eChapters

Origin

Beet root originated from Beta vulgaris L. ssp. maritima by hybridization with B. patula. Crop has site of origin probably in Europe. Earlier types were with long roots like that of carrot. Beet root, sugar beet and palak belong to species B. vulgaris and are cross compatible.

Botany

Beet root is a biennial, producing a fleshy elongated hypocotyls and a rosette of leaves in first year and flowers in second year. Upper portion of fleshy root develops from hypocotyls and basal part from tap root. Concentric rings seen in cross section of root are as a result of alternate formation of vascular tissues and storage parenchyma tissues. Root skin colour varies from orange red to dark purple red. Colour of beet root is due to presence of red violet pigments of â cyanins and a yellow pigment, â xanthin. It has extensive tap root system and tap root grows as deep as 3m. Rosette leaves develop in a close sp

Botany : Pea is a self pollinated crop. Time of anthesis is 5.45 to 6.30 AM. Time of dehiscence is 5.45 to 7.30 AM. Duration of pollen futility is on the day of anthesis to 24 hr there after. Duration of stigma receptivity is 48 hr before and 24 hr after anthesis.

Method of seed production : Var: Open pollination ; Hybrids: Emasculation and Pollination

Varieties / Hybrids

Early varieties : Arlcel, Matar Ageta 8, Early Badger, Pant Uphar, Hisar Harit, P.M. 2, Jawahar Matar 4, Meteor, Alaska, Lucknow Boniya, Pant Sabzi Matar 3, Pant Matar 2, VL Ageti Matar 7, Asauj.

Mid season varieties: Bonneville, Lincoln, VL 3, Shalimar Matar, Solan Nirog, Jawahar Matar 1, Pant Uphar, p88, Khapar Kheda, JP. 83, JP71, NP. 289, T19

Late varieties: Kinnauri

Botany: French bean has tap root system with poor nodule formation. Leaves are trifoliate. Though a self-pollinated crop, French bean offers wide variability for plant growth (bushy / climbing), colour of pod (green / waxy coloured), cross section of pod (flat / oval / round), pliability (stringed / string less) etc.

Varieties

1. Arkakomal: Plant is bushy. 70 days for flowering.
2. Blue pod medium: It is a white seed variety. It has bluish black spots on pods.
3. Bountiful: Introduction from US comes up in September to February. Seeds are Brown sweetish. It is resistant to common disease.
4. Contender: Tolerant to powdery mildew and mosaic.
5. Pant anupama: Developed from pantnagar. Bushytype
6. Pusaparvathi: Developed by X ray radiation of American variety IARI

Potato has special seed production problems as the quality characteristics of seed potatoes are influenced by a number of factors and important amongst them are the diseases and pests namely, viruses, fungi, bacteria and nematodes. Once the seed tuber is infected the pathogens, specially viruses, permeate through the plant system. The plant growth, therefore declines and the yield reduces progressively. It is therefore, important that seed stocks should not only be genetically pure but also should be in right physiological condition and disease free at the time of planting. Seed production technology developed for seed potato production, thus aims at producing disease free, genetically pure seed. There are now two independent channels of seed production for hills and plains.

Hill seed : The seed produced in hills (2500 metres above sea level) at suitable locations is called ‘Hill Seed’.

Plain seed : The seed produced in plains at suitable locations is called ‘plain seed’. Northern plains have emerged as an important source of potato seed production. The low aphid, plains seed is in right physiological condition at the planting time and yields higher than the traditional hill grown seed.

Once healthy seed potatoes are introduced into the system of growing them during low Aphid period accompanied by a systematic insecticide application, roguing and removal of haulms before the aphids attain critical number and the re growth is checked, the health standards for the seed crop could be maintained for a number of generations. This system of seed potato production has been designated as ‘Seed Plot Technique’.

In India marigold is one of the most commonly grown flowers and used extensively on religious and social functions in different forms. Because of their ease in cultivation, wide adaptability to varying soil and climatic conditions, long duration of flowering and attractively coloured flowers of excellent keeping quality, the marigolds have become one of the most popular flowers in our country. Flowers are sold in the market as loose or as garlands. Due to its variable height and colour marigold is especially use for decoration and included in landscape plans.

Botany :Annual Chrysanthemum is a winter annual that can be grown either as pot plants or in groups as bed plants for various ornamental purposes. There are two types of annual Chyrsanthemums: Chrysanthemum Segetum and C.coronarium. Major varieties of Chrysanthemum segetum L. are Morning Star, Evening Star, Eastern Star, Blanca, Eldorado, Gloria, Isabel, Romeo, and yellow Stone while popular cultivars of C. coronarium L. include Nivea, Oreon, Albo, Golden Crown, Luteum, Tom Thumb Golden Gem, Tom Thumb-Primrose Gem and Tetra Comet. In addition to this, there is another type of annual Chrysanthemum, i.e. C. carinatum. Popular varieties of C. carinatum S. are Merry, Atrococcineum, Burridgeanum, Eclipse, Flammenspiel, John Bright and Northern Star.

Propagation

Annual Chrysanthemums can be propagated by seeds. Their sowing time depends upon climate. It varies in different parts of India. In the Northern plains, winter season annual Chrysanthemums are sown during September–October. The seeds are sown in nursery beds, earthen pots, seed pans or wooden seed trays. The seed compost should consist of one part each of garden soil, coarse sand, farmyard manure and leaf-mould. For preparing the nursery beds, the soil should be dug up thoroughly and sufficient farmyard manure, should be mixed in soil. Raised nursery beds of convenient size (normally 60cm wide and 15cm high) should be prepared. If soil is heavy, some quantity of sand may be added. It is better if the soil of nursery bed or earthen pots is sterilized with 2% formalin. For this, soil is drenched with formalin solution and is covered with polythene sheet for 45hr. Afterwards, the polythene is removed and soil is dried before sowing the seeds.

Pre sowing seed treatment: Fortification with GA3 100 ppm (or) moringa leaf extract 2% for 16 h (or)KH₂PO4 2% for 16 hours

Age of the seedling for transplanting: The seeds are first sown in primary nursery (pot) and after 16 day the seedlings are transplanted to raised nursery and after 24 days transplanted to main field.

