eChapters

9.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 The probabilistic laws for dif erent values of a random variable are made on the basis of given conditions. T ese conditions are known as "prior considerations".

Q.2 If the probabilistic laws are made for dif erent values of a random variable on the basis of results obtained from an experiment, then such results are known as "a posterior inferences".9.1.1 Discrete Uniform Distribution

Q.3 A random variable X is said to have a discrete uniform distribution over the range [1, n] if its p.m.f is written as

Introduction

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) commonly called as Poor man’s cashew, is the 6^th most important oil seed crop in the world. It contains 48-50% oil, 26-28% protein and 11-27% carbohydrates. Groundnut is grown on 26.4 million hectare worldwide, with a total production of 37.1 million metric tons and an average productivity of 1.4 metric tons/ha. Developing countries constitute 97% of the global area and 94% of the global production of this crop (FAO, 2011). The production of groundnut is concentrated in Asia and Africa, where the crop is grown mostly by smallholder farmers under rain-fed conditions with limited inputs. Groundnuts (peanuts) are popularly used as seed oil in India. Since, they are obtained from the ground, they are called as groundnuts and also known as ‘Mungfali’ in Hindi, ‘Palleelu or Veru sanaga’ in Telugu, ‘Kadalai’ in Tamil, ‘Nilakkadala’ in Malayalam, ‘Kadale kaayi’ in Kannada, ‘Singdana’ in Gujarati and ‘Shengdaane’ in Marathi. Groundnuts are easily available round the year and almost everywhere in India. Groundnuts are also taken as snacks in many households especially in India. In reality, groundnuts are actually legumes. Since, they have all the properties of nuts like almonds, cashew nuts, etc., these are also included in the family of nuts.

Groundnut is the major oil seed of India. It accounts for 25% of total oil produced in India. Annual production of groundnut is around 9690 thousand tones. As the crop is grown in rainfed conditions, production and productivity are highly vulnerable to rainfall and exhibit huge fluctuation between the years. In India, groundnuts are produced both during Kharif (75%) and Rabi seasons (25%). Major production catchments of groundnut are located in Gujarat holding a share of 50.77% of total groundnut production, Andhra Pradesh holding a second place (12.69%) followed by Tamil Nadu (9.91%). Following are the top groundnut producing states of India (Table 1).

Neural suitcase determines the size of our world.

We think. We imagine. We generate ideas. We make sense of things. We take decisions. We observe patterns, and then try to understand their significance. Our neural suitcase does all this. It tells us the tales of many minds (1). The tales are beautiful, vulnerable, quiet, chaotic, real, fictional, wise, foolish, friendly, hateful, meaningful, and blind. Our neural suitcase builds castles in the air. It determines the size of our world.

The traditional fermentation process is an uncontrolled system and is usually carried out in a quite unhygienic environment. As the process of fermentation is brought about by the microbial activity so in the traditional system of fermentation there is every possibility of inclusion of microorganisms which is not desired in or that can cause spoilage to the finished product. Although no incidents of food poisoning has been reported due to consumption of fermented fish there are also no reports of any clinical investigations in this regard. A study on the microflora of such a fermented fish product is useful to understand -how safe is the product for consumption. The diverse groups of microorganisms that are present in the fermented fish products will provide information about their characteristic nature -beneficial or pathogenic, their contribution towards production of flavour and aroma, etc. The environment, however, is the key factor for the so called ‘microbial diversity’ among different fermented fish products round the globe. Moreover, the aquatic habitat, processing technique and of course, the handling during processing are the other factors that equally make a way for the introduction of a variety of microorganisms in the finished product. A study on different curing stages i.e. fresh, semi-cured and fermented, is therefore necessary to understand the pattern of microbes and become evident the role played by the microbes during fermentation.

“It is unbelievable that such a tiny streamlet, as was our initial test trial with the first bacterial starters exactly 40 years ago, grew to a big river for an important industry. Who would have believed then that the use of starter cultures would be a matter of course today” (Niinivaara, 1994). The idea of inoculating Lactobacillus into dry sausage material was introduced by Jensen and Paddock in 1940(US Patent 2,225,783) with the aim to reduce the ripening time as well as ensuring the quality and aroma of dry sausages. The first LAB meat starter culture, introduced as a pure culture of Pediococcus cerevisiae, was developed in 1955 in the USA by Niven et al. (1955). At the same time, Niinivaara (1955) applied Micrococcus M53 to dry sausage production in Europe. The work of Niinivaara was continued byNurmi (1966) who combined micrococci with Lactobacillus plantarum. Today, several companies provide Lactobacillus sp., Pediococcus acidilactici, P. pentosaceus, Staphylococcus xylosus or S. carnosus strains in pure cultures or their mixtures for fermentation of meat (Hammes et al. 1985). A starter culture may be defined as a preparation or material containing large numbers of variable microorganisms, which may be added to accelerate a fermentation process. Being adapted to the substrate, a typical starter facilitates improved control of a fermentation process and predictability of its products (Holzapfel, 1997).

