eChapters

1.    Pasteurization can be used to destroy

(a) Soamtic cells

(b) Bacteria

(c) Antibiotics

(d) All of these

2.    The higher amount of total solids in milk will result in

(a) Increased heat stability

(b) Decreased heat stability

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Decreased or increased heat stability depending upon temperature

5.1 Introduction

Considering the richness of floristic diversity of India represented by 47,513 plant species, of which around are 9,500 reported to be of ethnobotanical botanical significance and around 7,500 - 8900 of ethnomedicinal importance (Anonymous, 1994; Pareek et al., 2005). It has been estimated that of these, around 5,000 plant species have been investigated in some detail in search for potential sources of wellness or health or medicinal drugs to cure various human ailments and diseases. As discussed in the previous sections, the Indian literature on medicinal aromatic plants formally documents information on about 2,500 medicinal and aromatic plants under various traditional systems with sufficient details. In addition, indigenous traditional knowledge exists for another 4,000-4,500 medicinal plant species based on long time experience/observations and their use by various tribes and communities and the individual clan or families in cure of specific ailments. However, this knowledge predominantly exists in oral traditions, which are under danger because of the threat to these traditional orthodox societies and loss of the dialect or languages in which they exist.

16.1. INTRODUCTION

Millets are a large part of the basic diet for farm households in the world's poorest people in the poorest countries. The production of millets on average for the 5 years have been given in Table 16.1. Top consuming countries are India, Nigeria, Niger and China. However, just because a country is a top global consumer does not mean that millet is a significant source of calories for them. India and China are rank as the 1st and 4th consumers of millet, but due to their population size they rank 11th and 38th in per-capita consumption, accordingly.

Millet particularly the finger millet) is an excellent dietary source of calcium, iron, manganese, and methionine-  an amino acid lacking in the diets of hundred of millions of the poor who live on starchy foods such as cassava, plantain, polished rice, and maize meal. Millet use is diverse, including in cereals (including porridge and kasha), soups, breads and stuffings, fermented beverages, and baby food.

1. Introduction

Mushrooms represent a highly specialized group of fungi, mostly basidiomycetes, with production of fruiting bodies bearing the spores for continued propogation. The fruiting bodies vary greatly in shape, size, color, texture, structure and aroma (Rajarathnam et al., 1998). They are endowed with the unique ability to biodegrade cellulosic wastes, including lignin, and biotransform into edible fruiting bodies (Rajarathnam et al., 1992, 1998, Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1990). Their chemistry is also varied comprising characteristic polysaccharides, phenolics, proteins, amino acids, peptides, lectins, fatty acids, minerals, and so on (Rajarathnam et al., 1998). The wide spectrum of compounds have endowed the mushroom species with a spectrum of biofunctional activities of medicinal importance and accordingly their role in human health are implicated through studies on chemical, cell culture and animal feeding experiments. Vast literature available on this subject is condensed for presentation here.
Fifty nine medicinal species are reported from Diaoluoshan Nature Reserve in Hainan Province, China (Li et al., 2003). A health food made from luminescent mushrooms (Mycena chlorophos) is described. The luminescent parts that emit light in the carpophore of the mushrooms are dried without thermal decomposition and pulverized (Sugimoto, 2006). Consideration is given to the health promoting properties of 3 types of Asian fungi, namely, shiitake (Lentinus edodes), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum) and maitake (Grifola frondosa). Properties considered include beneficial components (e.g polysaccharides, vitamins, amino acids) and effects on the immune system (Anon, 1997). Auricularia auricula (kikurage or tree-ear) and Tremella fuciformis (shirokikurage or white jelly-leaf) are widely used in Chinese cuisine. Chemical structures of some of the polysaccharides from A. auricula and T. fuciformis, in relation to their medicinal and nutritional effects are described (Misaki and Kakuta, 1995).

An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The positive nuclear charge is due to the presence of protons which carry a mass of 1 and a charge of +1. Besides protons in the nucleus, there are neutrons which are heavier than protons. They carry no charge. Comparatively electrons have no mass (1836 times lesser than that of a proton) but they carry a charge of –1. Hence, the whole mass of an atom is likely to be concentrated in the nucleus.

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents analysis of data collected through the questionnaire survey from agriculture libraries in Maharashtra (Constituent including University Libraries i.e. Government and Affiliated i.e. Private colleges). The purpose of the survey was to explore the status of CRS (Cyber Reference Service), various aspects pertaining to the CRS, and the ICT infrastructure used for the CRS in the agriculture universities and college libraries. It also aimed to obtain agriculture library heads’ perceptions about the CRS, and explore issues and problems affecting implementation and management of the CRS in the agriculture libraries in the Maharashtra state.

