eChapters

Introduction

The hydrological cycle transfers water and energy between the land and atmosphere, but its regional characteristics make accurate modeling challenging. Hydrological models aim to predict hydrological events and processes, but there are uncertainties in their output due to the complex nature of the system and assumptions made. Empirical models use statistical or mathematical relationships, while process-based models use equations to represent physical processes.

Hydrological modeling involves various steps, leading to uncertainties that can affect the accuracy of model predictions. The four main types of uncertainties commonly encountered are data, model, parameter, and climate uncertainty. Data uncertainty arises due to errors or gaps in the input data, model uncertainty stems from limitations in the model structure or assumptions used, parameter uncertainty arises due to uncertainties in the values allocated to various model parameters, and climate uncertainty refers to uncertainties in the future climate projections used as inputs.

Abstract
Rural women in India play a pivotal role in economic development, particularly through their significant contributions to dairy farming, a key enterprise in rural economies. Despite their extensive involvement in dairy activities such as fodder collection, milking, and animal care, their labour often remains non-monetized, limiting economic empowerment. Dairy farming, bolstered by initiatives like Operation Flood, has made India the world’s largest milk producer, offering profitable opportunities for rural women. Entrepreneurship in dairy farming can economically empower women, granting them decision-making autonomy and social recognition. Government schemes, NGOs, and institutions like KVKs facilitate this through training, formation of Women Dairy Cooperatives, and Self-Help Groups. Success stories from Chittoor, Jajpur, and Valsad highlight women leveraging dairy enterprises for financial independence and community inspiration. Promoting women’s entrepreneurship in dairy farming through skill development and market access is crucial for their socio-economic upliftment.
Keywords: Rural Women, Dairy Farming, Entrepreneurship, Economic Empowerment, Women Dairy Cooperatives, Self-Help Groups, Operation Flood, Socio-Economic Development, Milk Production, Skill Development

Use of animals in teaching is an inevitable process of learning in Veterinary and Animal Science colleges. Consequently, animals have to be handled for anatomical demonstration, surgical practice and used as experimental animals in various investigatory researches. The apprehensions and pain the animals have to suffer from these handlings (mishandlings) have brought the need to look for alternative ways to deal with animals and yet the purpose of learning about them does not diminish. Now-a-days, a growing emphasis is placed on minimizing the overall use of animals alongside advancements in science.

Exacum bicolor, Roxb. commonly known as country kreat is  endemic to Peninsular India. It is a herbaceous perennial with attractive flowers and posseses medicinal properties. Plant is endangered today due to large scale habitat destruction.  Non- lodging nature of plant, attractive bi-colored flower bunches with a long flowering period and good field life offer great future for this plant to be domesticated as an attractive garden flower. Its ornamental value and medicinal properties are yet to be fully exploited.

India is bestowed with a wide array of flowering plants. It represents two of the 18 hotspots of biodiversity in the world; one being the Western ghats and other the North Eastern Himalayas. Nature has also blessed our India with  uniqueness of endemism. Of the 17000 flowering herbs distributed in nine phyto geographical regions of the country, 5700 are endemic. Exacum  bicolor Roxb. is one of the endemic species to Peninsular India. Plant is popularly known as Bharachirata and Habshi chirata in Hindi, Kannamthali in Malayalam, Dodda  chirayuta in Kannada and ceti in Tamil.

Introduction

E lectronic-resources is an umbrella term which refers to provision of digital instruction courseware over the public Internet, private distance learning networks or in-house via an intranet. E-resources most often means an approach to facilitate and enhance access through the use of devices based on information and communications technologies (ICT) like personal computers, digital television, PDAs (Personal Digital Assistant) and mobile phones. The electronic resources might include notes, PowerPoint presentations, video clips or Internet sites.

Online library resources aim at providing materials, information and services by different types of libraries to the end users. These libraries may be in different jurisdictions, but agree to serve one another on the same basis as each service to its own users through the use of ICT. With the rapid growth of information on veterinary science, there are frequent delays in providing service to the end users when traditional library systems are adopted. The cost of providing service is also rising, mainly because of manual methods and duplication of investments in library holdings. ICT enables the use of the Internet, email, discussion forums, and collaborative software to support students and veterinarians through the use of WANs (Wide Area Networks), and may also be considered where greater flexibility and just-in-time access is desired.