Varieties: No named variety

Soil: Red sandy soil and sandy loam soil are highly suitable. Soil drainage is essential and hard pan and water logged soils should be avoided.

Climate: Suitable for plain and lower hills. Requires 70 cm annual rain fall

Propagation: Terminal three to four nodal cuttings measuring 10 cm length is used

Land Preparation: Apply 15 t FYM/ha. Ridges are formed at a spacing of 60 cm. Cuttings have to be planted at a spacing of 45 cm.

Nutrient management: Nutrients Quantity (kg / ha) N 30 P 60 K 50 The above nutrients can be applied in two split doses viz., 30 and 45 days after planting. In micronutrient deficient soils, ZnSO4 can be applied as basal fertilizer.

Botany

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), also known as Indian ginseng belonging to the family Solanaceae, is an important ancient plant, the roots of which have been employed in Indian traditional systems of medicine, Ayurveda and Unani to cure asthma, fever, chest complaints. It is an erect branching undershrub reaching about 1.50 m in height. It grows in dry and sub-tropical regions. Being hardy and drought tolerant species with its enormous biocompounds, its usage is forever regarded and continuous to enjoy the monopoly in many parts of India, particularly in Madhya Pradesh. It grows in dry parts in sub-tropical regions. Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh are the major Ashwagandha producing states of the country. Roots are fleshy, tapering, whitish brown. Leaves are ovate and flowers are greenish. The mature fruits are orange-red berries.

Varieties:Poshita and Rakshita are high yielding varieties released by CSIRCIMAP, Lucknow. Jawahar 20 is cultivated in Madhya Pradesh. WSR is another variety released by CSIR-Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu. Nagori is a local variety with starchy roots

Botany: Periwinkles (Catharanthus roseus) belonging to the family Apocynaceae are evergreen perennials that produce bright blue flowers. They grow best in well-draining, moist soil and partial sun to full shade. They work well as sprawling groundcover or border plants and bloom from early spring to early fall. Periwinkles are often grown as transplants, but they can be started from seed about 10 weeks before the last frost with the proper care.

Varieties: Nirmal, Dhawal and Prabal

Soil and climate: It is suited to all types of soil and tropical climatic conditions. Well distributed annual rainfall of 100 cm or more is ideal for raising as a rainfed crop.

Seeds and planting: Propagated through seeds either by direct sowing or throughtransplanting.

Seed rate: 2.5 kg/ha : Direct sowing

0.5 kg/ha : Through seedlings

45 - 60 days old seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of 45 x 20 cm during June - July or September - October.

Botany: Senna, Cassia angustifola belonging to the family Leguminosae is a perennial 1-2 m height undershrub. The stem is erect, smooth, and pale green to light brown with long spreading ascending branches. Leaves are compound with four to eight pairs of leaflets. The full grown leaflets are bluish-green to palegreen in colour and emit a characteristic fetid smell when crushed. The flowers are small and yellow and axillary arranged racemes. The pods are broadly oblong about 5-8 cm long and 2-3 cm broad, green in beginning and change to greenish-brown to dark brown on maturity. Each pod has 5 to 7 ovate, compressed, smooth, dark-brown seeds.

Varieties : KKM - 1, Anand Late Selection, ALFT-2 and Sona

Soil and climate: In Tamil Nadu, it is grown in sandy or sandy loam or laterite soils. It is a hardy warm weather crop grown under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Senna is also cultivated successfully on black cotton soils. It has a great tolerance to high soil salinity, however, shedding of some lower leaves often occurs. The soil pH suited for cultivation is 7.0-8.5. But, the most suitable to sandy loam to loam soils which are more friable and well drained.

Botany

Phyllanthus is an herb common to Central and Southern India. It can grow to 30–60 centimeters in height and blooms with many yellow flowers. All parts of the plant are employed therapeutically. It is a small erect annual herb 10-60 cm tall widespread in tropical areas. Leaves are small elliptical - oblong and flowers are whitish green & minute. It bears ascending herbaceous branches. The bark is smooth and light green. The fruits are tiny, smooth capsules containing seeds.Kizhanelli is a circum-tropical weed, thriving well under tropical conditions. In India, it grows abundantly up to 700m altitude in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Major constituents – Phyllanthin (0.4-0.5%) and Hypophyllanthin

Uses- Hepatitis B and Jaundice

Botany:Coriandrum sativum belonging to the family Umbelliferae. It is an annual soft shrub that attains a height of 1 to 3 feet. Leaves are in basal cluster varies from 3 to 15 cm in length and are oblong to ovate in shape. Leaflets are 1 to 2 centimeter in length and are ovate to round. Flower is of white color which can vary from light purple to creamish in color. These appear in umbles. Fruit is roundish in shape bearing color that varies from yellow to brown. It is tripped and gets divided in to two then crushed with fingers. The plant flowers and fruits in late winters.

Land Requirement: Land to be used for seed production of coriander should be free from volunteer plants

Varieties: CO 1, CO 2, CO 3, CO (CR) 4, GAU 1, UD 1, UD 2, UD 20 and UD 21

Soil: Well drained black cotton soil and red loamy soil. For rainfed cultivation soil should be clay in nature and the pH should be 6 – 8.Coriander performs well at a temperature range of 20 – 25 °C.

Climate: Cool and comparatively dry, frost free climate

Botany:Fenugreek is a leguminous plant, belonging to the Papilionaceae family. Fenugreek is an annual herbaceous plant between 20 and 50cm high. (sometimes up to 100cm.). Its stem is erect, branched, grooved and with little pubescence. The leaves are compound, petiolate, oblong leaflets formed by three kills reminding those of alfalfa. White or yellow flowers , isolated or arranged in pairs. Fenugreek fruits are narrow and elongated pods. They contain 10 to 20 seeds, tiny yellow, quadrangular, with a groove in the central part dividing them into two unequal lobes.

Land Requirements: Land to be used for seed production of Kasuri methi and methi shall be free from volunteer plants.