Soil microorganisms in true sense are one of natural safety valves that regulate biogeochemical transformations in soil ecosystem. They act as natural agents for the disposal of organic matter. The various essential biological elements such as C, N, S and P, apart from H and O, form the primary building blocks of cells and their constituent elements are recycled through tiny microorganisms present in soil. More they are in quality and quantity, better recycling is expected by them. The organically bound materials are converted to simpler inorganic forms to complete biological cycle initiated during photosynthesis and other anabolic processes.

All these methods of utilization and the conversion to useful energies depend on the climate, population density of the area and the basic infrastructure. It is important to work out the market for the products which are produced.
 
Bio-waste management: It needs to take from small actions to the ambitious ones. European Commission proposes to use wastes which could make up to 25% of total energy consumption by 2020. They propose to have directives for the promotion of renewable electricity (Directive 2001/77/EC) and biofuels (Directive 2003/30/EC). The waste production in Europe has gone upto 2 kg per capita per day. Recycling rates are also rising (European Commission, 2017). The Member states must develop a national action plan and outline the national policies to develop existing biomass resources and mobilise new biomass resources for different uses. A European project has studied the amount of renewable energy to be used in 2020. According to them it will be around 195 million tons of oil equivalents (Mton) of biomass which is biodegradable part of MSW. This will be 20% of renewable energy target. It has also been estimated that the amount of bio-energy from the MSW will be 20 Mton, which would account for around 7% of all renewable energy in 2020. This may be available after composting and anaerobic digestion (Atanasiu, 2010).

The functioning of the Women Dairy Cooperative Societies depends upon the variations in managerial capacity leading to profit and loss of different WDCS. To make an in-depth analysis, the study was undertaken in undivided Cuttack and Dhenkanal district of Odisha covering 22 randomized WDCS with a sample of 110 women respondents.

The analysis of the findings after statistical treatment have been presented objective-wise as follows;

Socio-economic profile of the members of WDCS involved in dairy production activities.

Gap between procedures prescribed and followed in formation and functioning of WDCS.

Identification and analysis of key performance areas in the WDCS.

Determination of management practices and milk production profiles of WDCS members.

Extent of participation of women members in dairy activities.

Entrepreneurial characteristics of members of Women Dairy Cooperative Society.

Impact of WDCS on socio-economic status of the members.

Correlating variables and their interrelationship in predicting smooth functioning of WDCS.

Constraints faced by the WDCS members.

Suggestions of members for improvement in functioning of WDCS

The chapter deals with the Results and discussion of the study, whose purpose is to provide sufficient information so as to arrive at a valid conclusion. Tables and Figures are commonly used in this chapter to support and supplement textual materials. Discussion helps to interpret the Results of the study from a proper perspective and to relate them with other relevant studies.

Table 6.1. Descriptive Statistics of Variable with respect to Minimum, Maximum, Mean, Standard Deviation of Values, Variance, and Coefficient of Variance:

Introduction

A total of 109 elements have been discovered and incorporated into the periodic table. Many of these elements are found in the earth’s mantle, crust, and soil, though their abundance varies. The chemical makeup of plants is, to some degree, influenced by the composition of the soil. However, since plants are active organisms, they exhibit selectivity in absorbing elements from the soil. Plants accumulate elements at different rates, absorbing some in large quantities, others in smaller amounts, and excluding most altogether. Before proceeding, it is important to familiarise with several key terms frequently used in this chapter.

Nutrient: A nutrient element is essential for an organism to complete its life cycle, and a deficiency in this element leads to specific deficiency symptoms. The negative effects can only be corrected by providing that particular element. Nutrient elements essential for plants may not be necessary for other organisms, and vice versa. Depending on availability, the nutrient levels in a plant can be deficient, sufficient, or toxic. A nutrient is considered deficient when its concentration is so low that it significantly limits growth and causes recognisable deficiency symptoms. If nutrient levels cause reduced growth without visible deficiency symptoms, they are termed insufficient. The nutrient content range in plants that supports optimal yield of crops is considered sufficient. When the concentration of a nutrient becomes high enough to significantly reduce growth, it is considered toxic.

Soil

Soil is a natural body of mineral and organic constituents differentiated into horizons usually unconsolidated, of variable depth which differs among themselves as well as from the underlying parent material in morphology, physical makeup, chemical properties and composition and biological characteristics (Whitney, 1982; Hilgard, 1892; Dokuchaiev, 1900 and Joffe, 1936).

According to Soil Science Society of America (SSSA, 1970) soil is the unconsolidated mineral matter on the surface of the earth that has been subjected to and influenced by genetic and environmental factors of parent material, climate (including moisture and temperature effects), macro and microorganisms and topography, all affecting over a period of time and producing a product, that is “SOIL” that differs from the material from which it is derived in physical, chemical, biological and morphological properties and characteristics. The unconsolidated mineral material on the immediate surface of the earth, that serves as a natural medium for the growth of plants.

Approaches of Soil Study

Pedological Approach : The origin of the soil, its classification and description are examined in Pedology. (From Greek word pedon means soil or earth). It is the study of soil as a natural body and does not focus on the soil’s immediate practical use.

