eChapters

Abstract

The available data revealed that the area under temperate fruits in Uttaranchal was about 1.4 lakh ha, which was more than 60 per cent of total area under fruit crops, whereas the production per annum was to the tune of 44.50 per cent  of the total fruit production in the state. The productivity status of apple (1.38 t/ha) was very low as compared to national average productivity of 4.98 t/ha. Unfortunately, the prevailing constraints such as non-availability of elite planting material; lack of technical know how; dry land horticulture; high cost of production, lack of credit awareness and availability; small and fragmented land holding; old and senile orchard; lack of transport and communication facilities; poor mechanization; lack of efficient marketing system and post harvest infrastructure do not allow the farmers to take advantage of the emerging opportunities in temperate fruit production.

Abstract

The arid Kachchh district, located at the western most part of the Gujarat State in India, is known for its large extent of area under wetland habitat, which is represented by numerous seasonal water bodies and coastal habitats. Vast stretch of grasslands also available in the northern border of the district, the Banni (23⁰ 19’ to 23⁰ 52’ N; 68⁰ 56’ to 70⁰ 32’ E), which encompasses an area of 2,617 km². There are many depressions in Banni, locally known as Dhandh (shallow lakes). During monsoon, rainwater gets collected in these depressions and form shallow lakes. About 34 smaller and bigger size Dhandhs are present in the Banni. Banni communities are highly dependent on the Dhandhs for various purposes. Due to the erratic rainfall in arid Kachchh, Maldharis is highly unstable for livestock in search of fodder and water during drought years. During the normal rainfall years, livestock from neighboring talukas of Kachhh and even from other districts depends on this grassland and Dhandhs. During last decade, the Banni grasslands have seen serious environmental changes due to the invasion of an exotic plant Prosopis juliflora and increasing the salinity are the major issues of Dhandh degradation. Thus, the Banni is gradually losing its capacity to sustain human and livestock population.

Main objectives of the present paper is to examine the local perceptions of wetland and grassland change, socio-economic status, and factors that cause degradation of the wetland and vegetation resources in the Banni grassland.

ABSTRACT

Malabar Spiny Dormouse (Platacanthomys lasiurus), the endemic rodent found in the Western Ghats of South India was studied in the Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Thiruvananthapuram District, Kerala, to determine the status, distribution, food and feeding of the species.

Crabs are one of the fast-growing animals from phylum arthropod. Freshwater crabs is now becoming as an important shellfish in freshwater aquaculture production due to its delicacy and nutritional richness. Freshwater crabs are considered good for human consumption and economically important crustacean in many developing countries such as India, China, Nigeria, Japan etc. Freshwater crabs are distributed in the tropical region of the world and they spend their entire lives in freshwater. In Indian territory Western ghats of Maharashtra and north east part of India are considerably more diverse in freshwater crab biodiversity. While only freshwater crab species Barytelphusa cunicularis is commonly observed all over India. In Maharashtra Kolhapur and Konkan region stands out for well-established crab market, driven by high freshwater crab consumption. Freshwater crab serve as good protein food, lipid and cheap carbohydrate source as well as valuable mineral source for human consumption particularly tribal and poor people. Freshwater crab aquaculture, like other types of aquaculture practices, offers a wide range of culture systems, extensive monoculture to intensive monoculture. In freshwater crab aquaculture crab farmers mainly prefers Barytelphusa cunicularis as a culture species.

Introduction
 
The major challenges in 21^st century are food security, environmental quality and soil health. Besides, shrinking land holdings and increasing cost of inputs in India merit adoption of scientific use of plant nutrient for higher crop productivity. The soil fertility and fertilizer use project initiated in 1953 following a study by Stewart in 1947 which was the first systematic attempt in India to relate the knowledge of the soils to the judicious use of chemical fertilizers. The soil testing programme was started in India during the year 1955-56 with the setting up of 16 soil testing laboratories under the Indo-US Operational Agreement for “Determination of Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Use”. In 1965, five of the existing laboratories were strengthened and nine new laboratories were established to serve the Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) in selected districts.

Steam is utilized in steam power plants, steam engines, atomic power plant, and food industry for pasteurization, sterilization, textile industry, paper industry and in railway to generate power. Steam is also utilized in process type industries like sugar industries, textile industries, chemical industries for sizing and bleaching. Steam is also employed to store energy and transported through pipes.

“Steam generator or boiler is, usually, a closed vessel made of steel. Its function is to transfer the heat produced by the combustion of fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous) to water, and ultimately to generate steam” [4] . The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) [5] gives the following definition of the steam generating unit:

INTRODUCTION
The hydraulic power steering system operates by using pressurized power steering fluid to reduce steering effort. The system is powered by a pump, driven by an engine accessory drive or serpentine belt. The pump sends high-pressure fluid through a hose to the input side of the power steering gear-control valve. The high pressure applied to the control valve assists the driver in turning the front wheels. The power steering fluid is stored in a reservoir, and the fluid returns from the steering gear at a much lower pressure to maintain the proper level in the reservoir.
In a hydraulic power steering system, the fluid is continuously pumped, and the system is influenced by engine speed. High RPM results in high-pressure output, while lower RPM causes low-pressure output. To ensure constant pressure, the power steering pump uses a bypass valve, which regulates the pressure regardless of the engine speed. This helps maintain consistent performance.
ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC POWER STEERING
These systems employ a brushless electric motor to drive the hydraulic power steering pump instead of an engine driven accessory drive or serpentine belt. This system operates the same and provides the same feel of a conventional hydraulic power steering system.
Electric Power Steering or Motor-Driven Power Steering
This system eliminates hydraulics and pressurized fluid from the system. When the driver turns the steering wheel, a brushless bi-directional permanent magnet motor connected to the steering gear or steering column turns the front wheels. Sensors detect which way the steering wheel is turned to assist the movement of the steering gear in the correct direction. No matter what kind of

8.6.1. Function

It steers the tractor in the required direction. The rotation of the steering wheel moves the steering column, which in turn rotates the sector shaft. This rotation pulls the pit man arms on one side and pushes at the other side. This motion is conveyed to the wheels by the drag link and makes the front wheel turn in the requisite direction.

INTRODUCTION
The system responsible for controlling the angular movement of the front wheels of a tractor is called the steering system. This system reduces the effort required by the operator to turn the front wheels through the application of leverages. The key components of the steering system include the steering wheel, steering shaft, steering gear, drag link, steering arm, tie rod, and king pin.
When the operator turns the steering wheel, the motion is transferred via the steering shaft to produce angular movement in the pitman arm, through a set of gears. The pitman arm then transmits this angular motion to the steering arm via the drag link and tie rods. The steering arm, which is attached to the king pin (integrated into the stub axle where the wheels are mounted), influences the movement of the front wheels.
The primary function of the steering system is to control the vehicle’s direction. This is achieved by converting the rotation of the steering wheel into a change in the angle of the steering wheels’ axes through a series of links. The steering system also ensures directional stability, ensuring that the vehicle automatically returns to a straight path when the steering force is released. Additionally, the system is designed to minimize tire wear.
Steering systems can be classified based on their wheel operation: front wheel steering, rear wheel steering, or all-wheel steering.
When the operator turns the steering wheel, the motion is transmitted through the steering shaft to tire angular motion of the pitman arm, through a set of gears. The angular movement of the pitman arm is further transmitted to the steering arm through the drag link and tie rods. Steering arms are keyed to the respective king pins which are integral part of the stub axle on which wheels are mounted. The movement of the steering arm affects the angular movement of the front wheel. In another design, instead of one pitman arm

Stem cell research is one of the most important and promising areas of research in biological science in recent times. The stem cell technology has revolutionized modern biology. It is playing a major role for improving human as well as animal health by controlling number of incurable degenerative diseases and restoration of damage to organs via transplantation therapy. Stem cells are a specific group of cells that remain in an undifferentiated state and can be found in embryos, fetuses and adult individuals. Stem cells are primitive, undifferentiated cells present in almost every tissue that have the ability to differentiate into different types of tissue like bone, tendon, ligament, cartilage etc. Bone marrow stem cell is the ideal stem cell that is unspecialized and can undergo lineage specific differentiation into bone or blood cells under different signals or environment with new special function. Several verities of stem cells have been isolated and identified in vivo and in vitro. The two broad types of mammalian stem cells are embryonic stem cells that are found in blastocyst, and adult stem cells that are found in adult tissue, bone marrow.

Introduction
Stem cells are the undifferentiated cells of the body which have inherent capacity to differentiate and proliferate into any cell type under programmed command. These cells perpetuate themselves through self-renewal by programmed pathways to give rise to new adult cells (Remya et al., 2014). According to plasticity, the stem cells are categorised into totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent and unipotent. Broadly they can also be classified as embryonic stem cells and adult somatic stem cells. Totipotent stem cells are those which can give rise to all types of cells along with placental membranes whereas pluripotent stem cells give rise to all cell types except placental membranes. The multipotent set of stem cells can give rise to more than one cell type and unipotent ones can differentiate into only one type of cells. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which fall under the multipotent stem cells category, have the multilineage potential to differentiate into many mesenchymal lineages like osteocytes, chondrocytes, adipocytes etc. (Kim et. al., 2013). They can be easily isolated from the adipose tissues, bone marrows, muscles, liver, umbilical cords, lungs etc. and can be easily proliferated in vitro. MSCs were first identified from the bone marrow in a pioneering study by Fredenstein et al (1976) who isolated the bone forming progenitor cells from rat bone marrow. Although the MSCs represent very small fraction of 0.001-0.01% of total nucleated marrow cells, they can be isolated and differentiated into multiple lineages under defined culture conditions. They are generally isolated from iliac crest, tibial and femoral marrow compartments along with thoracic and lumbar spine in large animals. Stem cells have been used for cellular therapy and tissue engineering for quite a period of time owing to their regeneration potential. They are unspecialized cells with the ability to renew themselves for long periods without significant changes in their general properties. These cells under the influence of appropriate signals can differentiate into specialized cells with a phenotype distinct from that of the precursor (Kim et al., 2013). It may be that stem