India has been a welfare country since Independence and the primary objective of all governmental and non-governmental endeavors has been the welfare of its millions people. The policies and programmes should be designed with the aim of alleviation of rural poverty which has been one of the primary objectives of planned development in India. It was realized from pre-independent rural development efforts, that a sustainable strategy of poverty alleviation must be based on increasing the productive employment opportunities in the process of growth itself. Elimination of poverty, ignorance, diseases and inequality of opportunities and providing a better and higher quality of life were the basic premises upon which all the plans and blue-prints of development should built.

Rural development implies both the economic betterment of people as well as greater social transformation. In order to provide the rural people with better prospects for economic development, increased participation of people in the rural development programmes, decentralization of planning, better enforcement of land reforms, greater access to credit, etc proper planning is envisaged.

Initially, main thrust for development was laid on agriculture industry, communication, education, health and allied sectors but later on it was realized that accelerated development can be achieved only if governmental efforts are adequately supplemented with direct and indirect involvement of people at the grass root level.

One of the major constraints in the efforts to modernize and efficient restructuring of the animal husbandry practices is the delay in taking the results of research to the farming community and in persuading them to adopt new, profitable and locally relevant technologies. The very need of the extension work is to bridge the gap between what is known to the scientists in the laboratories and what is actually being practiced by the farmers in the field. In other words, the major goal of extension machinery is to accelerate the processes of communication and to motivate rural people or livestock owners for adoption of new and profitable technologies. Hence, it is very important to understand these processes of how the farmers get such technologies and how they adopt them.

Communication

The term communication is originated from the Latin word ‘Communis’, meaning common or establishing commoness. When we communicate, we attempt to establish ‘commonality’ with someone through the message.

Communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the meaning, intent and use of the message (Paul Leagens, 1961).

Introduction

Technological advances of the past two decades have profoundly reshaped and enhanced all aspects of medical research and practice. Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications of medical informatics with the latest technique and approaches are essential for every one pursuing in the medical IT field. Improvements in healthcare delivery in recent years are rooted in the continued industry-wide investment in information technology and the expanding role of medical informatics. The main goal of this chapter is to collate and provide innovative and creative ideas so far published on healthcare in one article for use by the researchers, practitioners and other related with health care system for improving communication environments in health and to explore all new technologies in medical informatics and health care delivery systems.

Medical Informatics can be defined as a discipline concerned with all aspects of understanding and promoting the effective organization, analysis, management, and use of information in health care (American Medical Informatics Association, 2007). In recent years, medical informatics has become a well-recognized branch of medicine.

1.1 Introduction

Due to the ever increasing world population, the demand for food would also increase. India is one of the largest food producer countries of the world (first in milk production, second largest in fruit and vegetable production and third largest in grains production). It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total land area of 3,287,263 square kilometres. India has varied climates of snow covered Himalayas, desserts, oceans, fertile plains and areas receiving the highest rainfall in the world. Name any food item; it can be grown in one or the other part of the country. All these make the production of various types of foods of plant (fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, spices etc) as well as animal origin (fish, meat, milk etc.) possible in the country. The annual production of cereals, fruits and vegetables is 260, 57 and 77 million tonnes respectively, besides this, the production of cow and buffalo milk is about 102.1 million tonnes and that of sugarcane and spices are 355.52 and 1.1 million tonnes respectively [15]. Table 1 shows that the production of various food items has increased many folds during the last five decades. On one hand, we feel proud as we produce one of the largest quantities of foods in the world and there has been an enormous rise in the production of various foods in India during the last five decades, on the other hand we should be very much worried being a leading country as far as the wastage of food in the world is concerned. The postharvest losses are huge and only meagre quantity (2%) of the food is processed. Sharma [41] very rightly said that when we do not agree to throw away Rs 4000/-per month out of a salary of Rs 10,000/-per month then why do we accept 40% postproduction losses of food in the country. This would require immediate necessary action to save a major portion of the food that has already been produced.

Goat husbandry has been practiced for thousands of years, since the first domestication of goats. Goat rearing for long mainly consisted of “zero input” concept, which suits well under extensive system of management. Major goat management systems in vogue are nomadic (transhumant)/extensive, semi-intensive and intensive, which have evolved on age-old experience and convenience of resource poor farmers under diverse agro-climatic and agro-ecological conditions.

Nomadic/Transhumant/Migratory/Extensive System

Extensive grazing lands cover vast areas of temperate Asia, and are important both environmentally and as a source of livelihood for goat and sheep herders.This practice is strengthened by migratory, free range, pasture cum range grazing options. The goats are compelled to often graze over long distances in search of feed and water. Under nomdic (transhumant) system, both grasslands and browse are important vegetation type. Land tenure problems, or lack of clarity in grazing rights are some of the emerging challenges for the goat herders under nomadic system. Many a times, the conflict of interests between settled farmers and herders is increasing with rising population pressure and intensification of agriculture. Poor pasture condition is one of the major constraint for the goat herders under nomadic system. Some of the measures suggested to improve the situation include better grazing management, reseeding with high-yielding species, and herder training.

