eChapters

Introduction
 
Biodiversity a term to describe variability between organisms or populations of organisms, has different facets depending on the level of diversity considered (Species, population, ecosystem) or the organisms concerned (Barbault, 1992). Biodiversity can be exploited in many ways at scientific levels, the best known and the most ancient no doubt being in taxonomy and systematics, and more recently for studies of population biology, evolution and conservation of ecosystems, or for selection of materials for biotechnology.

Introduction

Foraminifera or forams for short are the most abundant, diverse and widely distributed Protists in marine realm. They are found in all marine environments, from the inter-tidal to the deepest ocean trenches, and from the tropics to the poles (Todo et al., 2005). In some places, foraminifera are so abundant that the sediment on the bottom is mostly made up of their shells. For example, tourists from all over the world get attracted to the pink sands of Bermuda. These sands get their colour from the shells of Homotrema rubrum which has pink to red-colored shells. Living representatives of foraminifera provide ecological data and their mineralized tests are a geochemical record of palaeoclimatic conditions.

Introduction

Mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria, filariasis, Japaneseencephalitis, chikungunya and dengue hemorrhagic fever cause extensive morbidity and take heavy toll of life in the developing nations particularly in the tropics. Every year about 300-500 million people are estimated to be affected by malaria alone (WHO report, 2000). In India around two million cases of malaria are being reported annually although real burden is many fold higher (Kumar et al. 2007). Similarly, lymphatic filariasis caused by Wuchereria bancrofti affects about 120 million people worldwide. India contributes about 40%  to  the total global burden of filariasis and accounts for about 50% of the people at risk of infection (ICMR bulletin, 2002). Anopheles stephensi is recognized as a major vector for urban malaria in India (Kumar 1997).

The diversity of the haloarchaea found within a crystallizer pond of a solar saltern located in Siridao and Ribandar, Goa, India was examined. Both cultured-based and culture independent methodology were employed which included  surface spreading of samples on different media containing 25% crude salt/NaCl, DNA extraction from sediment and water samples, amplification of 16S rRNA gene and DGGE.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are diverse biopolyesters synthesized by many bacteria as carbon and energy reserved materials under unbalanced growth conditions. Sand-dunes have low nutrient contents especially nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) thus could harbor potential PHA accumulating bacteria. There is no report of isolation of PHA producing bacteria from the sand-dunes environment.  Sand samples of rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere regions of the coastal sand-dunes were processed on Nutrient Agar and TYG-Agar media for isolation of heterotrophic bacteria.

Production of Indole-3 Acetic acid (IAA) and mineral phosphate solubilization (MPS) are two predominant and direct mechanisms used by plant growth promoting rhizobacterial strains (PGPR). These traits are widespread among bacteria. Moreover, the role of IAA in plant-microbe interactions is diverse varying from pathogenesis to phytostimulation, to its role as a signaling molecule in microorganisms. With the advent of high performance analytics, molecular tools and recombinant methods, it has become feasible to investigate biochemical pathways of bacterial IAA synthesis at the genetic, biochemical and chemical levels. In the current study, we isolated several PGPRs from Western Ghats region, India.  Of all the efficient isolates, Serratia marcescens SM15 emerged as the most efficient PGPR isolate based on in vitro plant growth assays and ability to express PGPR traits.

Many microbes have ability to attach to various surfaces forming three dimensional extracellular matrix within which embedded the microbes grow and multiply forming thin layer structure called biofilm. Biofilms may form on living or non-living surfaces and can be prevalent in natural, industrial and hospital settings (Hall-Stoodley et al., 2004). Biofilm mainly consist of three components - bacteria, matrix and surface. Extracellular matrix generally composed of extracellular polymeric compounds such as extracellular polysaccharides, proteins, phospholipids, DNA, teichoic and nucleic acids, and other polymeric substances hydrated to 85 to 95% water and polysaccharides (Hall-Stoodley et al., 2004).

Microorganisms are diverse group of organisms differing in many ways and range from saprophytic to virulent one. Virulent are pathogenic and harmful to human and animals and can cause latent to per acute disease. Nowadays although treatment is available for most of the diseases, it is better to prevent the disease rather than going for treatment. Development of immunity is the aim of immunization and hence through knowledge of the host parasite interaction, epitope of the microorganisms responsible for the inducing protective immune responses is of pivotal importance.

