursery experiments involving sowing methods and seasons. The chapter also explains the two error terms required for appropriate analysis of split-plot experiments.

The split-split plot design is an extension of the split-plot design to accommodate a third factor .It is uniquely suited for a three –factor experiment where three different levels of precision are desired for the various effects. Each level of precision is assigned to the effects associated with each of the three factors. This design is characterized by two important features :

1. There are three plot sizes corresponding to the three factors, namely, the largest plot (main plot) for the main-plot factor, the intermediate plot (sub-plot) for the subplot factor, and the smallest plot (sub-sub plot ) for the sub-subplot factor.
2. There are three levels of precision, with the main-plot factor receiving the lowest degree of precision and the sub-subplot factor receiving the highest degree of precision.

The method of analysis is entirely analogous to that for the case of 2 factors. The analysis consists of 3 parts, between whole plots, between split plots within whole plots,between split-split plots within split plots, each part being put on the basis of a split-split plot in order that the parts may be combined into one complete analysis.

Spoilage may be defined as the deteriorative process which renders the food inedible or results into reduction of quality.

Spoilage is Mainly of Two Types

Abiotic Spoilage: Less potential for causing health hazards to consumers. Occurs due to

18.1. Introduction

Spoiled food is defined as the food that has been damaged or has undergone changes so as to render it undesirable/unacceptable/unfit for human consumption. Spoilage of processed products is mainly caused by the action of micro-organisms and due to the physical or chemical changes. The reasons for microbial spoilage include under- processing, inadequate cooling, contamination from leakage through can seams and pre-process spoilage. In under-processed cans (receiving low heat treatment) large number of micro-organisms is expected to be involved in spoilage.

18.2. Causes of food spoilage

Food spoilage or deterioration may be described as loss of weight, softening, souring, rotting, wilting, moulding or a combination of one or more forms. The major causes of food deterioration are: biotic and abiotic factors.

Introduction
The food that has been damaged or has undergone changes so as to render it undesirable/unacceptable/unfit for human consumption is termed as spoiled. Spoilage of processed products is mainly caused by the action of micro-organisms and due to the physical or chemical changes. The reasons for microbial spoilage include under processing, inadequate cooling, contamination from leakage through can seams and pre-process spoilage. In under-processed cans (receiving low heat treatment), large number of different types of micro-organisms are expected to be involved in spoilage.
Causes of Food Spoilage
Food spoilage or deterioration may be described as loss of weight, softening, souring, rotting, wilting, moulding or a combination of one or more forms. The major causes of food deterioration are: biotic and abiotic factors.
A. Biotic Factors
1) Microbial spoilage (yeast, mould, bacteria)
2) Enzyme action (activities of enzymes present in foods)
3) Insect and rodent damage (attack of insects, rodents and parasites)

Abstract
Climate change and the rapid progress of urbanization lead to abiotic stresses of frequent flooding events and pollution seriously threatening the sustainable development of modern cities. The construction of Sponge City can effectively alleviate these problems and improve a city’s resilience to environmental changes and coping with floods making them more sustainable. China was the first country to build Sponge Cities for urban flood control, rainwater harvest, ecological restoration of urban land, and water quality improvement. Many Indian cities also face the risk of flooding during monsoon and this risk is going to increase year after year in the whole nation. India is getting bruised both ways- lack of water & excess flood. So, India too needs a mission that mitigates flood risk and provides a pathway to water security. The most promising solution across the world at this time is the idea to adopt Sponge City construction. Incorporating the Sponge City idea under the area of smart city project would save countless lives and lead to the implementation of sustainable cities. The expense of making this a reality may cost some money, but these projects will provide enormous benefits. Sponge City design thus would act as a defence mechanism during rainstorms, supporting greater absorption and water retention. Thus, it leads as a pathway for sustainable Indian cities.
Keywords: Flood control, sponge city, resilience, urban flooding, climate change.

Smooth gourd or sponge gourd (2n =2x = 26, Luffa cylindrica Roem syn. aegyptiaca, family Cucurbitaceae, monoecious, cross-pollinated but genetically behaving like self-pollinated crop) is not a global crop and is a vegetable crop very much indigenous to India and the adjoining countries. As per estimates, the acreage of this crop in India is about 50,000 ha spread over almost all the states but on a limited scale. However, UP, Bihar and West Bengal are the main states growing sponge gourd.

Origin and Domestication

It is agreed that sponge gourd may have originated from Asian sub-tropical areas, particularly India and India itself should be the centre of domestication as well because global presence of this crop is negligible (Kalloo, 1993). NBPGR, New Delhi publications unanimously mention Indo-Chinese and Hindustani gene centres as primary centres/domestication/secondary centres for Luffa species and in their publications, Luffa aegyptiaca is more commonly used than Luffa cylindrica for sponge gourd (Pandey et al., 2019).

Spontaneous hyperglyceridemia is a metabolic condition characterized by abnormally high levels of glycerol and triglycerides in the bloodstream. This condition can occur in various animal species, including dogs, cats, horses, and ruminants, and is often linked to underlying metabolic or endocrine disorders. Left unmanaged, hyperglyceridemia can lead to severe health complications, including pancreatitis, hepatic lipidosis, and cardiovascular issues. Nutritional management is a cornerstone of treatment and prevention for this condition. Hyperglyceridemia results from an imbalance in the metabolism of triglycerides and glycerol. Normally, dietary fats are broken down into glycerol and free fatty acids, which are absorbed, processed in the liver, and utilized for energy or stored. Hyperglyceridemia arises when triglyceride production exceeds utilization or clearance from the bloodstream.
Causes and risk factors
1. Genetic predisposition: Breeds like Miniature Schnauzers, Shetland Sheepdogs, and Beagles are predisposed to hyperglyceridemia in dogs.
2. Obesity: Excess fat tissue increases triglyceride synthesis and decreases clearance.
3. Endocrine disorders: Conditions like diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, and Cushing’s syndrome can impair lipid metabolism.