Goat and sheep are two species which have been traditionally managed extensively. Mixed flocks of sheep and goats are common, although separate flocks of either species can also be seen. Extensively managed animals have considerably more behavioural freedom compared to intensively managed animals that are always more confined. Goat has an advantage over other species of livestock in that they can live and produce on land unfavourable for other forms of agriculture. Goat has the ability to forage and survive in areas, where cattle and buffaloes would perform poorly. Goat can revert to wild conditions if given the opportunity whereas sheep donot.

When Gene Expression Appears to Alter Mendelian Ratios Lethal Allele Combinations

Us recessive lethal alleles eliminaters a progeny class. Multiple Alleles

A gene can have more than two alleles, but a diploid individual only has one or two of them.

Different allele combinations can produce different phenotypes and different severities of symptoms.

Different Dominance Relationships

Incomplete dominance of an allele produces a phenotype in the heterozygote that is intermediate between that of either homozygote.

Codominant alleles are both expressed in a heterozygote. Epistasis-When One Gene Affects Expression of Another

In epistasis, one gene masks the effect of another. An example of epistasis in humans is the Bombay phenotype.

The Bombay phenotype results in O type blood for individuals homozygous recessive for the recessive “h” allele.

1. INTRODUCTION

The agricultural paradigm in the developing world including Iran will have to be recast to take advantage of knowledge availability to achieve multiple goals of income, food, jobs, etc. Although, many farming communities in developing countries need timely expert advices to make them more productive and competitive, they are still facing a multitude of problems to maximize agricultural productivity. In spite of successful and promising researches conducted on new agricultural practices, majority of the farmers are not getting upper-bound yield due to several reasons. One of them is that scientific agricultural advice is not reaching the farming community in a timely manner. A wide information gap exists between research and practice.

To cope with this problem different countries have taken various measures. What is common in the extension systems of developing countries is that in a backdrop of rapid organizational and social changes in agriculture, new hardware and software devices have to be applied for better responsiveness to increasing farmers demand for timely and accurate information. At the pace of recent progress in ICT, within a decade it will be possible to provide instantaneous connectivity to millions of people, enabling mass customization and personalized services (Reddy and Ankaiah, 2005). Data mining technology can be used to extract useful knowledge from huge database and simulation technology can be used to predict in to the future (Wiederhold, 2002).

Technical Knowledge (ITK) based special inputs / Techniques for plant growth

Growth of the plant has for long been believed to be due to the minerals absorbed from the soil and the food materials synthesized by the palnt. It is recognized that growth of the plant is very much regulated by certain chemical substances known as growth regulators. These substances are formed in one tissue or organ of the plant and are then transported to other sites where they produce specific effects on growth and development. These materials can be produced organically for improving plant growth.

3.1. Growth Promoting Substances

Are those organic solutions (like Panchagavya, Buttermilk & Coconut milk slurry, Amudhakaraisal) prepared using the plant and animal products, decayed fruit and other agricultural wastes. For example

Bougainvilleas (Bougainvillea spp.) are most popular garden plant in India and widely grown in all types of gardens. Colourful bracts in wide array of colours like white, yellow, pink, magenta, bi-coloured besides several bract forms (single, double) are the main reason of their popularity. Nevertheless, free flowering habit and requirement of low maintenance are the other plus points. When in bloom, Bougainvilleas produce strong colorful effect in the landscape gardens and an adorning beauty to see. Flowering of Bougainvillea is comparable only with the ‘Azaleas’ of the temperate region. In tropical gardens, there is dearth of flowers after March when winter annuals start fading out. As a result gardens become drab and unattractive. Bougainvilleas usually start mass blooming from March and help to maintain the gardens in presentable form. Therefore, they are perfect choice for every garden specially getting flowers in harsh climatic condition.

Bougainvillea belongs to the family Nyctagenaceae and is a native of Rio de Janerio, Brazil. Out of ten species, only four have colourful bracts and horticulturally important viz. Bouganivillea glabra, B. spectabilis, B. peruviana and B. x buttiana.

15.1 Law of Mass Action

Gulberg and Waage, the two Norwegian chemists in the year 1864 stated the law of mass action in this form: ‘The velocity of any chemical reaction at any instant at a given temperature is proportional to the active mass of each of the reactants at that instant present in the system, the active mass in a homogeneous system is defined as the number of gram molecule of the substance present per unit volume i.e., the molar volume’.

The Committee on Economic Development has defined small business as one which satisfies two or more of the following criteria.

• Management is independent (usually the managers are owners).
• Capital is supplied and ownership is held by an individual or small group.
• The area of operation is mainly local. Workers and owners are in one home community. Markets need not be local.
• Relative size within the industry – the business is small when compared to the biggest in its field. The size of the top bracket varies greatly so that what might seem large in field would be definitely small in another.

Abstract

The softer rock types belonging to Tertiary period, intense deformation and the related more frequent tectonic weak planes, high degree of weathering and extensive road cutting are the inherent systems in provoking Landslides in Noney-Nungba segment of NH-53 in the state of Manipur. So Landslide Hazard Zonation mapping was carried out in this segment using BIS method and also geotechnical investigations were carried out in Awang Khull part-II slide and Raungdai slide and on the basis of type of failure and the morphotectonic conditions mitigation strategies were suggested.