Ralstonia solanacearum is a phytopathogenic bacterium belong ing to the b subdivision of the Proteobacteria (Yabuuchi et al., 1995) having a wide geographical distribution ranging from tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions (Liu et al., 2009). It has broad host range and infects around 54 plant families and 450 plant species (Hayward, 1991; Wicker et al., 2007). 

Early attempts to study the diversity present in the R. solanacearum species complex resulted in separate race and biovar systems. R. solanacearum has been phenotypically classified into 5 races based on the host range at the plant species level and into five biovars based on the metabolic profiles related to the ability to reduce three disaccharides and three hexose alcohols (Wicker et al., 2007).

Microbial diversity is the key to human survival and economic well being. It provides a huge reservoir of resources which can be utilized for our benefit. Yeasts have been isolated from many sources for industrial purposes. The impact of yeasts on food and beverage production extends many fold beyond the popular notions of bread, beer and wine fermentations by Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Diverse dynamic mixed populations of prokaryotic and lower eukaryotic microorganisms govern the fermentation and maturation processes and, finally, impact the quality of wine. Both of these parameters apparently contribute to regional differences in the quality of produced wines and characterization of regional wines should involve the study of microbial populations and their members active in the given region.

Globally, 2 billion children under the age of five suffer from diarrhoea, of which, more than 50% of the cases being in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, where the disease is more likely to be fatal (UNICEF-WHO, 2009). It has been also estimated that the great majority of acute diarrhoeal illnesses in children over the age of two years is attributable to bacterial pathogens (Carpenter, 1980). Amongst the various enteric bacterial pathogens, diarrheagenic strains of Escherichia coli are considerably responsible for causing bacterial diarrhea (Nataro and Kaper, 1998).

One of the integral components of human and animal liveli hood is food and water without which life cannot sustain on  earth. However, due to high nutritive value of foods and ubiquitous nature of microbes, it is always at risk of microbial spoilage and contamination. World Health Organization (WHO) defined “food-borne illnesses” as diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food. Every consumer is at risk of food-borne illness but conversely every incidence of foodborne illness is potentially preventable. Several bacterial pathogens in particular are responsible for foodborne infections and intoxications.

Introduction

The rumen ecosystem is essentially a fermentation system that houses a vast array of different microbes. Ruminants typically browse low energy forages, such as grasses or other plant material, rich in fibre but not easily accessible to the ruminant without rumen fermentation. These forages are literally food for the microbes present in the rumen first and then, in turn, the products of these microbes are the feed for the ruminant. Microbes break down forage in the anaerobic rumen environment and the products of microbial fermentation provide the ruminant with metabolisable compounds, such as short chain fatty acids, while the microbes themselves account for around 90% of the amino acids entering the lower intestine. There are many significant challenges to investigate rumen ecology.

Investigations were undertaken to isolate the fluorescent pseudomonads from the soil and root samples collected from Western Ghats regions of Chikkamagalur district of Karnataka. A total of nine isolates were obtained from 10 sampling sites. All the nine isolates were subjected for morphological, physiological and biochemical characteristics and were tentatively identified as Pseudomonas fluorescens. Isolates were examined for different agriculturally important functions like production of plant growth promoting substances (PGPS), solubilization of TCP and biocontrol activity. Results of the study indicated that, five out of nine isolates found positive for IAA production and the amount of IAA production ranged from 1.92 to 6.75 mg per ml.

Mastitis is a global problem as it adversely affects animal health, quality of milk and economics of milk production. Bovine Mastitis is reported to be the most costly disease of dairy cattle, causing huge economic losses in terms of reduced milk yield, milk discard after treatment, cost of veterinary services and premature culling. While reviewing status of mastitis in India, subclinical mastitis is more important (10–50%) than the clinical mastitis (1-10%). Estimated annual economic losses incurred due to mastitis estimates to Rs.7165.57 crores to dairy farmers (Bansal and Gupta, 2009).