Varieties: Co 1, Pusa Early Bunching, Lam selection 1, Rajendra Kranti, Kissar Sonali, RMT1and CO 2.

Soil: A rich well drained loamy soil is best suited.

Climate: Cool and comparatively dry, frost free climate. It requires a warm climate with mild temperatures for a good seed production (between 8 and 27°C).It grows well in full sun. Sow it in places sheltered from the wind. Resistant to frost and temperatures down to -5°C. However, low temperatures during planting causes not all seeds to germinate.

Season: June - July and October - November.

Botany: The Cocoa (Theobroma cocoa) belonging to the family Sterculiaceae. Cocoa tree is a shade tolerant, moisture loving, understory rainforest tree. The trees live for up to 100 years, but cultivated trees are considered economically productive for only about 60 years. Naturally Cocao grows to a height of 15 meters, but cultivated trees are trimmed shorter to make harvesting easier. The leaves of Cocoa are smooth bright green, oblong, about 15cm by 8cm. The seeds are encased in a large colourful pod which grows close to tree after a flower. The large pod is green while maturing and turns yellow, orange, red or purple when ripe. They range from about 10 cm to greater than 40 cm in length.

Soil and climate: Potash rich alluvial soils friable in nature with high humus and moisture retentivity with a pH of 6.6-7.0 are suitable. Cocoa is normally cultivated at altitudes upto 1200 m above MSL with an annual rainfall of 150 cm and a relative humidity of 80 % and annual mean temperature of 24^oC to 25^oC. Cocoa can be grown as intercrop in coconut and arecanut gardens.

Botany: Cashew belongs to the Family Aricardiaceae. A small evergreen tree native of tropical America from Mexico to Peru and Brazil but now cultivated largely in Malabar, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and to some extend in Maharashtra, Goa, Odisha and West Bengal

The commercial production is mainly confined to India, Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya; Brazil, Philippines, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.Cashew is an important foreign earning crop of India, remarking second (29%) in the international trade of the nuts. It is a crop of marginal lands and can be grown under rainfed conditions.

Soil and climate: It grows up well in all soils. Red sandy loam is best suited. Plains as well as hill slopes upto 600 - 700 feet elevation are suitable for cultivation. Season: June - December. Propagation: Soft wood grafting, air layer and epicotyl grafting. Requirement of plants: 200 plants/ha. Preparation of field: Pits of 45 cm3 size are dug and filled up with a mixture of soil + 10 kg FYM + one kg neem cake and 100 g Methyl parathion 1.3 %.

Botany: Coffee trees are evergreen shrubs of the rubiaceae family. Coffee of commerce consists of seeds of coffee which when roasted, ground and soaked in hot water yields a fragrant stimulating infusion used for preparing the beverage called Coffee. It is native of America and introduced in India in 1936 near Chickmanglur in Karnataka.

Coffee plants have bright green opposite leaves with smooth margins. Its flowers, white, grow in clusters in the axils of the leaves and are aromatic. From them, fruits are born.They are red drupes with the size of a cherry The outside of the fruit is fleshy and inside it there are two seeds or coffee beans, surrounded by a membranous layer of leathery texture, hence this layer is commonly known as the “parchment”. Some species of trees only produce one seed per fruit are known as “pearl coffee”. In double seed varieties, the two seeds that grow inside each fruit press each other, so they stop the growth in the part which is in contact, so this becomes flat.

Soil and Climate: Coffee arbica comes up well in high altitude from 800 to 1650 meters but -C. canephora Pierre ex A.Froehner adopts well to lower elevations. At high altitude the crop is often late and susceptiable to frost and high winds.Evenly distributed rainfall of 2250 mm is essential. Heavy rainfall is not counducive as it encourages rotting of leaves and plants are easily susceptible to fungal diseases.

Botany: Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) belonging to the family Palmae is a slender palm tree widely distributed throughout the tropical regions,with a size that can vary between 12 to 30 meters high. Each inflorescence is a branched flower cluster (panicle), located at the base of the leaves. Its flowers, male and female (monoecious), can be white to pale yellow. Fruiting occurs throughout the year, and the fruit is a drupe with a dry fibrous mesocarp popularly known as coconut.

Coconut fruit has an ovoid shape, constituted by 3 angles and 3 germination holes at the end, with a size between 20 and 30 centimeters in diameter. Coconut fruit consists of a brown fibrous bark and a hard shell, booking a seed inside. The central cavity of the fruit has an aqueous or milky liquid called coconut water that is a nutritional mixture aimed for coconut to grow. When the fruit ripens , this fluid accumulates fat and it is called coconut juice or milk. The seed of the coconut palm is the second largest known , after the coco-de-mer (Lodoicea maldivica ), that can reach 40–50 cm in diameter and weigh from 15 to 30 kg. The seed of coconut is hollow inside and it is covered with a white pulp, oily and edible.

Medicinal uses:It is said to have analgesic, antirheumatic, antibacterial , anticancer, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypotensive and immune stimulating properties. Its oil also has numerous cosmetic applications

Botany: Emblica officinalis belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae commonly known as Amla or Indian Gooseberry or Nelli is an important crop with high medicinal value. The fruits have the richest source of vitamin-C (700 mg per 100 g of fruits) and is considered to be good liver tonic. The various preparations using Amla include Chyavanprash, Triphala churna, Brahma Rasayana and Madumegha churna. The fruit is valued as an antiscorbutic, diuretic, laxative, antibiotic and anti-dysentric. Phyllemblin, obtainedfrom fruit pulp has been found to have mild depressent action on central nervous system. It has good demand from the industries for the preparation of various health care products also like hair oil, dye, shampoo, face creams and tooth powder.

Soil: Light as well as medium heavy soils except purely sandy soil is ideal for amla cultivation. The tree is well adopted to dry regions and can also be grown in moderate alkaline soils.

Climate: It is a tropical plant. Annual rainfall of 630-800 mm is ideal for its growth. The young plant upto the age of 3 years should be protected from hot wind during May-June and from frost during winter months. The mature plants can tolerate freezing temperature as well as a high temperature upto 46^OC.