In this century the usage of plastics had become very common. However, it is important to know as to what kinds of plastics are used for food handling and storage and the health hazards caused by using it. It has been observed that plastic packaging plays a significant role for the enhanced shelf life and in the ease of storage and cooking for many foods. Some kinds of plastic materials which are widely used for handling and storage of food and water include polyethylene terephthalate (PET). It is used in soft drinks, water, sport drinks, ketchups, salad dressing bottles, peanut butter, pickle, jelly and jam jars. This plastic is strong, heat resistant, resistant to gases and acidic foods. It can be transparent or opaque. It does not leach any chemicals that are suspected of causing cancer or disrupting hormones and can also be recycled.

Usage of High density polyethylene (HDPE) has been found to be common in milk, water, juice bottles, yogurt, margarine tubs, grocery, trash and retail bags. High-density polyethylene is stiff and strong but is not heat stable (it melts at a low temperature). It does not leach any chemicals that have a role in causing cancer or disrupting the hormones. HDPE can be recycled. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is used into making films of various types, some bread and frozen food bags and also in the making of squeezable bottles. Low-density polyethylene is relatively transparent. Many of the films are not heat stable either and may melt the food in case it is touching it. However, polypropylene (PP) is more heat resistant, harder, denser and more transparent than polyethylene and is therefore used for heat-resistant microwavable packaging and sauce or salad dressing bottles. Polycarbonate is clear and heat resistant. It is also durable and often used to make refillable water bottles and sterilisable baby bottles, microwave ovenware, eating utensils, plastic coating for metal cans. Tiny amounts of bisphenol A are formed when polycarbonate bottles are washed with harsh detergents or bleach (sodium hypochlorite). At high levels of exposure, bisphenol A is potentially hazardous as it mimics the female hormone estrogen. In addition, polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are also used during food material transportation and handling in supermarkets. Modern food safe plastic bags are plasticizer-free which do not leach harmful chemicals into the food during cooking.

ABSTRACT

Endophytes are microorganisms that live inside the host plant tissues without causing symptoms of disease. There has been a crescent interest in the prospecting of these microorganisms as sources of novel and bioactive natural products. In fact, a significant number of interesting natural products have been reported in the last years. In this chapter some aspects regarding the endophytes are detailed: the relationship with their host plants, isolation, preservation, taxonomy, cultivation, frequently isolated strains, tropical endophytes, novel structures isolated and also their biological activities.

Key words: natural product, endophytic fungi, plant fungus interaction, secondary metabolites.

2.1 Introduction

Food is one of the complex systems involving many constituents such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals and other phytochemicals. These all constituents are not present in the same relative proportion in every type of food and thus the foods are categorized and valued according to the presence of these constituents as protein rich foods, fat rich foods, etc. The specific type of food is in abundance with only one or at most two of these constituents and rest of the bulk is not valuable, commercially. So, if these active constituents which are present in the tissue surrounding inactive matrix, are separated, it is of great benefit with respect to increased purity, nutritive value, functional properties, reduction in volume, easy handling and transportation. On contrary some valuable food items contain undesirable constituents generally referred as anti-nutritional factors. Removal of these anti-nutritional factors enhances the food value and commercial utilization. Hence, the separation of phytochemicals and removal of anti-nutrients from the food matrices can be easily carried out by using a unit operation called as extraction.

Extraction involves the separation or isolation of active/desirable components of complex system viz., plant and animal tissues from the rest of inactive/undesirable components by using suitable means such as solvent or mechanical structure. The basic principle involved in the extraction process is partitioning of different components in accordance with the extracting agent. For example, in mechanical extraction, the partitioning is due to pressure and screen/apperature size where as in case of solvent extraction, the portioning of components from mixture takes place due to particular solubilizing power of solvent used.

Stress is usually defined as an external factor that exerts a disadvantageous influence on the plant. Under both natural and agricultural conditions, plants are exposed to unfavourable environments that result in some degree of stress. Water deficit, chilling and freezing, heat stress and heat shock, salinity, oxygen deficiency and air pollution are major stress factors restricting plant growth. Stress is measured in relation to plant survival, plant processes, growth and crop yield. An environment, which is stressful for one plant, may not be stressful for another, e.g., pea and soybean that grow best at 20 and 30°C, respectively. As the temperature increases, the pea shows sign of heat stress much sooner than soybean, thus, soybean has greater heat stress tolerance.

To the farmers, the plants those survive in an adverse environment are called hardy plants and those, which do not survive under a particular adverse environment, are called susceptible or tender plants. So based on reactions of several plants to the environment, particular plants are selected for a region and also the farmers to suit the nature of a crop adopt different seasons of planting. Biologists have adopted the term stress for any environmental factor potentially unfavourable to a living organism. The ability of the plant to survive the unfavourable factor is due to its stress resistance. There is an equal and opposite reactions for every action. Stress is the action, whereas, strain is the reaction. A body of a plant subjected to stress is in a state of strain. External force of a particular stress causes disturbances in the body of the plant leading to a change in either shape or size and also may lead to internal disturbances, which affect physiological processes. Up to a point, a strain may be completely reversible. When the stress is released at this stage, the plant becomes normal without exhibiting any strain, which is known as elastic strain. Beyond this point, the strain will be partially elastic and irreversible partially, and then we say, it reaches permanent set and it is known as plastic strain.