PGPR have shown potentiality against pests and diseases oc curring on crop plants. Wilt and collar rot diseases are caused by soilborne pathogens viz., Fusarium oxysporum fsp. lycopersici (FOL) and Sclerotium rolfsii respectively in vegetables. An attempt was made to manage the diseases with PGPR microbes and 142 PGPR strains were isolated from different vegetable crops. Among them two isolates viz., Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BA1) and B. subtilis (BS2) were found highly effective in controlling the diseases.  Apart from the disease control, the isolates BA1 and BS2 also registered enhanced crop growth and yield in cowpea under field conditions. Species level identification of BA1 and BS2 was done through PCR amplification and sequencing of 16s rRNA. Both BA1 and BS2 clustered with Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and B. subtilis respectively.

Farming is the intervention of man in the growth cycle of plants, animals or birds to get utility products of choice at maximum levels and of highest quality. The growing and caring of plants is called Crop Husbandry, and that of animals is called Animal Husbandry. Farming is our most basic activity. It is considered as the backbone of Indian economy. Farming not only nourishes the whole population, but also provides a means of livelihood to more than 60 per cent of our population. Our history, culture and community values are embedded in farming. Today when we think of farming, what comes to our mind are long stretches of farm land, farmer tilling the field, pumping water into fields, applying fertilizers or pesticides, plants with so many fruits, tractors with loads of farm produce, cross bred cows, a farm chicken, aquaculture, fish and so on. A more advanced image on this subject will be of the small plantlets in conical flasks or test tubes, what we call Tissue culture, High Yielding Varieties (HYV), Genetically Modified (GM) crops, Green House farming and other techniques that increase the crop yields. So all these activities are considered as the products of science that our scientists were able to develop over a period of time and helped the growing population to meet their food requirements.

The need for organic farming in India arises from the unsustainability of agriculture production and the damage caused to ecology through the conventional farming practices. The present system of agriculture which we call ‘conventional+’ and practiced the world over evolved in the western nations as a product of their socio-economic environment which promoted an over riding quest for accumulation of wealth. This method of farming adopted by other countries is inherently self destructive and unsustainable.

Organic food production is as much a state of mind as it is a production system. The organic farmer must understand how everything is interrelated and how one set of circumstances will influence other factors in how the plant grows. A strong, healthy plant is much more important in an organic system then a conventional system. A two to three year leaning curve must be accepted by anyone intending to switch from conventional to organic farming. What works one year may fail the next.

Plant nutrients are drawn up from soil for growth and development. There are more than 90 elements present in the soil. According to the criteria of Essentiality of Nutrients for plant growth, proposed by Arnon and Stout in 1952, only 16 are considered to be essential for plant growth. Out of these, C (Carbon), H (Hydrogen), O (Oxgen), N (Nitrogen), P (Phosphorus), K (Potassium), Ca (Calcium), Mg (Magnesium) and S (Sulfur) are called Macronutrients (required in large quantities) and the remaining 7 elements - Fe (Iron), Mn (Manganese), Cu (Copper), Zn (Zinc), B (Boran), Mo and Cl are called Micronutrients or trace elements (required only in very small quantities). Among the macro elements - N, P and K are called Fertiliser elements or primary nutrients as they are most often applied in the form of synthetic or mineral fertilisers, and Ca, Mg and S are called secondary elements which are applied in smaller quantities than primary nutrients and required subsequent to primary nutrients.

The problem of insect-pest, disease and weed is acute in case of all the crops and especially so in case of commercial crops. Pesticides, fungicides or chemicals are meant to control harmful pests such as insects, nematodes, diseases, weeds etc. However, excessive use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides not only leave residues in soil, water and air but also have adverse effects on the non-target organisms such as pollinators, parasitoids, predators and wild animals. This has adversely affected the ecological balance resulting in pest resurgence, development of resistance in the pest species, diseases and environmental pollution.

The organic quality is based on standards, inspection, certification and accreditation. All organic food is produced and handled according to strict rules called ‘Organic Standards’. Organic standards do not define a quality status which can be measured in the final products (e.g. quantity of pesticides residues, heavy metals, etc). They define the way of production (e.g. that no chemical pesticides and fertiliser are used).