Abstract

Onion (Allium cepa L.) and garlic (Allium sativum L.) are important members of the family Amaryllidaceae. Bulbs, which are the edible component in both onion and garlic grow underground and are of nutritional and medicinal importance. These underground bulb vegetables are affected by many diseases caused by different microorganisms like fungi, bacteria, nematode and viruses causing huge economic loss. Stemphylium leaf blight caused by Stemphylium vesicarium, is the major fungal disease affecting their productivity of the edible bulbs adversely.The fungus primarily attacks the leaves but can affect bulbs in storage. Initial infection is characterised by appearance of small greyish white oval spots on the leaves. These spots are often surrounded by a yellowish halo with irregular margins. Fungal pseudothecia may over-winter in contaminated plant material or may survive in the soil having plant debris and ascospores are the primary inoculums in the following season. Spores require rain or persistent dew to cause infection. This disease can spread rapidly when environmental conditions are favourable for spore development. Suitable integration of more efficient treatments like fungicides, bio agents in combination with appropriate cultural control provide better management of the Stemphylium blight disease

Advertising is a crucial tool for businesses to promote products and services to their target audience. A well-crafted advertisement not only grabs attention but also persuades potential customers to take action. Writing an effective advertisement requires a strategic approach that combines creativity, clarity, and persuasion. This chapter outlines the key steps involved in crafting a compelling advertisement

Step 1: Define the Objectiv

Before writing an advertisement, it is essential to determine its primary goal. The objective could be to increase brand awareness, generate leads, promote a new product, or drive sales. A well-defined objective ensures that the message is clear and focused

Step 2: Identify the Target Audience

Understanding the target audience is critical in crafting a message that resonates with potential customers. Consider factors such as demographics, interests, preferences, and pain points. Knowing the audience helps in selecting the right tone, language, and messaging that appeal to them.

Step 3: Craft a Compelling Headline

Advertising is a crucial tool for businesses to promote products and services to their target audience. A well-crafted advertisement not only grabs attention but also persuades potential customers to take action. Writing an effective advertisement requires a strategic approach that combines creativity, clarity, and persuasion. This chapter outlines the key steps involved in crafting a compelling advertisement.
Step 1: Define the Objective
Before writing an advertisement, it is essential to determine its primary goal. The objective could be to increase brand awareness, generate leads, promote a new product, or drive sales. A well-defined objective ensures that the message is clear and focused.
Step 2: Identify the Target Audience
Understanding the target audience is critical in crafting a message that resonates with potential customers. Consider factors such as demographics, interests, preferences, and pain points. Knowing the audience helps in selecting the right tone, language, and messaging that appeal to them.

Advertising is a crucial tool for businesses to promote products and services to their target audience. A well-crafted advertisement not only grabs attention but also persuades potential customers to take action. Writing an effective advertisement requires a strategic approach that combines creativity, clarity, and persuasion. This chapter outlines the key steps involved in crafting a compelling advertisement.
Step 1: Define the Objective
Before writing an advertisement, it is essential to determine its primary goal. The objective could be to increase brand awareness, generate leads, promote a new product, or drive sales. A well-defined objective ensures that the message is clear and focused.
Step 2: Identify the Target Audience Understanding the target audience is critical in crafting a message that resonates with potential customers. Consider factors such as demographics, interests, preferences, and pain points. Knowing the audience helps in selecting the right tone, language, and messaging that appeal to them.
Step 3: Craft a Compelling Headline
The headline is the first thing readers notice, so it must be engaging and relevant. A powerful headline
• Captures attention instantly
• Communicates the main benefit or idea
• Sparks curiosity or urgency

understanding, artistic expression, and engineering principles. Whether intended a a modest home feature or a grand commercial centerpiece, the setup of an aquarium requires detailed planning, suitable material selection, and adherence to sequential procedures. A well-executed aquarium setup not only enhances interior aesthetics but also ensures a safe and thriving environment for aquatic
organisms.
Setting up an aquarium involves much more than simply placing water and fish in a tank. It encompasses a range of critical stages, including selecting an appropriate site, installing the tank, layering substrates, arranging filtration systems, conditioning the water, aquascaping, and gradually introducing fish or plants. Each of these steps is vital in creating a self-sustaining aquatic ecosystem where fish, flora, and helpful microorganisms interact in balance.
Many beginners may underestimate the importance of tank cycling, species compatibility, or water parameter regulation—each essential for long-term aquarium health. Similarly, elements such as lighting, aeration, decorative items, and filter systems must be selected based on the intended aquarium type—be it freshwater, marine, planted, or specialized.
This section offers a step-by-step guide to the aquarium construction and setup process, emphasizing key practices for achieving both functional stability and visual appeal. Whether for leisure, education, or commercial use, proper setup is fundamental to the success and sustainability of any aquarium.

Identify main reasons and purpose of curriculum development and key areas needed by stakeholders for curriculum change. This can be done by adopting participatory methods like Focus group discussion/ field level workshops. Carry out stakeholder analysis and identify specific potential areas suggested by stakeholders to be included in the curriculum for better performance at the f ield level and their likely role in the process. In order to encourage greater stakeholder involvement invite stakeholders such as staff and students from various farm universities, field extension workers and farmers.