Varieties: The varieties recommended for cultivation are Banarasi, Chakaiya, Francis, NA-4 (Krishna) NA 5 (Kanchan), NA-6, NA-7, NA-10 and BSR-1 (Bhavanisagar).

Introduction:Jamun (Syzygium cumini) belonging to the family Myrtaceae is a popular indigenous fruits Of India. It is also known as black plum, Indian black cherry, Ram jamun etc. in different parts of India. The tree is tall and handsome, evergreen, generally grown for shade and windbreak on roads and avenues. In India, the maximum number of jamun trees are found scattered throughout the tropical and subtropical regions. It also occurs in the lower range of the Himalayas up to an elevation of 1,300 meters and in the Kumaon hills up to 1,600 meters. It is widely grown in the larger parts of India from the IndoGangetic plains in the North to Tamil Nadu in the South.

Soil:The jamun tree can be grown on a wide range of soils. However, for high yield potential and good plant growth, deep loam and a welldrainedsoil are needed. Jamun can grow well under salinity and waterlogged conditions too.

Climate: Jamun prefers to grow under tropical and subtropical climate. It is also found growing in lower ranges of the Himalayas up to an altitude of 1300 meters. The jamun requires dry weather at the time off towering and fruit setting.

Varieties: The common variety grown under North Indian conditions is “Ram Jarnun”. It produces big sized, oblong fruits, deep purple or bluish-black in color at full ripe stage. The pulp of the ripe fruit is purple pink and the fruit is juicy and sweet. The stone is small in size. The variety ripens in the month of June- July and it is very common both in rural as well as in urban markets.

The role of plant nutrients in crop production is well established. Estimation of nutrients contents and forms in materials, which are involved in nutrient supply and dynamics is a crucial step in scientific nutrient management and crop production. There are 16 essential plant nutrients. These are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), sulphur (S), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl). These nutrients have to be available to the crops in quantities as required for a yield target. Any limiting or deficient nutrient (s) will limit crop growth.

Introduction

In chemical laboratories, the use of acids, alkalis and some hazardous and explosive chemicals is unavoidable. In addition, some chemical reactions during the analysis process may release toxic gases and, if not handled well, may cause an explosion. Inflammable gases are also used as a fuel/heating source. Thus, work safety in a chemical laboratory calls for special care both in terms of the design and construction of the laboratory building, and in the handling and use of chemicals.

For chemical operations, it is also necessary to provide special chambers. The air temperature of the laboratory and work rooms should be maintained constant at 20–25°C. Humidity should be kept at about 50 percent. Temperature and humidity often affect soil and fertilizer samples. Temperature also affects some chemical operations. Hence, maintaining the temperature and humidity as specified is critical.

Introduction

Soil is the main source of nutrients for the plants. Soil also provides support for plant growth in various ways. Knowledge about soil health and its maintenance is critical to sustaining crop productivity. The health of soils can be assessed by the quality and stand of the crops grown on them. However, this is a general assessment made by the farmers. A scientific assessment is possible through detailed physical, chemical and biological analysis of the soils. Essential plant nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S are called macronutrients, while Fe, Zn, Cu, Mo, Mn, B and Cl are called micronutrients. It is necessary to assess the capacity of a soil to supply nutrients in order to supply the remaining amounts of needed plant nutrients (total crop requirement - soil supply). Thus, soil testing laboratories are considered nerve centres for nutrient management in crop production systems and plantation forestry.

Soils may have large amounts of nutrient reserves in them. All or a part of these reserves may not be of any use to crops because they may not be in plant-available form. For the purpose of estimation or analysis of plant-available soil nutrients, such methods are to be used that have been tested/verified for the correlation of nutrients extracted and their plant availability. This book describes internationally accepted and widely used methods. Apart from nutrients, soil pH estimation is also critical in the assessment of soil health. Generally, plants prefer soils that are close to either side of neutrality. However, there are acid- loving plants and also plants that can withstand high soil alkalinity. Hence, good yields and economic returns from farming are possible in acid and alkali soils. With proper amendments, still higher yields can be obtained in acid and alkali soils. Soil pH also has a considerable influence on the activity of soil micro-flora and on the availability of soil nutrients to crops. It is also important to estimate physical properties such as soil texture, structure, bulk density, soil colour, water content and soil temperature.

Introduction and Scope

Plant and soil testing enable scientific assessment of the needs of the plant for nutrient elements and of the capacity of the soil to supply them. The nutrient elements enter the plant in ionic form from the soil solution. Ion transport to the root surface may take place through ion diffusion and bulk transport (mass flow). Mass flow is the sweeping along of ions as water moves to the root. It is particularly important for ions that are not absorbed on soil colloids such as nitrates and sulphates. Because of mass flow, a plant deficient in N can extract all the nitrates from the soil. Potassium, phosphate and the micronutrient cations are absorbed on soil colloids with various degrees of affinity and are greatly retarded in movement with the soil water. Diffusion (movement along a concentration gradient) is the main mode of transport from the solid phase to the root surface for these non-mobile ions. There is also a possibility that some of them are absorbed by a direct exchange of an ion, usually hydrogen, between the root surface and ions absorbed on soil colloids. Most ions are sorbed by the root against a concentration gradient and, thus, the process involves the use of metabolic energy. The fact that nutrient uptake is an active process explains some of its peculiarities. Plants not only accumulate nutrients against a concentration gradient, they are also able to select from the nutrients at the root surface according to their requirements (preferential uptake).

Introduction

Irrigation water always contains some soluble salts irrespective of its source. The suitability of waters for a specific purpose depends on the types and amounts of dissolved salts. Some of the dissolved salts or other constituents may be useful for crops. However, the quality or suitability of waters for irrigation purposes is assessed in terms of the presence of undesirable constituents, and only in limited situations is irrigation water assessed as a source of plant nutrients. Some of the dissolved ions, such as NO₃, are useful for crops.