Vegetables have always been looked upon as an essential part of diet and are necessary for human health and well-being. Vegetables supply many kinds of nutrients, e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins, fibers, phytochemicals, etc. and also add flavour, colour and crispness to foodstuffs. For developing modern day vegetables, breeders have utilized an understanding of genetic principles and applied them for the improvement of these crops. They often make crosses (hybridization) between a crop plant and a related or wild species (a wide cross) enabling valuable genes to be used for genetic improvement of the crops. Over the last few decades, molecular breeding is supplementing plant breeder’s efforts for accelerated genetic enhancement bringing about a revolution in this area. This approach demands efficient procedures for the routine introduction of foreign DNA into plant genomes and utilizing them for the production of novel types of vegetable. In this chapter, attempts have been made to review most of the available molecular breeding techniques, which can routinely be employed in various aspects of vegetable improvement.

Cultivars are developed by selecting for desired traits or by removing undesirable traits that are controlled by genes (the blueprint for all characteristics in living organisms) from existing varieties or breeding lines. The plant species, varieties and clones are identified or selected by their physical features since olden times. However, these traits would change with respect to environmental and climatic conditions. The biochemical parameters like enzymes, proteins, alkaloids, etc. are also likely to change due to the stages of development of plant tissue. Successful selection strategies are dependent on the breeder’s ability to distinguish genetic effects from environmental effects on a visible or measurable trait. Therefore, the scientists resorted to use ‘genetic marker’, i.e., any stable and inheritable variation that can be measured or detected by a suitable method and can be used subsequently to detect the presence of a specific genotype or phenotype, which otherwise is very difficult to detect. Presently, the breeders and scientists all over the world are pursuing mostly DNA or molecular markers.

Introduction

Development of improved crop varieties is vital for sustained increase in agriculture production and productivity. Timely supply of quality seed is equally significant since the contribution of quality seed alone is estimated to be 15-20 per cent to total crop production. Seed quality attains more significance in view of emerging biotic and abiotic stresses, issues related to quality and phytosanitary measures, competition in domestic and international markets and emerging food needs. Measures of seed legislation with respect to quantity and quality were initiated in the country by establishment of National Seed Corporation during 1963 under Ministry of Agriculture. The seed sector in India during the period was dominated by the Public sector. The National Seed Corporation was the Central Body to produce seeds of superior dwarf varieties in rice, wheat, and superior hybrids in maize, pearl millet and sorghum. This was followed by various seed legislations enacted by Government of India. Further, AICRP-NSP (Crops), popularly known as National Seed Project was launched during 1979-80. The NSP-Project came into operation in three major phases and continues to produce breeder seed to cater the needs of the Indian farmers. The project resulted in achieving breeder seed production surpassing the indents in all major crops. The seed programme of the country was further strengthened with NSP II (World Bank) Project starting in 1989-90, which not only supported the ICAR and SAUs, but also Department of Agriculture, Seeds Corporations, Seed Certification Agencies and Private Seed Industries to a great extent in production, processing and in providing quality seeds to the country.

ABSTRACT

Commercially valuable plants are one of the main sources of economy. Growth, development and yield of these plants are severely affected by various environmental factors, which depend on dynamic fluctuations in different parameters. To counteract these responses, plants try to adapt evolutionarily but one form of adaptation is never going to suffice the simultaneous attack of multiple stresses. Crossing and plant breeding approaches came to practice, which is quite beneficial but requires lot of screening and is manpower consuming. In recent era new approaches have been developed combining recombinant DNA technology with tissue culture techniques to obtain improved varieties with specific desired traits. This method had an edge over other technologies but it still carries lot of complications. It is evident that genes do not act alone but act cooperatively and remain in continuous influence of other factors. So to target a particular gene for improved variety development requires a lot of detailed micro-details. In this communication, an attempt have been made to discuss mainly how transcription factors (TFs) have been targeted for this purpose. TFs in many occasions act as master regulators or central players of a particular pathway. This is attained by their ability to interact with multiple cis-elements present in the promoters of downstream stress or metabolism responsive genes. This behavior sometime leads to occurrence of some unwanted traits, which should be kept in mind to develop transgenics. Here, we focused mainly on important TF families such as ERF, WRKY, NAC and bHLH. We have been an attempt to analyzed how these TFs influence growth, yield and stress response of commercially valuable plants such as rice, wheat, tomato and cotton. This section will help to understand the genetic manipulation of plants can be targeted for improved variety development.

Climate classification systems are ways of classifying the world’s climates. One purpose of climatic classification is to group together places with similar climatic characteristics. That means if an area or region is categorised under a particular climatic type, it possesses broadly uniform characteristics with respect to climate. Classifications have been based on climatic elements such as temperature and precipitation, which are measurable, and on differences in tree species, soil characteristics, topography, etc. The varied nature of earth’s surface and the many interactions that occur among atmospheric processes give every location on the earth a distinctive climate.