One of the most common fractures seen in the dog is comminutuion of femoral shaft, often related to sever impact from an automobile accident or jump from a height. Comminuted fractures are characterized by one or more butterfly fragments and assorted small bone chips that are especially difficult to align accurately and stabilize completely. These complicated fractures require sophisticated repair technique that are capable to resisting compression, bending and rotational forces. Rebuilding of comminuted fractures so that all fragments are accurately aligned and gaps are eliminated is often impossible. Non-union and osteomylitis have their highest incidence in these fractures. Over the years, several techniques are tried to treat comminuted femoral fractures with different success rate and there is a lack of uniform fracture presentation. Hence, it will be difficult to compare different techniques in a particular type of fracture. The present chapter is, therefore, undertaken to evaluate radiographically and histopathologically the efficacy of three different internal fixation techniques in the management of comminuted diaphyseal femoral fracture in dogs.

Clinically healthy, adult mongrel dogs (15) of either sex are randomly divided into groups A, B and C of 5 animals each. In all the animals unilateral comminuted diaphyseal femoral fractures is created under general (thiopental - 5%) anaesthesia and is immobilized with intramedullary (IM) pinning with cerclage wiring (Gr. A), neutralization bone plating (Gr. B) and neutralization bone plating with cerclage wiring (Gr. C) respectively. All the animals are administered broad spectrum antibiotic (streptopenicillin @ I g intramuscularly (dog/day) and analgesic (diclophenac sodium @ l mg/ kg b. wt. daily) and surgical wounds are dressed daily with povidone iodine and antibiotic cream for 5 days postoperatively.

Lateral and oblique views of radiography are taken at the operated site just after the operation and subsequently on days 15, 30, 45 and 60 postoperatively. The radiographs are observed for status of fracture reduction and fixation, progress of healing at the fracture site and complications like fixation failure, osteomylitis etc., if any, at different intervals. Bone sections are collected from the fracture site including adjacent normal bone after sacrificing the animals on day 60. The sections are decalcified using Goodling and Stewart’s solution (80% distilled water, 15% formic acid and 5% formalin) and then processed routinely for H & E staining for histopathological studies

Indian Council of Agricultural Research; formerly known as Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, established on 16^th July 1929 and located at New Delhi. It is an autonomous organization under Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. It is the apex body for coordinating, guiding and managing research and education in agriculture including horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences. This is one of the largest national agricultural systems in the world.

The ICAR has played a pioneering role in ushering in the green revolution and subsequent developments in agriculture through its research and technology development. Thus, the food grains production increased by 5.6 times, horticultural crops by 10.5 times, fish by 16.8 times, milk by 10.4 times and eggs by 52.9 times to achievenational food and nutritional security during the period of 66 years (1950-51 to 2017-18). It has also played a major role in promoting excellence in higher education in agriculture. Organizational setup of ICAR to achieve mandate is as follows.

The historical origins of diffusion research can be traced back over 200 years. In the early 18th century, French judge and sociologist Tarde wrote "The Laws of Imitation" (1903). He viewed the diffusion of innovation as arising from conscious and unconscious social imitations among individuals. Tarde introduced seminal diffusion concepts such as the S-curve, opinion leaders, and perceived compatibility.

Following Tarde, German political philosopher and sociologist Simmel published "Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliations" (1922). In this work, Simmel explored how the relationships in which individuals are embedded influence their responses to innovations. He also suggested that individuals outside a social system can introduce new ideas into that system.

In the 1920s, American cultural anthropologist Kroeber studied both the spread of innovations and how cultures recursively shape innovations. These early works contributed to the development of diffusion research in sociology during the 1920s and 1930s.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a cutting-edge molecular technique widely utilized for the swift and accurate detection of fish pathogens, especially bacterial infections. By amplifying targeted DNA sequences from minimal sample quantities, PCR enables the identification of pathogens even at very low concentrations.
In India, PCR has become crucial to disease diagnostics in aquaculture, particularly as farming intensifies. It offers early detection of viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections, including subclinical cases. Given India’s vast range of aquaculture species and environmental conditions—from carp and catfish farming in West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh to shrimp and seabass cultivation in Tamil Nadu and Kerala—PCR diagnostics are increasingly adopted in research institutions, government labs, and commercial hatcheries.
PCR detects the genetic material of pathogens in fish tissues, blood, mucus, or even water and sediment samples. Its high sensitivity and specificity make it ideal for early-stage diagnosis and disease monitoring. Institutions like CIBA, CIFA, TNJFU, and KUFOS have incorporated PCR into their routine health assessments.
The process involves collecting tissue samples (such as gill, liver, or kidney), extracting DNA or RNA, and using pathogen-specific primers in a thermocycler to amplify the target sequence. DNA-based pathogens undergo direct DNA extraction, while RNA viruses require RT-PCR. The results are then analyzed through gel electrophoresis or real-time PCR.