Sometimes, effluents and domestic sewage water is utilized for irrigating field crops. For using these water safely in the farming system, assessment of undesirable pollutants and organic and microbial constituents with regard to their suitability is fore-most important. Determination of organic constituents is generally carried out under two categories viz., (i) organic substances that quantify an aggregate amount of organic C and (ii) individual or specific organic substances, such as benzene, DDT, methane, phenol and endosulphan. Important determinations are the chemical oxygen demand (COD), which gives the total organic substances, and the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), which gives the amount of total biodegradable organic substances in the water sample.

Introduction

The main objective in analysing fertilizers is to assess their quality. The analysis examines both their physical and chemical composition. The quality of fertilizers is stated by the manufacturers and, in most countries, it is statutorily notified. Hence, analysis is carried out to determine whether the stated quality meets the statutorily notified standards or not. Together with the statutory notified composition of the fertilizers, the testing methods are specified. In situations where the testing methods are not notified, the prevalent standard methods are followed. Generally, the term fertilizer refers to mineral fertilizers, which are manufactured chemical products of standard composition, while the term manures refers to organic manures, compost, agro-industrial wastes, etc. The compositions of organic fertilizers, unlike mineral fertilizers, are quite variable and, thus, difficult to regulate precisely.

Fertilizer quality is notified in terms of physical and chemical characteristics. The physical parameters include moisture content and particle size. The chemical parameters refer to the amount and form of nutrients, and to various impurities that may be toxic to plants above a critical limit, e.g. biuret in urea. The efficiency of a fertilizer depends on its form of nutrient content. A phosphatic fertilizer may have water-soluble, citrate-soluble, water-insoluble or citrate-insoluble forms of phosphate. A nitrogenous fertilizer may contain ammoniacal, nitrate and amide forms of N in various proportions.

Introduction

In view of the accepted importance of analysis, the workload on soil, plant and water testing laboratories has increased considerably in recent years. Therefore, analytical methods have needed to be accelerated through the automation of instruments. Almost all instruments either contain inbuilt computers or can interface directly with micro processors, thereby simplifying instrument operation and providing versatility for the analyst. Most operations can be performed through keyboard commands. This type of instrument automation enables:

ABSTRACT

More than 80 per cent area of the Shivaliks is rainfed. Soil erosion greater than 80 t ha^-1yr^-1 is being recorded from denuded hills. Though, trees are nurtured on the farms but no definite pattern of trees on field bunds is followed, (neither from spacing point of view nor from species point of view). Further, these trees are not silviculturally managed to get best output from tree components as well as for posing less competition to the crops. Shivaliks has a wide range of climate, geology, soil, topography and socio-economic strata coupled with wide variety of vegetation. Such variations provide ample opportunities for developing site specific agroforestry systems.

ABSTRACT

Shivaliks are highly fragile ecosystem of Himalayas threatened by problems like soil erosion, loss of tree cover, decreased productivity of fuel, fodder and food, to name a few. These problems are further being complicated due to ever increasing anthropogenic pressure. Maintenance and enhancement of soil fertility is not only vital for food security and environmental sustainability in the Shivalik hills, but all over the globe. Agroforestry is frequently proposed as a solution to problems of land and water degradation as well as an answer to shortages of food, fodder and fuel in the Shivaliks, and the same holds true for Jammu Shivaliks. Substantial environmental benefits accrue from planting trees. Suitable tree crop combinations as well as their management practices need to be worked out. Growing of trees and grasses in agroforestry systems such as agrihorticulture, silvipastoral, agrisilvipastoral are specially suited for Shivalik hills keeping in view their role in soil and water conservation. Additional agroforestry component i.e, animals can further hasten the ameliorative effect of agroforestry. In all, combination of trees, crops and/or animals on the same unit of land holds great potential for contributing to sustainable land use system which can help in conserving soil and water besides providing innumerable socio-economic benefits.

ABSTRACT

The land available to grow food and trees is decreasing owing to population pressure in all the regions of the world. In the Shivaliks, the land available for crop and tree cultivation is further limited by steep slopes and inaccessibility of different land areas. The livelihood options in the Jammu Shivaliks are limited due to poor development of this area compared to adjoining plains. In such a situation, agroforestry is one of the options to increase the livelihood security of the people of this region as it results in concurrent and sustainable use of the limited land for production of food and tree-based products and improves the livelihoods of the rural people. Agroforestry improvement based on scientific inputs and its popularisation has the potential to improve the livelihoods of people of this region. This paper dwells on the role of agroforestry in livelihood security and constraints in realising the potential of agroforestry in Jammu Shivaliks.

ABSTRACT

Shivaliks, the most impor tant ecosystem of the foothills of the Himalayas, have been identified as one of the eight most degraded rainfed ecosystems of the country. They are characterized by undulating barren hill slopes, undulating agriculture fields and erratic rainfall pattern. Majority of the lands under cultivation and orchards in the hilly terrain of the state are thus subjected to runoff and soil loss of varying degrees. The soils of Shivalik hills in Solan district of Himachal Pradesh were found to be coarse in texture with abundance of gravels (upto 73.20%). According to the erodibility indices i.e erosion ratio (ER) and erosion index (EI), all the soils were found to be erodible; however, grasslands and forestlands recorded lowest values for these indices. Forest soils had higher water stable aggregates (WSA), mean weight diameter (MWD) and lower dispersion ratios than the cultivated and orchard soils. The dispersion ratio was comparatively higher under cultivated lands (17.37-22.54) followed by orchards (14.36-14.99) and lowest under forest soils (12.59-13.70). Areas having barren lands recorded very high soil loss (86.05 t ha^-1 yr^-1) followed by intensively cultivated areas (58.87 t ha^-1 yr^-1) and both of these have fallen in very high category of priority. A medium category of soil loss has been observed under degraded forests, agro-horticultural plantations and scrubs (14.77 – 18.27 t ha^-1 yr^-1). While low to very low soil loss was recorded under moderately dense, mixed and dense forests (3.46 – 9.59 t ha^-1 yr^-1). Weighted soil loss of 10.60, 17.12, 19.20 and 256.73 t ha^-1 yr^-1 was observed under 5-10, 10-15, 15-35 and >35 per cent slope classes. However, dense forests in all the slope classes registered annual soil loss within the tolerance limit (5 t ha^-1 yr^-1). Hence, maximum runoff, soil loss and available NPK losses were recorded from the barren lands and lands under cultivation followed by orchards and minimum under forests. Risk of soil erosion is higher on steeper slopes. Mixed forests in slope class of 15-35% have also reflected very high soil loss. However, dense forests in all the slope classes registered annual soil loss within the tolerance limit (5 t ha^-1 yr^-1). There is an urgent need to adopt suitable soil and water conservation measures to check runoff losses causing loss of soil and nutrients.