The market of organic products is growing globally every year. This organic market expansion makes it possible for farmers to reap the benefits of a trade with relatively high price premiums. Organic farming is carried on in almost all countries of the world. The share of organic farms in overall farmland and in terms of numbers of holdings is growing continuously. The market for organic products is also growing very rapidly, not only in Europe, North America and Japan, where the largest markets are to be found, but also in many emerging economies in transition. In India, an organic movement is now emerging on different levels i.e. producer groups, trainers and advisors, certification bodies and processors and traders.

Theophrastus gave the name “ORCHIDS” to the group of bizarre plants on the basis of the resemblance of paired underground tubers of these plants to masculine anatomy. This resemblance was also responsible for the mistaken belief that the orchids posses aphrodisiac properties and eating of underground tubers might “provoke venus” and they may be get male children. The appreciation of orchid beauty has a very long history in both the Western and Eastern cultures. Much of this is attributed to the diverse form and structure of orchids and the large number of species in the orchid family. Orchidaceae is amongst the most diverse family of the flowering plants consisting of 35,000 species under 880 genera (Kumar and Sheela, 2007, Fay and Chase, 2009). Orchids belong to the highest level of organization and are distinguished by the complicated biology of reproduction with long developmental cycle (Vakhrameeva et al., 1991, Sherif et al., 2012). They are beautiful and exotic perennial herbs grown in both north and south hemispheres. They exhibit an incredible range of diversity in size, shape and colour of flowers. Its flowers have lustrous, translucent petals rich in variegated colors and fragrances. Generally Orchids can grow at different elevations (Kumar and  Sheela, 2007).

Orchid Morphology

Most of the orchids are perennial herbs with simple leaves. Although the specialized flower structure confirms to a standard plan, the vegetative parts are shown great variation, a large number of them being epiphytes, or terrestrial and a few saprophytes are leafless in nature. Orchids can be divided into two groups - monopodial or sympodial depending upon their habit of growth. Monopodial orchids such as Vanda have a main stem which continues to grow year after. Sympodial orchids such as Cymbidium have a main stem, which terminates growth at the end of each season. A new shoot then grows from the base forming its own bulbous stem called pseudo-bulb, which eventually flowers. The pseudo-bulb or thickened stem is a very useful device for the storage of food and water and function like bulbs. In addition to the epiphytic orchids, there are also grounds orchids or terrestrial orchids, which grow like ordinary plants with their roots in soil. Most of the temperate zone orchids are terrestrial and tropical orchids are epiphytes.

Orchids are perennial ornamental crop, grows well in shady and humid places in wild habitat. The same growing conditions can be achieved by making special structures known as orchidaria or orchid houses.
Basics for Orchid House Cultivation
The following points should be considered during the construction of orchid houses:-
    ·    Topography of land.
    ·    Climate of region.
    ·    Type of soil and water.
    ·    Accessibility of area, transport and marketing facilities.
    ·    Proper drainage facilities.
    ·    Availability of good quality irrigation water.
    ·    A good infrastructure like availability of electricity.

India ranks 23^rd among world exporters of floriculture products and its share in the world exports are at around 0.38 per cent. It is estimated that fresh cut flowers of worth Rs. 100 crores are being exported annually from India. On the other hand the post harvest losses are estimated to be more than 30-35 per cent. The loss of quality in ornamentals may result from wilting or abscission of leaves and petals, yellowing of leaves and geotropic or phototropic bending of scapes and stems. Several factors prevailing during pre harvest, harvest and post-harvest stage affect the post harvest quality and longevity of cut flowers. Each step in the life span of post-harvest flower is associated with a number of coordinated biochemical, physiological, hormonal and structural changes that are strongly modulated by the fluctuations of environmental factors and stresses of biotic and abiotic origin.

Duff and  Daly (2002) briefly describes the commonly found orchid diseases. These include the Bacterial soft rot caused by Erwinia carotovora, black leg or slow decline caused by Fusarium spp., petal blight caused by Curvularia eragrostidis [PseudocochlioBolus eragrostidis] and Alternaria alternata, top rot/shoot rot caused by Phytophthora parasitica, and stem rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii [Athelia rolfsii].