Although the delineation of distinct climates may seem likely a very straightforward job, establishing the criteria by which climates are delineated requires considerable subjectivity. There are many ways of classifying the climate depending on the user and the level of understanding of the climate system at a given time. Different regions of the same climate type constitute isoclimatic regions. Identification of isoclimates helps in the transfer of agro-technology and suggesting new cropping pattern. Climatic classification is based on two approaches, viz., generic or empirical approach and genetic approach. In the generic approach the classification is based on the observed climatic elements or their effects on the phenomena, usually vegetation or humankind. The genetic classification is based on climatic controls such as general circulation, net radiation and moisture fluxes.

The concept of climate classification was originally brought out to delineate natural vegetation, which is dependent on rainfall and temperature. Climate classification is unique tool to find out different climate types across the globe, out of which isoclimates or homoclimates can be traced out.

The climate of a particular place is the function of a number of factors such as latitude and its influence on solar radiation received, air mass influences, location of global high and low pressure zones, heat exchange from ocean currents, distribution of mountain barriers, pattern of prevailing winds, distribution of land and sea, and altitude.

Hippeastrums, commonly known as Royal Dutch amaryllis/ Trumplet lily/ Belladonna lily, are bulbous ornamentals grown around the world for cut flowers, potted plants, window gardens and floral arrangements. The numerous hybrid phenotypes (miniature, orchid flowering, imbricated/ reginae, long trumpet/ belladonna type, etc.) are available in the world market. The history of its development and new trends of breeding are described as an aid for continued crop development. Tissue banks of cultivars are genetic evolutionary race history have been charted out for future improvement. Most cultivars are diploids and tetraploids cross incompatibility, sterility, reproductive barriers, self incompatibility often pose significant challenges to breeders. Little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop, plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. The use of intra and interspecific hybridization, breeding for specific traits, polyploidy and mutation breeding are presented with a focus on creating novel transformations for this crop in the future.

Abstract: Bougainvilleas are morphologically diverse and admired for their ornamental value. The considerable diversity exists in bougainvillea species for leaf shape, degree of hairiness, bract colour, spine shape and blooming. These attributes have enabled the ornamental bougainvillea to be used as pot plants, hedge, pergola, standard and bonsai for display. Currently, there are many intra and interspecific hybrid cultivars and numerous mutations from numerous species in the market. Limited fertility, heterozygous nature, strong self incompatibility and seed sterility often pose significant challenge to breeders. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include; plant architecture, flower timing, colour diversity, multibracts and multicolour in single variety, environmental adaptation to stressful condition (cold tolerance, heat tolerance, drought tolerance, etc.).

Abstract

The interest in the utilization of industrial by-products is increasing day by day and is major reason for exploring different meat, poultry and fish industry waste and optimization of extracting conditions of different valuable compounds. Utilization of these by-products in effective manner can be positive for meat industry economy as well as environmental pollution of the country. Besides the potential revenue losses, non-utilized or underutilized by-products accounts for the extra cost for their disposal. Meat producers are converting these by-products into value added edible and inedible form. Among the most prominent current uses of meat, poultry and fish waste are food ingredients, water treatment, cosmetic and personal care products, biogas/biodiesel, biomedical and pharmaceutical application. Several studies have dealt with the production of several value-added products such as gelatin, collagen, enzymes, specific proteins, bioactive peptides, chitin, chitosan, and pigments fro m the meat industries waste. Recently, in the food and pharmaceutical industry, an increasing number of new applications have been found for products generated from meat, poultry and fish industry waste; in different products as foaming agents, emulsifiers, biodegradable film-forming materials, colloid stabilizers, and microencapsulating agents, in line with the growing trend to replace synthetic agents with more natural ones.

5.0. Introduction

Quality control is generally defined as the regulation by law of food manufacture, distribution and sale in order to prevent health hazards and fraud to the consumers. Thus, it becomes a criminal offence to sell adulterated, filthy or contaminated foods. Quality control is the scientific control of production. There are certain basic fundamentals which are required for successful running of the food processing industry. So, for successful quality control in an industry / organization certain management systems are needed. Depending upon consumer requirement and satisfaction, quality management system is based on four important pillars like management responsibility, resource management, product / service realization and measurement, analysis & improvement. This management system is also important for ISO certification in an organization / industry.

Tillage operations in various forms have been practiced from the very inception of growing plants. Primitive man used tools to disturb the soils for placing seeds. The word tillage is derived from the Anglo-Saxon words tilian and teolian, meaning to plough and prepare soil for seed to sow, to cultivate and to raise crops. Jethro Tull, who is considered as father of tillage suggested that thorough ploughing is necessary so as to make the soil into fine particles.

Growth is the development of a plant as a whole or of a specific organ. Besides the genetic factors, the environmental factors grouped as climatic factors and soil factors influence plant growth. The supply of mineral nutrient elements to the plants is discussed in this chapter.

A complete analysis of plants detects large number of elements. But only certain elements are essential. An element is said to be essential if the plant cannot complete its life cycle without it, and if the malady (deficiency) that develops in plants in its absence can be remedied only by that element.