ABSTRACT

This article is an attempt to describe potential agroforestry systems for mid hills zone of Himalayas. The existing traditional land use systems with separate allocation to agriculture and forest are inadequate not only to fill gaps between demand and supply for food, fuel, fodder and timber but also to check land degradation and soil erosion. The adoption of common agroforestry systems, namely agrisilviculture, agrihorticulture, agrisilvihorticulture, agrihortisilviculture, silvimedicinal, silvipastoral and hortipastoral along with appropriate management practices shall be suitable and viable option for checking soil erosion, improving productivity and economic status of the farming community. The functional components of agroforestry systems, however, differ greatly in size, texture and nature depending on the necessity of rural population. The fuel, fodder, timber and fruit trees dominate in the hilly regions, whereas commercial species like poplar, eucalyptus, shisham, etc constitute the major functional component in lower Shivaliks. Farming communities successfully grow food crops like wheat, maize, soybean, pea, black gram; vegetable crops like tomato, cabbage, capsicum; tuber crops and medicinal crops with multipurpose woody perennials. The findings indicate that agricultural crops can be integrated with woody perennials without any adverse impact on growth, production or physiological status of food crops, except when growing immediately beneath tree canopies. Our experience is that planting timber, fuel-fodder or fruit tree species in combination with agricultural crops and medicinal and aromatic herb species pave the way for diversified products and better economic returns to the farmers. Multipurpose tree species outside the forest have played very important role in catering to the day to day requirements of the rural population, beside environmental conservation. Different farming systems consisting crops + trees have yielded encouraging results and have not only helped diversification but enhanced productivity of land per unit area. Intercropping medicinal and aromatic herb species, especially with fruit and commercial timber further makes agroforestry more profitable.

ABSTRACT

Bio-engineering is the use of vegetation, either alone or in conjunction with civil engineering structures, to reduce instability and erosion of slopes. Such structures are advocated in hilly area mainly because they provide one of the best ways to armour slopes against erosion. Bio-engineering, in the context of upland slope protection and erosion reduction, combines mechanical, biological, and ecological concepts to arrest and prevent shallow slope failures and erosion. This chapter presents the design consideration and construction practices for stabilization of slopes using bioengineering technologies along with a brief review on the salient features and characteristics of the bioengineering processes.

ABSTRACT

The paper presents the results of agroforestry trials that had been conducted in lower shivaliks for assessing soil and water conservation under different land uses. The experiments reveal that agroforestry is a profitable venture compared to monocroping in lower shivaliks, where agriculture is rainfed.

Introduction

The lower Shivalik is composed of an alternating sequence of well indurated, fine grained, purple and grayish-purple sandstones and purple and maroon clays in the lower part and grayish-purple, medium to fine grained standstones in the upper part. The formation attains a thickness of 1,300 m to 1,900 m in the Western Himalaya. The important places of lower Shivaliks are along Sambha-Udhampur Road, Jammu – Srinagar national highway, Nahan, Kalka, Nalagarh, Bilaspur, Sarkaghat regions of Himachal Pradesh. In Kumaon Himalaya, lower Shivaliks are in Kotdwar, Rathwadhab, Mohand, Haldwani and Tanakpur regions

ABSTRACT

Trees play a crucial role in maintaining and regenerating soil fertility through the action of their roots and litter. Trees can also improve soil structure, water holding capacity, crop rooting volume and biological activity in soil by providing biomass. Quick growing species, especially of nitrogen fixing trees when combined with herbaceous crops enhance fertility status of the soil through litter contribution and nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs, grown in agroforestry systems, are capable of fixing about 50-100 Kg N ha^-1yr^-1. Use of agroforestry is also a viable option for enhancing soil organic carbon density. Soil organic carbon sequestration potential in soils of tropical forest ecosystems varies from 100 to 500 Kg C ha^-1 yr^-1. Improving soil organic carbon pool through agroforestry improves soil quality, biomass productivity and mitigates global warming by reducing the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases. Nutrient cycling is another way in which trees draw a large portion of nutrients from deeper soil layer and return it to the soil through crown crash, stem flow and litter fall. In a nutshell, for improving the soil quality, ecological balance and sustainability of agro eco systems , agroforestry is one of the best viable alternative land use system.

ABSTRACT

Mining is an important activity for economic development. However, it is associated with land degradation, pollution of air and water, droughts, floods, land slides and land slips, silting of reservoirs, chocking of bridges and disruption of communications are some of the very serious environmental hazards. The need of the hour is to scientifically extract the mineral coupled with adopting mechanical and vegetative measures to rehabilitate the mine spoils. In the present paper effect of mining on natural resources has been detailed, also techniques adopted and standardized for rehabilitation Sahastradhara mined area of Dehra Dun valley over two decades have been clubbed.