The livestock sector is one of the fastest growing agriculture sub sector in India, which accounted for about 17% of the value of agriculture output in 1981-83, has gradually increased by to 25% in 2011-2012 (CSO 2011, GOI). India possesses one of the largest livestock populations in the world with 218 million cattle, 115.4 million buffalos, 160 million goat, 75 million sheep, 9.4 million pigs, 947 million poultry (FAO, 2012) which provide excellent opportunities and boost rural income and alleviation of poverty. The country has 16.5% cattle, 56.8% buffalo, 5.78% sheep and 14.76% goat population of the world. India stands first in milk production likely to be touch142.6 MT in 2014 with 4.5% annual growth rate of milk.

In recent years, there has been a considerable interest in the new technological interventions for enhanced livestock productivity in the Indian sub-continent, because of the increased demand for livestock products for human consumption. Bypass nutrients defined as a nutrients fed in such a form that provides an increase in the flow of the nutrient (s) unchanged to the abomasum, yet is available to the more important nutrient (high BV) should escape from the rumen or face minimum ruminal fermentation. The reasons for protecting different nutrients are based on their mode of utilization in the rumen. The literature on the effect of the bypass fat and protein on nutrient utilization, milk production and reproductive performance has been reviewed and presented in following subheads

The present experiment entitled, “Protected Nutrient Technology for Crossbred Cattle” was conducted at Research Cum Development Project on Cattle, Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairy Science, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri Dist. Ahmednagar, India located at 19o 23’ 0" N and 74o 39’ 0" E at an altitude of 511 mtr. Minimum and maximum ambient temperature range from 10 to 20^ºC in winter and 30 to 40°C in summer with annual rainfall of 561.6 mm

4.1 Composition of Concentrate Mixture
 
The ingredient composition of experimental concentrate mixture is presented in Table 3. Groundnut cake in T1 and T3 were treated with formaldehyde as a tool of protein protection while protected fat at the rate of 10g per liter milk production per animal in T2 and T3 was added in concentrate mixture before feeding every day.

Twenty four crossbred cows in second to fourth lactation with most probable production ability (MPPA) of average approximately 2300 liter milk production per lactation for each group were selected from the herd maintained at RCDP on Cattle. The experimental animals were randomly divided into four treatment groups of 6 in each. Control group (T₀) was fed with 2/3 DM through roughages (2/3 from dry roughages and 1/3 from green roughages) + 1/3 DM from concentrate mixture (Conc. Mix includes 20% GNC (untreated). T₁ group was feed with 2/3 DM through roughages (2/3 from dry roughages and 1/3 from green roughages) + 1/3 DM from concentrate mixture (Conc. Mix includes 20% GNC treated with formaldehyde (FA) @ 1.0 g FA/100g CP).

Ambasankar, K. and Balakrishnan, V. 2011. Influence of protected sardine oil on in vitro rumen fermentation and nutrient digestibility of complete diet. Indian J.  Anim. Sci., 81(1): 
84-86.
Amrutkar, S.A., Thakur, S.S. and Pawar, S.P. 2014. Economics of supplementing rumen protected methionine and lysine in the ration of lactating crossbred cows. Indian J. Anim. Nutr., 31 (1) : 14-19.
AOAC, 2005. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official Methods of Analysis. Washington, DC.
Arewad, G. R., Thube, H. A., Pandya, P. R., Parnerkar S. and Shankhpal S. 2011. Effect of feeding bypass protein based total mixed ration on performance of growing crossbred calves. Indian J. Anim. Nutr. 2011.28 (3) : 303-308.

1.1. History and Origins of Rabbits

The existence of rabbit with human being remained from time immemorial. Romans were the first to domesticate wild rabbits in the 5th century by the monks of the Champagne region in France as a readily available food source. Rabbits were introduced to Britain during the 12th Century, and during the Middle Ages, the breeding and farming of rabbits for meat and fur became widespread throughout Europe. Sources suggest that some women among the Medieval gentry even kept rabbits as pets. The selective breeding of European rabbits meant that distinct breeds arose in different regions, and the origins of many old breeds can be traced back several centuries.

Domestication of the rabbit is relatively recent and most of today’s breeds have been bred by man in the last 200 to 300 years.

The rabbit has been used as an experimental animal in genetics, reproduction and physiology since the beginning of the century, but it was not until 1950 that the first findings on quantitative genetics were published in Venge’s study of maternal influence on rabbit birth weight.