Climate change is one of the most pressing issues of our time, with far-reaching consequences for the environment, human health, and the economy. One of the most significant impacts of climate change is on the world’s water resources. Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events are all taking a toll on the availability, quality, and management of water resources. Water is essential for human survival, and its availability and quality are crucial for human health, food security, and economic development. However, climate change is altering the hydrological cycle, leading to changes in precipitation patterns, increased evaporation, and altered water flows. These changes have significant implications on demand for water resources, including reduced water availability, decreased water quality, and increased risk of waterrelated disasters which will ultimately impact agricultural production and food security.
15.1. Changes in Precipitation Patterns
One of the most significant impacts of climate change on water resources is the alteration of precipitation patterns and projected per cent changes in average annual precipitation over 1850-1900 period at 2.00C increase in temperature are depicted here (Fig.15.1).

Rabbit domestication dates back no farther than the previous millennium. It were the Phoenicians who are said to have discovered the wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus of Southern Europe and North Africa when they reached the shores of Spain about 1000 B.C. In Roman times, the rabbit was still emblematic of Spain. The Roman spread the rabbit throughout the empire as a game animal. Like the Spaniards, the Romans also ate foetuses or new born rabbits, which they called laurices. It then becomes a practice that the rabbits were kept in leporarian, stone –walled pens or parks for hunting purposes. These leporaria ultimately paved the way for the development of game parks in the middle Ages. The monks ate laurices during lent because they were an aquatic dish. In France, only the lord of the manor could maintain a warren.

Objectives

To acquaint with the various methods of sterilization and disinfection used in laboratory animals.

Materials Required

Boiler, autoclave, hot air oven, chemical disinfection.

Sterilization

It is a process of the complete removal or destruction of living organisms including viruses, vegetative forms and spores. Sterilization is an absolute term. Nothing can be “partially sterile’’, either, it is or it is ‘not’. An article must be protected from recontamination after sterilization.

12.1. Practice of SMEs in Africa-Critical Review

Previous studies in Kenya have focused on the role of entrepreneurship education in job creation, enterprise management and economic development (Simiyu, 2010; Mwangi, 2011; Warren, 2011); hardly any have addressed the process of delivering entrepreneurship education. Research provides new knowledge to guide educational practice, by making an initial foray into the teaching of entrepreneurship education in Kenya. The envisaged entrepreneurially empowered TTI graduate is a product of the training function. This book examines factors which affect implementation of entrepreneurship education programme in TTIs in Kenya. The variables investigated were teaching methods, assessment methods, teacher’s network, and availability of training resources. The findings show that teachers do not accord entrepreneurship education t he appropriate pedagogical approach that it deserves; they seem resigned to using ineffective traditional pedagogies. Meanwhile, the subject is inadequately resourced by TTI administrations. The results of this research invite the attention of entrepreneurship educators, practitioners and stakeholders to employ effective strategies for dev eloping entrepreneurial key competencies in TTI trainees.

Importance of Rainfed Farming

In India, rain dependent areas are vast and they have a great contribution to make in agricultural production, with just 1/40th of the world land. Of the 141 M ha of net sown area in the country, 80 M ha is rainfed. Rainfed agriculture contributes 40% of food grain production and supports 2/3rds of the livestock population. Despite considerable progress in irrigation development over the five year plans, 85% of coarse cereals, 83% in pulses, 42% in rice, 70% in oilseeds and 65% in cotton are still cultivated as rainfed. A large portion of industrially important crops such as cotton, groundnut and castor are cultivated under dry land conditions and has a great contribution to make to the production of food, fibre, fuel and furniture timber etc. Though, impressive gains were noted in some of the rainfed crops in recent times, the gap between attainable and farmers’ yields still remain high which is a major cause of concern. Small and marginal farmers who are the backbone of rainfed farming are resource poor and risk averse. Moreover, both public and private investments in technology adoption and infrastructure have been quite low in rainfed agriculture resulting in a vicious circle of low yields-low net returns-low investments in improved technologies.

With several resource management problems emerging in irrigated regions, rainfed agriculture offers scope to contribute to the growing food needs of future particularly of pulses and edible oils. The high yield gaps between attainable yields realized by progressive farmers using improved technologies and those actually realized by the farmers at large in any given region offer scope for enhancing overall productivity of rainfed crops anywhere between 50 to 70% in the near term with the adoption of the available technologies, provided resource and institutional constraints in delivering the technology and inputs are addressed timely and adequately. With the promised break-through in yields through genetic manipulation and large scale adoption of water saving technologies through conservation agriculture, the yield gains can be further enhanced in the medium to long term.

The 80 million hectares of rainfed farming area is not uniform for resource base, opportunities and constraints. There are areas receiving high rainfall and fertile deep soils where crop yields can be enhanced significantly by double cropping combined with supplemental irrigation with water harvesting. For the relatively lower rainfall regions, the overall system productivity needs to be enhanced by integrating crops, trees and livestock. This agro-eco region based differential approach is the key for realizing the full potential of rainfed agriculture besides addressing the dimension of regional equity.