Good governance is crucial for the effective functioning and development of any country, including India. To ensure good governance, several steps have been undertaken in India. Here is an introduction to some of these steps;

1. Strengthening the Democratic Decentralization

The 73^rd and 74^th Amendments to the Constitution of India are pivotal in strengthening democratic decentralization in the country. These amendments, passed in 1992, provide constitutional recognition and support for local self-governance in rural and urban areas, respectively. The 73^rd and 74^th Amendments establish Panchayats (rural local bodies) and Municipalities (urban local bodies) as institutions of self-government. They empower these local bodies with the authority to plan and implement economic development programs, social justice initiatives, and the provision of essential services within their jurisdictions.

The transition from conventional to organic farming requires numerous changes. One of the biggest changes is in the mindset of the farmer. Conventional approaches often involve the use of quick-fix remedies that, unfortunately, rarely address the cause of the problem. Transitioning farmers generally spend too much time worrying about replacing synthetic input with allowable organic product instead of considering management practices based on preventative strategies. Here are a few steps new entrants should follow when making the transition to organic farming:

20.1. Understand the Basics of Organic Agriculture and the Organic Farming Standards

Since organic production systems are knowledge based, new entrants and transitional producers must become familiar with sound and sustainable agricultural practices. Transitional producers should be prepared to read appropriate information, conduct their own trials and participate in formal and informal training events. As mentioned, switching from conventional to organic farming is more than substituting synthetic materials to organic allowed materials. Organic farming is a holistic system that relies on sound practices focused on preventative strategies. Since there are often few organic remedies available to organic producers for certain problems, prevention is the key element in organic production.

Advertising is a crucial component of any marketing strategy. It helps businesses communicate their value proposition to their target audience, build brand awareness, and drive sales. However, effective advertising requires a well-thought-out strategy. In this chapter, we will explore the essential steps to creating an effective advertising strategy for marketing success. Step 1: Define Your Objectives Before launching any advertising campaign, it is essential to establish clear objectives. These objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). Common advertising objectives include: • Increasing brand awareness • Generating leads • Driving sales or conversions • Enhancing customer engagement

Advertising is a crucial component of any marketing strategy. It helps businesses communicate their value proposition to their target audience, build brand awareness, and drive sales. However, effective advertising requires a well-thought-out strategy. In this chapter, we will explore the essential steps to creating an effective advertising strategy for marketing success.
Step 1: Define Your Objectives
Before launching any advertising campaign, it is essential to establish clear objectives. These objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). Common advertising objectives include:
• Increasing brand awareness
• Generating leads
• Driving sales or conversions
• Enhancing customer engagement
• Promoting a new product or service
Step 2: Identify Your Target Audience
Understanding the target audience is fundamental to creating an effective advertising strategy. Businesses should analyze demographic, geographic, psychographic, and behavioral factors to tailor their messaging appropriately. Some key aspects to consider include:
• Age, gender, and income level
• Interests and preferences
• Buying behavior and pain points
• Preferred communication channels

Advertising is a crucial component of any marketing strategy. It helps businesses communicate their value proposition to their target audience, build brand awareness, and drive sales. However, effective advertising requires a well-thought-out strategy. In this chapter, we will explore the essential steps to creating an effective advertising strategy for marketing success.
Step 1: Define Your Objectives
Before launching any advertising campaign, it is essential to establish clear objectives. These objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). Common advertising objectives include:
• Increasing brand awareness
• Generating leads
• Driving sales or conversions
• Enhancing customer engagement
• Promoting a new product or service
Step 2: Identify Your Target Audience
Understanding the target audience is fundamental to creating an effective advertising strategy. Businesses should analyze demographic, geographic, psychographic, and behavioral factors to tailor their messaging appropriately. Some key aspects to consider include:
• Age, gender, and income level
• Interests and preferences
• Buying behavior and pain points
• Preferred communication channels

A successful and sustainable farmer producer organization (FPO) is an entity that is owned and managed by farmers, and is focused on improving their livelihoods through sustainable and profitable agricultural practices. Such an organization operates with a long-term vision, and is able to adapt to changing circumstances in the agricultural sector. Viability, stability and sustainability are the three degrees of permanency in business. Analysis of these three is very important for any business and entrepreneurs.

5.1. Viability

viability of a business indicates that it is (or has the chance to be) successful. A viable firm is profitable, which indicates that it generates more income than it spends on operating expenses. It is tough to resurrect a failing firm. The company would need to either boost income or lower expenditures. 

Objectives

To acquaint with the various methods of sterilization and disinfection used in laboratory animals.

Materials Required

Boiler, autoclave, hot air oven, chemical disinfection.

Sterilization

It is a process of the complete removal or destruction of living organisms including viruses, vegetative forms and spores. Sterilization is an absolute term. Nothing can be “partially sterile’’, either, it is or it is ‘not’. An article must be protected from recontamination after sterilization.