The success of rabbit farming depends upon the location and design of the rabbit house. Rabbit is a burrowing animal and has sharp reflexes. It is easily disturbed by any new and sudden noise. The farm should be located in a peaceful environment away from the hustle and bustle of human population.  A good housing facility with adequate arrangement of ventilation is the most important factor in rabbit house.

4.1. Digestive System of Rabbit

The digestive system of rabbit includes:
    A.    The digestive tract 
    B.    Its associated glands
The digestive system breaks down the complex molecules into the simpler one so that it is readily absorbed from gastro intestinal mucosa.
 
A. The digestive tract (gastro intestinal tract/ alimentary canal)

The digestive tract is essentially a tubular structure for the ingestion and digestion of food. In an adult (4 to 4.5 kg) or semi-adult (2.5 to 3 kg) rabbit the total length of the alimentary canal is 4.5 to 5 m. It commences from mouth and terminates in anus. G.I.T is divided into following parts:

5.1. Anatomy of the Genitals

5.1.1. Male reproductive system

Testes in the male are oval-shaped present within the scrotum which remain in communication with the abdominal cavity, where they were at birth. The rabbit is actually able to withdraw its testes when frightened or fighting with other males (Fig. 5.1). The testicles descend at about two months. The short, back-slanting penis points forward when erect.

6.1. The Production Cycle

As ovulation in does is induced by mating and the females are generally kept in different cages from the males, it is the breeder who determines the reproduction rate of the unit. These rates vary from one or two litters a year under the most extensive management to eight to ten litters in an intensive management system. Does are remated either immediately after kindling (intensive system) or about ten days later (semi-intensive). In the semi-intensive system, the does are first presented to the buck at four and a half months. They are then mated 10 to 12 days after the birth of each litter. Weaning takes place at 30 to 35, or even 37 to 38 days. Extensive systems are characterized by a long delay between kindling and mating, and perhaps even until weaning. For example, the young may be weaned at 56 days and the doe mated after weaning.

Health care and preventive hygiene in rabbits are very important for the productivity of the rabbits and economical viability of a farm.

It is always better to prevent the disease rather than to get an animal treated, which is usually quite expensive. As such it is desirable that the rabbits are checked daily. The health and ailment signs can be recognized from the following things:

Management of Angora rabbit includes important aspects of breeding, feeding, heeding and disease control.

8.1. Reproduction

Angora rabbits of lighter breeds reach breeding age of 6-7 m, medium rabbits at 7-8m and heavier breeds at 8-10 m. Female Angora rabbits do not have a true oestrus cycle with a definite heat period. They may mate at any time of year. Ovulation in does is induced by mating and occurs about 10 -12 hours later to mounting and copulation with the bucks. No doubt there is no definite heat cycle in Angora rabbits, yet during certain periods breeding does are more receptive to bucks than other times of the year. Some of the signs of such receptive period are restlessness, rubbing of chin on the feeding or watering bowls and vulva may be slightly swollen and purplish red.

9.1. Handling

Rabbits must be handled very carefully. Although they are generally docile they are apt to struggle when picked up, with potentially harmful consequences. All rabbits are prone to vertebral fractures, and this risk is greatest in hutch rabbits or in those on an unbalanced diet that may have concurrent osteoporosis. It is extremely important to support the back and hindquarters whenever a rabbit is handled.
 
A rabbit should never be picked up by the ears. It can be lifted gently by the scruff of the neck with one hand whilst the other hand supports its bottom (Fig. 9.1), or alternatively lifted with one hand under the chest, and one supporting its hindquarters (Fig. 9.2). The rabbit should be carried against the body to minimize struggling. It is advisable to place the rabbit’s carrying box on the floor so that if it does jump as it is picked up it does not hurt itself. Similarly it is usually easier to return the rabbit to the box on the floor at the end of the examination.

Behaviour have an influence on rabbit housing. Since the domestication of the rabbit is recent in terms of species evolution (200 to 300 generations at most) the behaviour of the domestic rabbit is still much like that of the wild rabbit. The reactions of wild rabbits will often provide explanations for the problems of housing domestic rabbits and suggest ways of solving them. Common behaviours observed in rabbits are:
    1.    Territorial behavior.
    2.    Social behavior.
    3.    Sexual behavior.
    4.    Maternal behavior.
    5.    Feeding behavior.
    6.    Aggressive behavior.