Calcareous soils

In arid regions, calcareous soils are developed from limestone or marl parent materials. The content of calcium and magnesium carbonate may be as high as 60 to 70 per cent of the total soil mass. In calcareous soil lime content may vary from a small amount in some places in the profile to appreciable amounts throughout the profile.

Calcium carbonate coatings occur in sand, silt and clay size fractions of calcareous soils. In sub soil, large amounts of lime forms hardpan under high water tables.

In general, pH of the soil increases to alkaline pH with increasing the proportion of water to soil ratio. This may happen in part from a reduction of CO₂ pressure. The dilution of salts in soil solution also permits greater hydrolysis of calcium clay. The dilution of calcium carbonate with production of hydroxyl ions may lead to higher pH as:

A significant development in the field of agricultural research in India is the formulation of All India Coordinated Research Projects (AICRPs), initially for the improvement of agricultural crops, but later extended to all aspects of crop husbandry.

Electric Cooking Range is also known as an electric stove or electric range; is a stove with a built-in cooktop and with an integrated electrical heating device to cook and bake. Electric stoves became popular as replacements for solidfuel (wood or coal) stoves which required more labor to operate and maintain. “Cookstoves” (also called “cooking stoves” or “wood stoves”) are heated by burning wood or charcoal; “gas stoves” are heated by gas; and “electric stoves” by electricity. Unlike gas stoves, electric stove tops don’t produce a flame.

The synthesis of humic substances is the least understood and the most intriguing aspect of humus chemistry. This has been one of the intensely- researched subjects for a long time. Formation of humic substances takes several pathways during the decay of plant and animal remains in soil and the four important ones are shown in Fig. 8.1.

Fig. 8.1: Mechanisms for the formation of soil humic substances

The classical theory by Waksman advocated humic substances as modified lignins (Pathway 1), but a vast majority of current crop of investigators favour a mechanism involving quinones (Pathways 2 and 3). Including sugar-amine condensation pathway (Pathway 4), all the four pathways must be considered as likely mechanisms for the synthesis of humic and fulvic acids in nature. It is absolutely possible that these four pathways may operate in all soils, though not to the same extent or in the same order of importance. 

Introduction

The rare-earth elements (REEs) consist of a group of 17 elements that have atomic numbers between 57 (lanthanum) and 71 (lutetium). They are also known as lanthanides. The European Union banned all in-feed growth promoting antibiotics in 2006 because of public fears about the transmission and development of multi-resistant bacteria, which pose a threat to human health. Such restrictions have prompted the need to explore new safe, efficient, and inexpensive feed additives as alternative sources of growth promoters. Rare earth elements (REEs) have been used as feed additives for the last few decades due to their effectiveness in improving the body weight, feed conversion rate (FCR), and milk and egg production in various farm animals, including cattle, poultry, and swine.

As aquaculture expands rapidly across states like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and West Bengal, the demand for accurate and timely disease detection methods has intensified. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and other serological tools have emerged as critical assets in pathogen surveillance and management in fish and shrimp farming systems.
ELISA, widely used in Indian diagnostics laboratories, enables the detection of pathogen-specific antigens or host antibodies with high sensitivity and throughput. Its capacity to analyze multiple samples simultaneously and deliver quantitative results makes it particularly suitable for large-scale disease monitoring. Both indirect and sandwich ELISA formats are employed, tailored to the diagnostic goal—whether it is detecting the pathogen itself or assessing the host’s immune response.
In indirect ELISA, fish serum samples are screened for antibodies against key pathogens. This format is instrumental in vaccine efficacy studies and epidemiological surveys. For instance, aquaculture centers in Kerala and Tamil Nadu use indirect ELISA to track immune responses to Aeromonas hydrophila and Koi Herpesvirus (KHV) in ornamental and carp species. On the other hand, sandwich ELISA is utilized for direct antigen detection in tissues and fluids, and is applied in shrimp hatcheries for diseases such as White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) and Yellow Head Virus (YHV), supported by ICAR and MPEDA programs.
Other serological techniques also find relevance in Indian aquaculture. Agglutination assays, especially slide agglutination, offer rapid and cost-effective field diagnostics. These are applied in the detection of Edwardsiella tarda and Streptococcus iniae in tilapia and catfish. Latex agglutination further enhances rapid bacterial identification at the farm or lab level. Immunodiffusion techniques, such as Ouchterlony double diffusion, though less sensitive, are still used in resource-limited areas for detecting fungal pathogens like Ichthyophonus and Saprolegnia.