ABSTRACT

Fodder availability is a serious concern during winter season in hilly areas as land for growing fodder crops is hardly available unlike plains. Bhimal as an agroforestry species is being cultivated in the Himalayas since long, however, genetic improvement of the species was hardly undertaken in the past barring a few reports on tree improvement of the species. Seeds were used to be usually collected from crooked trees which are easy to climb or swept from the forest floor. Since agroforestry systems have great promise to improve the productivity of both agricultural and tree crops, therefore, keeping that in view, seven provenances (I.C. Bhaintan , I.C. Chamba, I.C. Katkor, I.C. Malas, I.C. Nauni, I.C. Naur, I.C. Tachla) were collected from different regions of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh and evaluated for 10 years (1995-2004). Significant differences in the productivity potential of Bhimal provenances were noticed and the high yielding fodder provenances identified (I.C. Bhaintan , I.C. Chamba and I.C. Malas), yielding as high as 35 q ha^-1 thus fodder productivity could be increased to 25% by planting high yielding provenances. Likewise high yielding provenaces (HYPs) for fuelwood and fibre were identified which can increase the productivity potential of the agroforestry system. In 2005, more than 1200 saplings of HYPs were multiplied in a polyhouse and planted at different elevations in the Himalayas under prevailing agroforestry systems. Differential responses of HYPs in respect of growth and productivity at different locations have been monitored. The rooting behaviour of HYPs was also investigated and it was found that all the three provenances viz., I.C. Bhaintan, I.C. Chamba and I.C. Malas have high soil binding characteristics, thus revealing that apart from production, this tree species plays an important role in soil conservation. Further, high regression of soil binding on above ground biomass and specific root length was recorded among these provenaces. Looking at the performance of such provenances on the farmers’ fields, the demand of high yielding provenaces is increasing. Unlike Eucalyptus, Bhimal had the minimal effect on the performance of field crops and the overall system productivity of the Grewia optiva based agroforestry system was profitable along with insurance against aberrant monsoon conditions.

ABSTRACT

Survey and research trial conducted for the selection of promising tree based farming system in Paonta valley region of H.P. have been summarized in the manuscript. Tree based farming innovations with intercropping, their planting technology and geometry around field/ farm, pure plantation , block plantation of trees grown with agricultural/fruit crops for better productivity per unit of land have been suggested for improving socio-economic condition of the regional farmers.

ABSTRACT

A long term study was conducted to evaluate different aonla based silvipastoral systems for compatibility, productivity and conservation effects. Three grass species viz. dholu, hybrid napier and perennial arhar were evaluated for 14 years for degraded lands of Shivaliks. Hybrid napier because of its vigour growth adversely affected the growth of aonla but effect on yield turned non-significant. Arhar could survive only during pre-bearing state. Studies on soil losses and runoff for decades showed that Embilica officinalis + Chrysopogon fulvus was the best silvipastoral system for soil conservation. This system saved rainwater and soil in a range of 4.88 to 30.66 cm and 862-2818 kg ha^-1 respectively over sole plantation. The combination of Embilica officinalis + Chrysopogon fulvus proved to be the most effective silvipastoral system for reclamation of degraded lands and improving economic status of people in Shivalik foot hills.

ABSTRACT

Tree component of agroforestry systems produce large biomass of varying nutrient concentration to serve as alternative to inorganic fertilizers under integrated nutrient management or organic farming. Additionally, agroforestry systems proved effective in conserving soil and rainfall and brought down soil loss up to 0.2 t ha^-1 and runoff up to 1.8 per cent of rainfall. Introduction of grasses in aonla conserved up to 31 cm of rainwater, 28 q ha^-1 of soil, 11 kg ha^-1 of N and 2 kg ha^-1 of K₂O. Conservation coupled with ameliorative capacity of agroforestry systems helped in building organic carbon and nutrients and improving soil physical, chemical and biological properties.

ABSTRACT

The lower Shivaliks of Jammu and Kashmir comprise 12% of the total area of Jammu region. The productivity of the soils is not only low but highly unstable. High intensity monsoonal rains coupled with rolling topography, low organic matter and coarse nature of the soils are primarily responsible for soil erosion in the region. Soil loss due to erosion depletes the soil nutrients and, is primarily responsible for land degradation, low productivity and poor economic status of the farmers in the region. Further, the adoption level of the farmers regarding modern conservation techniques is also low. Though soil erosion can be controlled or minimized through agronomical and/or mechanical techniques but agroforestry intervention is one such option which can be used for managing the land in the problematic conditions. Agroforestry systems have proven potential of conserving soil and water besides enrichment of soil through biomass additions. Agroforestry systems, therefore, help curtail soil erosion both by intercepting the rain and minimising its erosivity as well as by reducing the erodibility of the soil. Tree based cropping systems enhance the organic content in soils and therefore, create more stable aggregates, which provide more resistance to erosive forces. The chapter discusses the importance of agroforestry in the fragile Shivaliks of Jammu and Kashmir and suggest how to conserve and restore degraded lands in the region.

ABSTRACT

The paper discusses the problems of soil and water erosion in the Shivalik foot hills and suggests strategies for improved land use planning and the role bamboo species can play in mitigating the problems. The paper also discusses the various bamboo species of the Shivalik foothills, their regeneration, planting practices, management and utilization pattern in detail.

ABSTRACT

The Shivalik range of Himalayas, represent the most fragile ecosystem in India. In order to see the impact of land treatment, five hilly micro watersheds typical of the region having catchment area from 0.813 to 4.750 ha were selected for study. All the five watersheds were brought under study during 1966. Temporal changes in water yield from hilly catchments of Shivalik were monitored for twenty eight years (1966-1993). The watersheds were treated with annual burning (LT1), contour trenching +afforestation (LT2), cutting of trees, shrubs and over grazing (LT3) and over grazing alone (LT4). One watershed (LT5) was kept as control without any interference. As a result of burning, cutting and grazing there was significant increase in runoff as well as peak flow in the initial years, however, after increase in vegetation through protection from 1977 onwards resulted in decrease in runoff and soil loss.

ABSTRACT

Among the challenges of 21^st century, to make the food supply sustainable, the impact of climate change is largely unconceivable. The climate on earth has increased by 0.74° C over the past 100 years. Best estimate for low scenario of global warming is 1.8°C and for high scenario is 4°C. Last decade recorded the hottest in the century and 2009 has been rated hottest since 1900. Retreating glaciers have been confirmed in various parts of the world. Further, the current greatest challenge is to perceive the biological impact of such climate changes. Efforts have been initiated by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to assess the impact of climate change on biological systems across the globe. Since 1950’s, the change in carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere is being monitored. Almost a decade later, computer models were employed to assess the possible impact of change in temperature and enhanced CO₂. By the 1980’s consensus was almost achieved on possible doubling of atmospheric CO₂ concentration due to emission from fossil fuels and rise in the global temperature. Since then quantitative estimates on the biological impacts of climate change have been taken up by scientific community world wide. Presently, ample of evidence on impact of climate change from marine to terrestrial environment, from species to communities, ecosystems and hierarchies have been gathered for both flora and fauna (Walther et al., 2002I). Parmesan and Yune (2003) reported that meta-analyses of 334 species and global analyses of 1,570 species revealed highly significant and regular patterns of change in relation to observed warming with more than 95 per cent confidence, as fingerprints of climate change.