Earlier 16 elements were considered as essential for plant growth. They are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, boron and chlorine. Recently, sodium, cobalt, vanadium, silica, selenium, gallium, aluminium and iodine are added to the above list. One or the other of these elements (recently added) has been found to be essential for a particular species of plants.

Carbon dioxide, water and molecular oxygen are the forms in which C., H and O are assimilated by plants. Others are taken up by plants from the soil. Nutrient uptake by plants accounts for about 10 percent of total dry weight of crops, the remaining percentage being water. The chemical symbol and the ionic forms in which the essential elements are absorbed by the plants are as follows.

Abstract

Anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria (APB) are having the genetic potential of converting radiant energy into chemical energy useful for growth and metabolic activities without evolving oxygen. They are physiologically, metabolically and phylogenetically versatile group of organism spread in five distinct phyla; Proteobacteria (purple bacteria), Chlorobi (green-sulfur bacteria), Chloroflexi (green non-sulfur bacteria), Fir micutes (heliobacteria) and Acidobacteria. Different group of APB harbors distinct photosynthetic pigments, carotenoids, and a photosynthetic reaction center. These group of bacteria succeeds in a natural environment with light availability and presence of anoxic conditions as the pigment, and the molecular oxygen inhibits bacteriochlorophyll synthesis whereas few APB can grow in hypooxic as well as in aerobic conditions. Calvin-Benson-Bassham (CBB) pathway, reverse tricarboxylic acid (rTCA) cycle, and hydroxypropionate cycle are reported pathways for carbon assimilation in APB to fix carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis occurs in either intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM) or membrane bound chlorosomes and in the cytoplasm for few APB. APB have a wide range of potential applications including removal of H₂S from wastewater and gas streams, hydrogen production, degradation of xenobiotic, toxic metals and radioisotopes, work as host for the production of challenging membrane proteins, source of carotenoids and terpenoids, single cell protein, extensive applications in agriculture and production of bioactive compounds with antimicrobial, antioxidant and anticancer activity. The chapter is focused on the diversity of different types of APB, habitats, their growth requirements, photosynthetic machinery and biotechnological applications of APB.

Abstract

Hydrogen synthesis from bioprocesses a good approach for generation clean of fuel for world's development. Throughout the ancient and current periods, most of the developmental activities are completed by consumption of non-renewable fossil fuel energy that which has resulted in multiple environmental issues or challenges (Climate change and pollution by toxic gases or byproducts formation) at global level. Biohydrogen synthesis from anaerobic bacterial fermentation could be a good effort for sustainable energy production without any toxic byproduct formation. For production of hydrogen, lignocellulosic material can be utilized as cheap raw substrates. This would help the farmers in providing surplus benefits to farmer for their agriculture residues that normally burnt and cause the serious air pollution. Utilization of agro-waste residues can help in development of sustainable biofuels for world energy need. Burning of agrowaste residues by farmer's can be discouraged via utilization as raw carbon substrates thereby reducing air pollution.

The words ‘system’, ‘sub-system’ and ‘practice’ are commonly used in agroforestry literature. In a broad sense, a system is defined as a group of associated elements forming a unified whole and working together in a well defined regular relation for a common goal. An agroforestry system refers to a type of agroforestry land-use that extends over a locality to the extent of forming a land utilization type of the locality. Sub-system and practice are lower-order terms in the hierarchy with lesser magnitudes of role, content and complexity. However, these terms are used loosely, and almost synonymously.

Classification of agroforestry systems is necessary in order to understand and provide a practical framework for evaluating systems and developing action plans for their improvement. Any classification scheme should satisfy the following criteria (Nair, 2008).

Introduction

Cucurbits belong to the family cucurbitaceae; constitute the largest group of summer vegetables grown all over the world which includes about 118 genera and 825 species. Cucumbers, muskmelons, watermelons, squashes, gourds, luffagourd, tissel-gourd and pumpkins are commonly grown cucurbits are mostly important one. These crops are attacked by a variety of insect pest and diseases throughout its growth period; generate wounds that help to transmit of viral particles, bacteria and invasion of fungal pathogens. Major insect pests include cucumber beetles, red pumpkin beetles, fruit flies, epilachna beetles, squash bugs, aphids, white flies, squash vine borers, two-spotted spider mites, and nematodes affects significant damages from seeding stage upto harvest. Insect pest infestations in cucurbits bring about heavy losses through reduction in yield, lowered quality of produce, defoliation of leaves, damage roots or flowers, contribute to poor crop standard increased cost of production and harvesting besides expenditure incurred on materials and equipments to apply control measures.

