eChapters

Management of paddy straw is one of the important problems being faced by the farmers. Burning of rice straw in the field is the traditional method being practiced by most of the farmers, which causes atmospheric pollution and nutrient loss. There are three options available to manage the straw viz. i) burning the straw in the field, ii) collecting/baling the straw from the field, and incorporation of straw in the field. If rice straw is not burnt then baling may provide an attractive economic environmentally safe option. Manual collection of paddy straw is a laborious job and also storing the large volume of straw is another problem. As for as paddy straw is concerned, it has higher silica content so animals do not prefer it.

Genus : Fragaria
Species : ananassa Duch.
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n=14, 25, 42, 56

Strawberry is relatively small genus comprising of usually low perennial creeping herbs, wild forms found wide spread in temperate and subtropical parts of the world. Cultivated strawberry is highly polymorphic and wide range of diversity present in the wild germplasm has resulted in the development of present day strawberry. Today it is grown throughout the world and is rated high in the list of liked foods. The breeders have contributed enormously towards the development of cultivars with wide adaptability and through the incorporation of desired traits helped to improve its quality dramatically over its wild forms. Today strawberry is known for its distinct delicate flavour, attractive fruit shape and colour and has made a special niche in the soft fruits culture. The cultivated strawberry Fragaria x ananassa Duch has resulted from the crossing of two local America species F. chiloensis (L) Duch. and F.virgianana, Duch.

Fragaria is a genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, commonly known as strawberries for their edible fruits. It is a low perennial creeping herb which is widely grown in temperate and subtropical regions of the world.

There are more than 20 described species and many hybrids and cultivars. Cultivated strawberries are based on two species, Fragaria chiloensis (L) Duch., native to the west coast of North America and Fragaria virginia Duch., native to eastern coast of North America. Hybrids of these two species are ancestors to all the modern strawberries. The most common strawberries grown commercially are cultivars of the garden strawberry, a hybrid known as Fragaria × ananassa. Strawberries have a taste that varies by cultivar, and ranges from quite sweet to rather tart. Strawberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world.

The major producers of strawberries are USA, Mexico, Poland, Japan, Italy, Israel, Australia, New Zealand and Turkey. In India it was introduced during 1960’s and is grown to a limited extent in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and some parts of southern India (Karnataka and Ooty).

Cultivars/Varieites: Tioga, Tufts, Surecrop, Fresno, Toro, Heidi, Hood, Northwest, Puget Beauty, Olympus, Ozark Beauty.

1. Introduction

The modern cultivated strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) is one of the most delicious, refreshing and soft fruits of the world. Worldwide it is also the most widely distributed fruit-crop due to its genotypic diversity, highly heterozygous nature and broad range of environmental adaptation. The plant is cherished in gardens and in commercial fields for its beautiful red fruit that has a tentalizing aroma (Sharma, 2002; Sharma and Sharma, 2004). Being a rich source of vitamins and minerals coupled with delicate flavour, strawberry has now become an important table-fruit of millions of people around the globe. It is amongst the few fruit crops, which gives quicker and very high returns per unit area on capital investment, as the crop is ready for harvesting within 6 months of planting. However, due to several technological advances in its cultivation like, introduction of day-neutral cultivars, and protected cultivation, strawberries remain available as fresh fruit throughout the year.

At present, strawberry is grown in wide climatic zones, extending to temperate, Mediterranean, sub-tropical and taiga zones (Sharma, 2002; Sharma and Sharma, 2004). Its cultivation is influenced by the specific regional adaptations due to critical photoperiods and temperature requirements and thus its cultural systems are highly variable. Due to the constant efforts of strawberry breeders, the world-wide interest for strawberry cultivation has boosted its production tremendously, which has resulted in widespread popularity of strawberry in the last 50 years.

STRAWBERRY

White grubs and cut worms

These insects cut the roots and stems of young plants.
 
Hairy caterpillars

Defoliate plants during June-July

1) Leaf Spot
(Mycosphaerella fragariae teleomorph, Ramularia brunnea Peck anamorph). Disease Symptoms
• Older leaves usually show purple spots (3-6 mm in diameter) on the upper surface, sometimes with a slightly darker halo.
• As the spots mature, they become white to gray and surrounded by a brownish halo.
• A typical lesions, uniformly brown without darker border or lighter centers, may form on young leaves.
• Later on, the whole leaf is covered by numerous lesions and become chlorotic, withered and die.
• Fruits are generally not directly infected, but the loss of foliage can reduce their quality and yield (Fig-1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Ascomycota
Class : Dothideomycetes

Strawberries one of the best fruits of the world are native to North America. Strawberry fruits are aggregates made up of several small fruits, each with one seed called an achene. The flesh of the strawberry is actually an enlarged receptacle, non-reproductive material. The word strawberry comes from the old English streawberige, most likely because the plant sends out runners which could be linked to pieces of straw. The name Strawberry was also derived from the berries that are “strewn” about on the plants, and “strewn berry” eventually became “Strawberry”. Strawberry is a delicious fruit taken fresh in several ways. It also makes excellent ice cream and jam on account of its rich aroma. 