Edaphological Approach: Edaphology (from Greek word edaphos means soil or ground) is the study of soil from the stand point of higher plants. Edaphologists consider the various properties of soil in relation to plant production.

Soil Science : The science dealing with soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth, including pedology (soil genesis, classification and mapping) and the physical, chemical and biological and fertility properties of soil and these properties in relation to their management for crop production.

Abstract: Pelargonium (syn. Geranium), has become mainstay in temperate landscapes because of its ease of production and cultivation, long lasting bloom, range of plant habits and diversity of uses (perfumery, cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries). Confusion exists about nomenclature and taxonomic revision has attempted. Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels, Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/ Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available on the world market. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of novel phenotypes particularly trailing growth habit, reduced plant size, compact form, manipulation of flowers (size, number, coloration, longevity, timing) and disease resistant cultivars. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits, molecular genetic techniques and biotechnological applications are valuable tools aiding modern pelargonium breeders. The need of new cultivars remains strong as divergence among pelargonium market types increases, production system becomes more specialized and new market develops.

Constantly emerging and reemerging vaccine-preventable infectious diseases recently around the globe challenged the health infrastructure and has been a critical concern for the medical fraternity. There are 21 other neglected tropical diseases, as classified and recently updated by the World Health Organisation, many of which are seemingly vaccine-preventable. The unprecedented scenario that the world encountered during the recent COVID-19 pandemic was also a ‘silver lining in the dark cloud’ for primarily the vaccinologists. The scientific world witnessed stupendous developments in vaccine development. One such instance was the cutting-edge mRNA vaccine development platform. Once a vaccine is successfully designed, the next step is scaling it up in a milieu that is conducive for its mass production. There are numerous ways to achieve it, from biological system (animal models like the chick embryo, mouse cell-lines, suspension-cultured tobacco cells) to the non-biological (bioreactor) settings. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the intricacies in vaccine development, from designing to large-scale manufacturing (mass production). It delves into key scientific guiding principles behind developing and formulating vaccines, adopting both the traditional and emerging bioprocessing and bioseparation engineering and technology. It also explores the technical and management challenges faced before and during scaling up, including maintaining product efficacy, ensuring high quality for human administration, and navigating regulatory landscapes, among others. The chapter offers a holistic understanding of bioprocessing continuum, to educate and inform the research (academia) and development (bioindustry) community for more promising and effective strategies in the future to optimise vaccine production, thus contributing to the global public healthcare initiatives.

Vegetables are the largest important constituent of our daily diet as well as high value cash crops for small, marginal and large scale growers. These are rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals and dietary fibre which are essential for our normal body functions, prevention of malnutrition and deficiency diseases. Vegetables also play key role in neutralizing the acids produced during digestion of fatty foods and also provide valuable roughages which help in movement of food in intestine. Some of the vegetables are good sources of carbohydrates (leguminous vegetables, sweet potato, potato, onion, garlic and fenugreek) proteins (peas, beans, leafy vegetables and garlic) vitamin A (carrot, tomato, drumstick, leafy vegetables), Vitamin B (peas, garlic and tomato), vitamin C (green chillies, drumstick leaves, cole crops, leafy vegetables and leaves of radish) and minerals (leafy vegetables, drumstick pods etc.). As per dietician recommendation, our daily requirement is 75-125g of green leafy vegetables, 85g of other vegetables and 85 g of roots and tubers with other food (http://AgriInfo.in).

Soil is a loose surface material that provides water, nutrients, and structural support to agricultural plants. It is made up of 45% minerals, 5% organic components, 25% air, and 25% water. Our soils are said to be the source of 95% of the food we eat, either directly or indirectly.

The basis of the food chain is healthy soil. Our soils are the foundation of agriculture and the growing media for almost all plants that provide food. Good crops come from good soils, and healthy crops feed people and other animals. Food quantity and quality are, in fact, closely related to soil quality.

A healthy soil is a dynamic, living ecosystem. It is packed with both microscopic and larger organisms that carry out a multitude of essential tasks, such as nutrient cycling—the process of turning dead and decaying matter and minerals into plant nutrients controlling plant diseases and insect and weed pests, enhancing soil structure, which has a positive impact on the soil's ability to hold water and nutrients, and ultimately increasing crop productivity. Because healthy soil retains or increases its carbon content, it also helps to mitigate climate change.

Arsenic
General Information
    1.    Exists in elemental form (-3), trivalent As⁺³ and pentavalent As⁺⁵ oxidation states
    2.    Arsenic is an essential element for rats, chicks, mini-pigs and goats
    3.    The second most important pollutant for livestock. 

Source
    1.    Inorganic form is used in paints.
    2.    Pasture near smelters may be contaminated. 
    3.    Industrial effluents released into nearby water body
    4.    Insecticides (Arsenic trioxide, lead arsenate).
    5.    Herbicides (Sodium arsenite, lead arsenate)