Introduction

Chilli (Capsicum annuum var.annuum L.) is one of the most important economical and popular vegetable crops grown for its green fruits as vegetable and red one as a spice¹. It is a native of southern Texas and Maxico and was introduced in India by the Portuguese in 19^th century². Chilli is mainly used in culinary adding flavor, color, pungency and rich source of vitamins like A, C, E, P and having medicinal properties³. Chilli is one of the important cash crops grown in almost all parts of the country and is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics as also under glass houses in temperate regions⁴. The plants are very sensitive to excessive rainfall, water lodging and frost^2,5. The ideal condition for its cultivation are well drained loam soil rich in organic matter but can also be grown in many type of soils⁶. India is a major producer, exporter and consumer of chilli⁷. Chilli is presently grown extensively throughout the country, both under rainfed and irrigated conditions, in almost all the states covering an area of 792.1 thousand Ha with annual production of 1223.4 thousand metric tonnes⁸. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of chilli in India. It contributes about 30% to the total area under chilli, followed by Karnataka (20%), Maharashtra (15%), Orissa (9%), Tamil Nadu (8%) and other states contributing 18% to the total area under chilli⁸.

Introduction

For the year 2016-17, as per the FAO global estimate, the food grain production has crossed over 2.6 trillion metric tons, while the steadily increasing the demand is anticipated to be approximately 3.3 trillion metric tons for 2016-17. Similarly,the global production of all horticultural commodities has crossed over 1.8 trillion metric tons. The global trade of these commodities is purely based on their quality, the demand for good quality produces increases day by day. The term “quality” is a broad terminology used to explain many parameters and differs from commodity to commodity. Usually, the term ‘quality’ is classified into internal and external quality. The external quality refers the external colour, size, shape appearance, uniformity, external damage, cracks and bruishness etc. These parameters may be common for both perishables and durables.

But, in case of internal quality, each and every parameter vary from commodity to commodity, product to product. For food grains, the internal quality refers to moisture content and other nutritional parameters like carbohydrate, protein content etc. But in fruits, the internal quality refers to internal pulp colour, TSS, pH, acidity, juice content, ripeness, other biochemical and nutritional quality parameters. 

Introduction

The food that we consume should not only contain all essential nutrients like carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, fibre etc but also should be hygienic and safe. Safety and quality of food is to be ensured not only during food production but also should be continuously monitored till it reaches the consumer (Coles and Frewer, 2013). The characteristics of food are altered during every processing operations viz., cleaning, sorting, transportation, thermal processing, packaging, storage, distribution etc which may be desirable or undesirable. Persistent physical, chemical and microbiological analyses have to be done at all levels of supply chain to ensure the quality of food. Traditional methods of food safety analysis are spectrophotometry, aerobic plate count method, microscopic plate count, titrations, chromatography etc. Though these techniques provide accurate results, the analysis demand cumbersome extraction steps, trained technical staff and are time consuming (Di-Natale et al., 2000). Hence, steady, sensitive and rapid monitoring of food analysis technique is a need of the hour in the present era. Biosensors can effectively replace the conventional techniques owing to its reliability, rapidity, economic and field applicability (Prasad et al., 2014). Biosensors are an attractive diagnostic alternative owing to their in situ detection ability and comparatively reduced detection time from several days to hours, or even minutes (Ruiz et al., 2017). Rapid food analysis can also minimise spoilage, especially in freshly harvested agricultural commodities, such as fruits and vegetables, meat, fish etc. In addition, the portable detection devices provide in-situ detection capabilities without extensive training and assist in integrating real time analysis in food processing centres.

Introduction

Oils and fats are the major class of compounds in lipids. Oils and fats are essential nutrients in both human and animal diets and produced from plant, animal, marine and microbial sources. Dietary oils and fats are concentrated sources of metabolizable energy (9 kCal/gram) compared to protein or carbohydrates (4 kCal/g). According to the recommendations of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the maximum total fat intake for adults is 30 to 35% E (total energy calories). The minimum fat intake recommended is 15% E for most individuals and 20% E for women of reproductive age and for malnourished populations (FAO, 2010).The current dietary guidelines for optimal health and prevention of diet-related chronic diseases like diabetes, coronary heart disease (CHD), cancer and obesity emphasize the importance of both the quantity and quality of total fat in the diet. In addition to the caloric and nutritional value, oils and fats exhibit many functional properties in the diet. Oils and fats enhance the value of foods by releasing the flavours of other food components, provide texture, increase palatability of food, and impart the feeling of satiety after eating. Oils and fats provide essential fatty acids (omega 3 and 6) which are the building blocks for several metabolic pathways for the healthy life. Oils and fats are excellent carriers of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K, and the absorption of these vitamins is impaired at very low-fat intakes. Due to this reason, sseveral countries have started using edible oils and fats as a suitable vehicle for the fortification of vitamin A and D as edible oils are consumed by almost everyone (Diosady and Krishnaswamy, 2018). Oils and fats are structural bodily components, and are involved in vital physiological processes, including growth, development, inflammation, and brain function. Lipoproteins are important cellular constituents, occurring both in the cell membrane and mitochondria, and also serving as the means of transporting lipids in the blood. Oils and fats are responsible for making biological membranes such as phospholipids and cholesterol, vital for making the cell membranes. Most of the edible oils contain several minor constituents which are known as potent nutraceutical constituents with several health benefits. In addition to edible purpose, oils and fats are being used in many industrial applications such as soaps, detergents, cosmetics, lubricants, specialty chemicals, biofuels, etc. Hence oils and fats are indispensable source for food (edible oils and nutraceuticals), fuel (biodiesel, lubricants etc.) and fabulous chemicals (oleochemicals).