Introduction
Sterilization of culture media, containers, and instruments is crucial in bacteriological work to ensure the isolation and maintenance of pure cultures. Sterilization and sanitization are essential processes in a microbiology lab to prevent contamination and ensure accurate results. Sterilization refers to the complete elimination of all microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and spores, using methods like autoclaving, dry heat, filtration, and chemical agents. Sanitization, on the other hand, reduces microbial load to a safe level through cleaning and disinfection using alcohols, detergents, and UV light. These practices maintain aseptic conditions, protect lab personnel, and preserve sample integrity. Proper sterilization and sanitization are fundamental to microbiological research, clinical diagnostics, and industrial applications, ensuring reliable and reproducible experimental outcomes.
Preparations for Sterilization Before sterilization, cleaned and dried test tubes and flasks should be carefully plugged with clean, non-absorbent cotton. Pipettes should also be plugged at
the mouth end, and the plugs should remain in place during use to minimize oral contamination. Cotton plugs provide sufficient ventilation for bacterial growth while preventing external contamination.

Introduction

Microbes like all other living beings require suitable nutrients as well as favourable environment like pH, osmotic pressure, temperature, humidity etc. for growth. The substrate/food base which fulfills any of these requirements and supports the growth of an organism is called culture medium. Selection of a medium to grow a particular type of microorganism is extremely important, as the microbes vary in their nutritional requirements. Thus, different media are used for different groups of microbes. The following are the main types of media:

a) Natural/Empirical media: These are made up of natural substrates, such as herbaceous or woody stems, seeds, leaves, corn meal, wheat germ, and oatmeal etc.The exact chemical composition of this media is not known. e.g. Nutrient agar

b) Semi-synthetic media: 

Sterilization Techniques

Sterilization: All the materials, e.g., vessels, instruments, medium, explants, etc., used in culture work must be freed from microbes. This can be achieved by one of the following approaches:

Sterilization is a process of killing all microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi and their spores, and viruses from animate or inanimate surfaces with the use of either physical or chemical agents. Joseph Lister first gave antiseptic principle in 1867.

Sterilization is defined as the process by which an article, surface or medium is freed of all living microorganisms either in the vegetative or spore state.

Disinfection means the destruction or removal of all pathogenic organisms, or organisms capable of giving rise to infection. Chemical disinfectants which can be safely applied to skin or mucous membrane and are used to prevent infection by inhibiting the growth of bacteria are called antiseptics.

Five main methods are used for sterilization. 1. Red heat (flaming) 2. Dry heat (hot air) 3. Moist heat 4. Filtration 5. Radiation.

The killing effect of dry heat is due to protein denaturation, oxidative damage and toxic effect of elevated levels of electrolytes. The lethal effect of moist heat is due to the denaturation and coagulation of protein. In the case of spore, steam condenses on it, increasing its water content with ultimate hydrolysis and breakdown of the bacterial protein.

Sterilization is a thermal process aimed at destroying all microorganisms and microbial spores in milk, ensuring the product is microbiologically safe and shelf-stable at room temperature for extended periods. It is primarily used in the production of sterilized milk and evaporated milk, with typical conditions involving heating at 116°C for 15 minutes. This process kills all microorganisms and also inactivates all milk enzymes, including plasmin, which might otherwise contribute to spoilage during storage. However, enzymes produced by psychrotrophic bacteria should not be present in raw milk, as they are highly heat-stable and may remain active even after sterilization. Sterilized milk can be stored at room temperature for longer period. Sterilization kills all microorganisms and inactivates all microbial spores that may germinate under the storage conditions of the product in the market.
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) define “sterilization” in relation to milk and milk products as the process of heating the product in a sealed container continuously to at least 115°C for 15 minutes. This treatment ensures that the milk can be preserved at room temperature for a period of not less than 30 days.
In-bottle sterilised milk is a shelf-stable dairy product produced by sealing milk in glass bottles and subjecting it to high-temperature heat treatment. Typically, the milk is heated to temperatures ranging from 110°C to 121°C for 15 to 30 minutes. This process effectively destroys all vegetative microorganisms and bacterial spores, making the milk microbiologically safe and extending its shelf life up to 6–9 months without refrigeration. The heating is usually done in batch retorts or autoclaves after the milk has been bottled and sealed. Although the process ensures safety, it often leads to a slight cooked flavour and some nutritional losses, particularly in heat-sensitive vitamins such as vitamin B1 and vitamin C.

Sterols are derivatives of a complex ring system called cyclopentano perhydro phenanthrene. The term sterol means solid alcohol. Sterols, though alcohols, are solids with a M.P. of 100-120^ºC. The 27 carbon atoms impart hydrocarbon character, namely, solubility in non-polar solvents. Free sterols in plants are mono hydroxy  secondary alcohols varying in the constitution of methyl or ethyl group and in double bonds. Cholesterol, ergosterol, bile acids, sex harmones, cortical harmones and D-vitamins are some of the sterol derivatives.
   
The most widely distributed sterols in higher plants are the C₂₉ sterols, stigmasterol, β sitosterol and g sitosterol. Together, they are called steroids. In plants, steroids are present as glycosides. Cholesterol was first isolated from gall stones. The word cholesterol means “solid alcohol from bile”. Bile is a fluid which is formed and stored in the gall bladder. It aids in the digestion of fats in the digestive tract. Sterols form an important group among the steroids. Unsaturated steroids with most of the skeleton of cholestane containing a 3β-hydroxyl group and an aliphatic side chain of 8 or more carbon atoms attached to position 17 form the group of sterols.