ABSTRACT

Chamba and Kangra districts of Himachal Pradesh are abode to vast natural diversity. The people of the area had developed varied traditionl approaches to live with the nature so that natural resources can be protected for their sustained use. The present paper enumerates some of the ecofriendly life styles, agroforestry systems and water use practices being adopted by the farmers of the region.

ABSTRACT

The increasing level of green house gases in general CO₂ in particular has raised concerns about the vulnerability of human, animal and plant life. These concerns have prompted the Governments world over to take the appropriate measures to save them from perspective destruction. Forests though serve as source and sink of the CO₂, there is need to synthesize the impact of climate change on forests and the role of forests in global carbon cycle. Climate change needs to become part of decision making in forest management. Also, the agroforestry, a potential carbon sequestration activity is lagging behind, there is a growing interest in it in countries that have not only ratified Kyoto Protocol but also facing many other ecological problems on their private working land. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) offers benefits through sink credits and reduces the negative impact of climate change, therefore, necessary institutional arrangements should be put in place to use CDM projects effectively for generating resources through afforestation and reforestation projects for the well being of present as well as future generation. Forest/agroforestry scientists/managers need to realize the current degree of vulnerability and start thinking about their ability to cope with the impacts. Governments have initiated negotiations on policy actions to reduce the green house gases and addressed the vulnerabilities of the ecological, economic and social systems to climate change. It may be one of the least expensive ways for industries to off-set their carbon emission and tree growers to benefit through the carbon trade. Despite the fact that the certain aspects under Kyoto Protocol are still under clarification and negotiation, the forest plantations will play an important role in carbon sequestration and the implementation of Kyoto Protocol. Since the development of plantation is a slow process, the dividends will only be realized after a gap therefore the new plantation should be taken up without delay and the old one be managed as per their silvicultural rotation.

ABSTRACT

North-Western Himalayas have a large area which are degraded and bouldry. Such areas are not fit for crop production. These areas are generally kept unutilized and hence are invaded by uneconomic and invasive species. These lands can be brought under production though establishment of silvipastoral system which has a potential of fodder, fuel and timber production besides conserving natural resources. The paper discusses the techniques of establishment, management and production potential of silvipasture systems in north-western Himalayas.

Growing more than one crop in sequence or simultaneously as a mixed crop is an ancient practice. In Indian Vedas, there is a mention about double cropping. In early periods, the objective to adopt sequential cropping practices was to reduce the risk of total crop failure due to uncertain monsoon and to have a variety of produce to meet food requirement of farmer’s family, fodder to animals and to meet his cash requirements. Other benefits of yield increase was due to complementary effects of the component crops in improving the soil fertility, spreading the labour requirement throughout over a period of time and to reduce damage caused by weeds, pests and diseases were only incidental.

Multiple cropping in simple terms refers to the practices that increase production in a unit area of land through two or more growing crops simultaneously. The importance of intensive cropping in sustainable agriculture has been well understood by the agricultural scientists of late and there has been surge of interest in the research community to explore these complex systems in detail and to see what can be learnt from the farmers in our quest to make cropping system more sustainable progress made in the past through intensive research carried by the various agricultural universities, ICAR, research institutes/ coordinated research projects and international research institutes such as IRRI, ICRISAT, IITA and CIMMYT, it has shown that and more efficient utilization of the natural resources is possible by suitably modifying the present cropping systems in the various regions of the world.

The present cropping intensity in India is 136 per cent. There is a great prospect for increasing the cropping intensity both in irrigated and rainfed areas. In many irrigated areas, cropping intensity can be increased to 200-300 per cent. There is good scope to increase cropping intensity to 180-200 per cent with proper policies and technology options in rainfed conditions also.

A system is a unit which possess a group of interacting components, operating together for a common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli. It is unaffected directly by its own outputs and has a specified boundary based on the inclusion of all significant feedbacks. For example, the human body is a system-it has a boundary (skin) enclosing a number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a common purpose (to maintain and operating the living body).

Ecosystem: Any collection of organisms that interact or have the potential to interact along with the physical environment in which they live form an ecological system or ecosystem. Ecosystems are not static entities but, they are dynamic systems with characteristic pattern of energy flow, nutrient cycling and structural change.

Agro ecosystem: Agro ecosystems are ecological systems modified by human beings to produce food, fibre or other agricultural products. Like the ecological systems, agro ecosystems are structurally and dynamically complex. But their complexity arises from the interaction between socio economic and ecological processes.

Crop system: An arrangement of crop population that transform solar energy, nutrients, water and other inputs into useful biomass that produce food, feed, fuel and fibre. Crop system comprise of soils, crop, weed, pathogen and insect subsystems. The crop can be of different species and variety, but they only constitute one crop system if they are managed as a single unit.

Cropping systems: It is defined as the order in which the crops are cultivated on a piece of land over a fixed period of time. Cropping system is the way in which different crops are grown. In the cropping systems, sometimes a number of crops are grown together or they are grown separately at shorter intervals in the same field.

The main objective of any cropping system is to utilize available resources efficiently viz., land, water, solar radiation by maintaining stability in production in order to obtain higher net returns. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource used in a given time. The objective of traditional agriculture was to increase the production by two means

1. By increasing area under cultivation
2. By increasing the productivity per unit area of the crop

But two more dimensions are added to modern agriculture

1. To increase the production per unit time
2. To increase the production per unit space

In the traditional cropping systems, mixtures and rotations were developed by the farmers over years of experience by trial and error to suit specific ecological and sociological conditions to attain yield stability, whereas modern scientific cropping has three pillars viz.