Important by-products from rabbits are meat, wool, planner and skin. It can be made highly profitable if products are wasted because people do not have enough knowledge about their processing.

11.1. Slaughtering and Dressing

    1.    Rabbits are killed by one of two methods. The preferred method is dislocation of the neck. The rabbit is held firmly by the rear legs and head; it is stretched full length. Then with a hard, sharp pull, the head is bent backward to dislocate the neck. The rabbit can also be struck a hard, quick blow to the skull behind the ears. A blunt stick or side of the hand is commonly used to incapacitate the rabbit. Both methods quickly render the rabbit unconscious.

Veterinary public health deals with the contributions of veterinary medicine to public health. It is concerned, in the first instance, with the control and elimination of zoonoses and also with the following areas of activity:
    ·    Food hygiene (production, processing and distribution of foods of animal origin)
    ·    Environmental contamination and degradation by animal wastes and animal products
    ·    Comparative medicine (eg. Studies in animals on naturally appearing cancer, cardiovascular disease, metabolic and other disorders encountered in humans)
    ·    Laboratory animal medicine
    ·    Education and training in VPH and communication with the public
    ·    Reproduction biology
    ·    Aspects of mental and societal health
    ·    Emergency veterinary functions in natural disasters and other catastrophes.

Life forms are composed of one of two basic cell types : Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic. Generally, eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than the prokaryotic cells and possess a membrane-enclosed nucleus; eukaryotic means ‘true nucleus’ (eu=true; karyon = nucleus). All plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and algae are composed of eukaryotic cells. Only the microorganisms classes as bacteria and the archaea are prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells have no nuclear membrane and therefore lack a true nucleus. The latin prefix pro means ‘early’ and in this instance suggests the somewhat primitive nuclear structure found in bacterial cells. Eukaryotic microorganism are sometimes simply referred to as eukaryotes, and the prokaryotic microbes as prokaryotes.

The term growth as applied to higher organisms such as animals commonly is concerned with increase in protoplasmic mass and does apply to reproduction or to increase in number. In microbiology the term refers to increase in the number of organisms. Bacteria increase in number by a process of simple binary fission. Each cell increase in size and redivide into two similar cells. Each of the divide cells may in turn divide to become two cells. Each division produces what is termed as new generation of cells, theoretically there are 2,4,8,16,32,64,128,256 cells in the 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,& 9th generation, this is known as logarithmic growth – the population doubles with each successive generation. Under favourable conditions, bacteria produce generation within 15min. Under unfavourable conditions 24 hours of more may be needed for each generation. Generation time for E.coli is 17 to 20 minutes.

The sources of contamination of milk on the farm can broadly be categorized as

    a)    Interior of the Udder
    b)    Exterior of the Udder.
The interior reflects the health of the animal, while the exterior depends on the farm condition, equipment, persons, water etc.

a) Interior of the Udder
The animal by itself is one of the most significant contributors of microorganism in milk. The bacteria in the udder usually enter from the teat opening and get distributed internally by their own growth and physical movement. In the normal healthy udder, the types encountered in milk are most predominantly Micrococci, followed by Streptococci, Corynebacterium and others. Most of the bacteria are excreted in fore milk.

The Concept of ‘Clean Milk’ Production

Although milk is nature’s most ideal and perfect single food both for the newborn and the mature human beings, the possibility of it being a source of biological and chemical hazards cannot be excluded. In view of the immense dietary importance of milk, the need for production of safe, clean and wholesome milk is emphasized. The term ‘clean milk’ does not mean milk in which all visible dirt is absent or milk from which it has been removed; rather it does denote raw milk from healthy animals, that has been produced and handled under hygienic conditions; that contains only small number of harmless bacteria and that possesses a good keeping quality without being treated by heat. In other words, the unhygienic production of milk may lead to inferior keeping quality as a result of rapid microbial multiplication under favourable storage conditions apart from serving as a potential health hazard. These microorganisms cause the milk to sour quickly, putrefy and develop undesirable flavours, colour defects, ropiness and bitterness. On the other hand, the pathogenic microorganisms, which may gain entry through various sources, may cause many diseases to the consumers.