1. Introduction

The global population is very cautious about gaining weight and diabetics. Calorie less and sugar free substances are gaining momentum in food sector. The miracle plant stevia is very fit in this scenario as it is both zero calorie and sugar free and one more additional benefit that it is completely natural. Stevia rebaudiana Bert. belonging to the family asteraceae has been used in many countries for thousands of years as a source of natural sweetener eg., in Paraguay and Brazil Central America, Thailand, Korea and China (Megeji et al., 2005, Sivaram and Mukundan, 2003; Jain et al., 2009). It is also known as sweet herb, sweet leaf, honey leaf, candy leaf, honey yerba (Carakostas et al., 2008) and meeti tulsi. It possesses an extensive root system and brittle stems producing small, elliptic leaves. In natural conditions S. rebaudiana grows in a form of a shrub and reaches even 1 m of height. Leaves are the major economic part. They are sessile and oppositely arranged, lanceolate to oblancoelate in shape, and are serrated above the middle. Trichome structures on the leaf surface are of two different sizes, one large and one small (Shaffert and Chetobar 1994). The white florets are, borne in small corymbs of 2–6 in number. Corymbs are arranged in panicles. Dr. Moises Santiago Bertoni discovered this plant in 1888 at Paraguay. In 1905, the plant was scientifically named as S. rebaudiana after a Paraguayan chemist Dr. Rebaudi. (Gupta et al., 2013). The active components of Stevia i.e., steviol glycosides (SGs) includes rebaudioside A (Reb A), rebaudioside C and stevioside (ST) that are 250-300 times sweeter than sugar (Chalapathi & Thimmegowda 1997). Stevia is a short-day plant and its flowering is induced when days are shorter. Long photoperiods stimulates leaf growth and steviol glycoside content. The plant can survive only mild winters of its native regions. It cannot survive in waterlogged areas. Stevia extracts can be used in a wide variety of food and beverage applications. Individual usages and use levels may vary depending on the country. They act synergistically when used in combination with other sweeteners. The higher market demand favors the cultivation and commercialization of this particular species.

15.1. Origin and distribution

• Also known as Cheeni tulsi or Mou tulsi.

• Originated from Seirra Amambay in North eastern Paraguay and adjacent areas in Bolivia and Brazil.

• Widely distributed in U SA and Brazil.

15.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - leaves

• Candy leaf

• Major constituents-Stevioside (3 to 10%), rebaudiside-A (13%), rebaudiside- B and C

Data mining is a powerful technology which helps in extracting future trends and behaviour from large databases. Thereby it helps decision makers to make knowledge-driven decisions. One common form of real-world data is time series. The suitable models are required to analyze time series data. This chapter provides a short introduction to stochastic system, uncertainty, basic statistics time series analysis and some stochastic models.

Stock or Gillyflower (Matthiola spp.) belongs to family Brassicaceae. It is a hardy annual, biennial and perennial plant, flowering in terminal clusters. Matthiola incana is ornamentally important and grown for various purposes i.e. cut flower, fragrance, pot culture, etc. This species develops a woody base in areas where it grows as a biennial or short-lived perennial, hence the name of stock. Generic name “Matthiola” was given in the honour of “Dr. Pietro Andrea Gregoria Matthiole” (1501-1577), personal physician of Emperor Maximilian of Austria. “Incana” means “hairy or gray-white” in reference to plant leaves. It exists as both single and double forms and is valued for fragrant flowers that can be used as fresh or dried cut flower. They are excellent pot plants for the greenhouse in winter and spring and provide good cut flowers. Flowers are well arranged on a long column and colours are variable from white to rose, crimson, purple, yellow, mauve, pink, etc. The highly fragrant flowers are used as a garnish, especially with sweet deserts. Many old names were given to Matthiola incana including stocks, sea stocks, wallflowers and wall or gillyflowers.

Stock or Gillyflower (Matthiola spp.) belongs to family Brassicaceae. It is a hardy annual, biennial and perennial plant, flowering in terminal clusters. Matthiola incana is ornamentally important and grown for various purposes i.e. cut flower, fragrance, pot culture, etc. This species develops a woody base in areas where it grows as a biennial or short-lived perennial, hence the name of stock. Generic name “Matthiola” was given in the honour of “Dr. Pietro Andrea Gregoria Matthiole” (1501-1577), personal physician of Emperor Maximilian of Austria. “Incana” means “hairy or gray-white” in reference to plant leaves. It exists as both single and double forms and is valued for fragrant flowers that can be used as fresh or dried cut flower. They are excellent pot plants for the greenhouse in winter and spring and provide good cut flowers. Flowers are well arranged on a long column and colours are variable from white to rose, crimson, purple, yellow, mauve, pink, etc. The highly fragrant flowers are used as a garnish, especially with sweet deserts. Many old names were given to Matthiola incana including stocks, sea stocks, wallflowers and wall or gillyflowers.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Matthiola incana is native to the Iberian Peninsula, France, the Apennine Peninsula, the Balkan Peninsula, the British Isles, Turkey and Cyprus. According to Greuter et al. (1986), four species of Matthiola are known in Sicily and its surroundings: M. fruticulosa(L.) Maire, M. incana (L.) R. Br. & Ait., M. tricuspidata (L.) R. Br. and M. sinuata (L.)R. Br. Unlike its congeners, which only have a single taxon in this archipelago,M. incana consists of three infra-specific subdivisions (Lojacono-Pojero, 1888 and Greuter et al. 1986): ssp. incana (L.) R. Br., which is widespread in other insular and continental Mediterranean enclaves, and the narrow endemics ssp. pulchella (Conti) Greuter & Burdet (confined to the islet of Pantelleria) and ssp. rupestris (Raf.) Nyman, distributed in the surroundings of Palermo (Sicily) and in the Aeolids, the Egadian and Ustica, respectively (Raimondo et al. 1994).

Stock earlier known as Leucoium album or Viola alba was later renamed as Mattiola after Dr. Mattioli, an Italian physician and botanist. This was being grown by the ancient Greeks and was linked for its frangrance. In the wild state, stocks are found in the Mediterranean, Egypt, South Europe and in South Africa and two species, Mattiola incana and M. sinuate are among the rare British natives. Ruth et al. (2009) also reported that Matthiola is widespread in the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian regions. Both single and double forms were grown in Europe from 10^th century onwards and became popular garden flowers. Apart from its countries of origin, Matthiola incana can be found in Australia, Austria, Bolivia, Bulgaria, China, Colombia, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mexico, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Peru, Romania, Sweden, United Kingdom and the United States.

INTRODUCTION

Stock or Gilly flower is an annual or biennial plant flowering in terminal clusters. It exists as both single and double forms and is valued for fragrant flowers that can be used as fresh or dried cut flower. Stocks are a most valuable race of garden plants for they are easy to grow and can be in bloom during the greater part of the year. They are excellent pot plants for the greenhouse in winter and spring and provide good cut flowers. Flowers are well arranged on a long column and the colours are variable from white to rose, crimson, purple, yellow, mauve, pink, etc. Seeds of stock are aphrodisiac, bitter, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant and are used as tonic. An infusion has been used in the treatment of cancer and when mixed with wine, it has been used as an antidote to poisonous bites. The highly fragrant flowers are used as a garnish, especially with sweet deserts.

Stock, primarily represented by Matthiola species, is an important cool-season cut flower valued for attractive colours and fragrance. This chapter covers its origin, taxonomy, botanical description, genetics and commercially important series and cultivars. It explains climate, soil, propagation, nursery raising, planting, spacing, irrigation, nutrition and greenhouse production. Special attention is given to maintaining strong stems and quality flowers, as well as avoiding excessive nitrogen that can result in weak growth. Harvesting, postharvest management, ethylene control, vase-life extension and yield are discussed. The chapter provides practical information for producing commercially valuable stock flowers for domestic and specialized markets.

Sverdrup’s contribution could not take into account of the western boundary and so could not explain about the circulation what happened along the west coast of the ocean. Thus his circulation, as shown in Fig.8.1c in the chapter 8, is incomplete. This problem was solved by an American Oceanographer, Henry Stommel, in 1948.

The stone fruit crops namely peach, Prunus persica, plum, Prunus domestica, apricot, Prunus armeniaca, almond, Prunus dulcis and walnut, Juglans regia are grown in wide range of climatic conditions ranging from subtropical to temperate regions. Peach and plum are also cultivated in mid and low hills in addition to temperate regions. Peach is the major stone fruit crop followed by plum, apricot and cherry. Walnut and almond on the other hand are major nut crops. A number of insect pests (~80) infest stone and nut fruits in various stages of the tree growth and development and cause direct and indirect loss out. Only few pests are of economic concern, the details of which are given hereunder

Peach leaf curling aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.), Aphididae: Hemiptera

It is a polyphagous pest reported infesting 175 plant species of 115 genera of 49 families. It is a regular and key pest of stone fruits viz. peach, nectarine, plum, apricot and almond and

32 – 33. Agronomic practices for fodder production: Feeding green forages to animal is economic and better for animal health and production. To get green forage throughout the year, it is necessary to sow the crop at proper time and also to harvest it at a proper stage. According to season, following agronomical practices may be followed:
(a) Rabi crops: Berseem, Lucerne, Oat, Mustard, Sugarcane tops
(b) Zaid crops: Chari, Maize, Sorghum, Cow pea, Guar.
(c) Kharif crops: Maize, Sorghum, Cow pea, Sudan grass, Napier, Para grass.
Berseem and Lucerne (legumes) are best forages for milk production. Berseem is called as king and Lucerne as queen of the fodder crops. Maize, Sorghum, Oat (non – legumes) at flowering stage are good forages. Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass, Para grass and other green grasses are palatable, but poorer in nutritive value than legumes and many non – leguminous forages. Straws and
stovers are poor quality roughages. Average voluntary intake of legumes is 2.0 kg; Non legumes and other grasses have 2.25 kg; while of straws, stovers is only 1.5 kg Dry Matter / 100 kg body weight.

1. Introduction

 Mushrooms have been part of man’s diet for centuries (Rajarathnam and Shashirekha, 2003). Mushrooms grow on wide range of agro-residues, biodegrade and biotransform them into edible fruiting bodies (Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1988a; 1988b; 1990; Zakia Bano and Rajarathnam, 1988; Zakia Bano et al., 1993; Rajarathnam et al., 1998). Their post-harvest life is very ephemeral at room temperature (Rajarathnam et al., 1983) due to delicate flavor (Rajarathnam et al., 1990) and high moisture content, with a range of chemical constituents (Zakia Bano and Rajarathnam, 1986; 1982; 1988; Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1990; Rajarathnam et al., 1983; 1992). Since, they contain large quantities of water and therefore suffer considerable weight loss during transportation and storage, causes serious economic losses, due to reductions in weight and quality (Gray, 1970). When the supply of water, organic substances and minerals are cut off at harvest, the fresh mushroom enters a deterioration or perishable phase. Cap opening and stem elongation are the usual symptoms of senescence constituting visible evidence of deterioration. At room temperature, the shelf-life of mushrooms cannot be for more than 24 h (Rajarathnam et al., 1983). During this period, there are considerable changes in color, texture and taste. In addition, water is continuously being lost as a result of transpiration and respiration. Additional loss occurs from surface cracks and bruises that develop during growth and handling (Salunkhe et al, 1991). Fresh mushrooms are white or light buff, with no dark marks on either the cap or stem. The veil is closed and the gills are not visible. The upper surface of the caps should be strongly convex and stems should be plump rather than elongated. Mushrooms are grown on compost, usually in mushroom houses where the temperature and humidity can be controlled. Eventually after harvest, the mushrooms can never be able to withstand any increase in temperature and decrease in relative humidity. Mushrooms are commercially preferred at the immature stage characterized by closed caps, invisible lamellae, round stipe and light color. Agaricus development is classified into various stages (Table 1). Thus, the concept of physiology of fresh mushrooms being very complicated, bears a great impact on the delicate problem of extending the storage life. The various means and methods studied and adopted by various researchers to aim at extended storage life of fresh produce, underlined by its physical, chemical and biochemical properties and also development of value added products are critically evaluated.

Storage is one of the most important aspects of post harvest handling of fruits and vegetables. The main objective of storage is to extend storage life of fruits and vegetables and increase their period of availability. A substantial quantity of fruits go waste in India due to lack of proper storage facilities. Storage of fruits and vegetables is practiced for various reasons. Proper post harvest handling of fresh horticultural produce helps in extending  period of availability of wide range of  fruits and vegetables round the year, prevention of seasonal market gluts, orderly marketing, better return to grower and  preservation of  nutritional qualities. The   long  term  storage  of  fruits  and  vegetables is expensive and requires high level of technical  knowledge of crop. However, an orderly marketing reduces storage period considerably. 

Postharvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground, or separated from its parent plant, it begins to deteriorate. Postharvest activities include harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transportation and marketing. Losses of horticultural produce are a major problem in the postharvest chain. The diseases which develop on harvested parts of the plants like seeds, fruits and also on vegetables are the postharvested diseases. The amount or extent of damage depends mainly on the pathogen(s) involved, on the condition of the products and the condition of storage. Major tips to avoid postharvest losses include Tips to avoid postharvest losses include assessing maturity, to check your water quality, to check water temperature, avoid injury, keep the produce cool and proper storage.

“Storage” means the phase of the postharvest system during which the products are kept in such a way as to guarantee food security other than during periods of agricultural production at the marketing level, to balance the supply and demand of agricultural products, thereby stabilizing market prices. Grain, which includes dry kitchen ingredients such as flour, rice, millet, couscous, cornmeal, and so on, can be stored in rigid sealed containers to prevent moisture contamination or insect or rodent infestation. For kitchen use, glass containers are the most traditional method. Maturity indices are the sign or indication the readiness of the commodity for harvest. It is the basis for determining harvest date. Postharvest losses occur between harvest and the moment of human consumption. They include on-farm losses, such as when grain is threshed, winnowed, and dried, as well as losses along the chain during transportation, storage, and processing.

11.1. Storage fungi

Store fungi include all species of Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.

Aspergillus flavus, A. candidus, A. niger, A. parasiticus, A. repens, A. rubber, A. versicolor, etc. Penicillia etc

Penicillia are more prevalent in cooler climate.

7.1. Storage

• Helpful in checking market glut, providing wide selection of fruits, vegetables and flowers to consumer through most part of year i.e. especially during off season.

• Helps in orderly marketing and increases profit to producers/farmers.

• Done to maintain freshness, quality, reduce spoilage and extend their usefulness.

• Huge post-harvest losses due to lack of proper storage facilities.

• Basic principle of storage - to reduce rate of physiological processes like respiration, transpiration, ripening and other biochemical changes.

• Proper storage aims to control disease infection and preserve best quality for consumers.

• Chemical used to extend the shelf life and quality of produce

Introduction
• The main objective of food preservation is to avoid food spoilage • So, the underlying principle behind all the meat preservation technique is providing adverse conditions for the growth and survival of the harmful microbials and such adverse conditions may be provided in the from of heat, cold, high level of salt, increasing acidity or removal of water/ oxygen
• Meat can be preserved by many techniques such as drying, heating, low temperature, curing, addition of chemicals or by application of irradiation and high pressure
• Addition of chemical i.e. chemical preservation which is accomplished by smoking is generally done after salting and pickling of meat
Physical changes in stored raw meat
1. Shrinkage
2. Sweating
3. Bloom loss