M.K. Mahawar⁴

Scientist, ICAR- Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai Maharashtra

Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) is a man made fruit belong to family Rosaceae. Due to high nutritive value and market potential, this fruit is being grown by small and marginal farmers. This is the only fruit which gives quickest return in shortest time 100 to 120 days only than any other fruit which usually take 3 to 5 year in giving return. Farmers are showing their keen interest to grow this crop in all part of country due to market value. Strawberry has a unique place among all the berry fruits because of its charming red color and high nutritive value

It is known by different names such as Ramularia leaf spot, rust, bird’s eye spot, grey spots, and white spot. It mostly attacks leaves but can also attack fruit stalks and also fruits.

• Fragaria chiloensis × Fragaria virginiana (Diploid species) is the artificial man – made hybrid.
• Monoecious is a quick growing fruit plant and takes short span of the day to grow.
• It is a low growing perennial herb.
• It is one of the best fruit crops for the kitchen garden.
• Strawberry is a complete fruit with 98% of edible portions.
• It is rich in vitamin-C and iron.
• Ethyl ester i.e., ethyl butanoate and ethyl hexanoate are responsible for the flavour of strawberry fruit:
• Indian wild strawberry Fragaria vasca.
• Hermaphroditism is much more common in Fragaria chiloensis
• Micro propagation was first started in this fruit.
• The flowers, generally white, are borne in small clusters.
• Both self and cross - pollination occur in this fruit crop.
• Honeybees are the major pollinators.
• Mulching is an important cultural operation in strawberry cultivation.

8.1 Introduction

The garden strawberry (or simply strawberry) is one of the most preferred soft and attractive, tasty and nutritious fruit with a distinct and pleasant aroma, and delicate flavour. The fruit of strawberry is technically known as an accessory fruit and the fleshy part is derived not from the ovaries (achenes) but from receptacle. The common cultivated strawberry (Fragaria ×ananassa Duch.) is a widely grown hybrid plant resulting from the cross between two American species, Fragaria chiloensis of western North and South America and Fragaria virginiana of eastern North America. Its name has been derived from farmers mulching called “Straw”, earlier the strawberries were just planted for medicinal purpose but later on Carlus Linneaus for the first time introduced strawberry as edible fruit (Lieten et al., 1995). Strawberry is herbaceous perennial. It is an aggregate accessory fruit (not a berry indeed), meaning that the fleshy part is derived not from the ovaries of the flower but from the receptacle, that holds the ovaries. Each apparent seed (properly named achene) on the outside of the fruit is actually one of the ovaries of the flower, with a seed inside it. This fruit is widely appreciated for its characteristic aroma, bright red colour, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is consumed in large quantities, either fresh or in prepared foods such as preserves, fruit juice, pies, ice creams, milk shakes, and other desserts (FAO, 2012).

Straws consist of the stems and leaves that remain after the threshing of mature seeds. These materials are characterized by their high fiber content and lignin, while offering minimal nutritional benefits. Straws are primarily utilized as feed for ruminants, rather than for monogastric animals such as pigs or poultry.
Paddy and wheat straw: These are byproducts of grain harvesting and are commonly used as a primary feed source for cattle and buffalo. Their nutritional profile is low, with approximately 3-5% CP and 40% TDN. They are deficient in essential minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, and proteins. Paddy straw contains about 6-7% lignin in its dry matter, which is lower than that found in other cereal straws. However, it has a high ash content (17% of dry matter) and elevated silica levels. Notably, the stems of paddy straw are more digestible than the leaves. The addition of urea can enhance the feeding value of straw, although the high lignin content may diminish its palatability. Urea treated rice straw contains around 8.1-9.5% CP (normal level is 3.5-5.3%) where as urea treated wheat straw contains around 8.5-9% CP (normal CP is 2.63-4.20%). Additionally, paddy straw contains significant amounts of oxalic acid, which can hinder calcium absorption in the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants, while also contributing bulk to their diet.
Barley straw: It has a nutritive value comparable to that of oat straw, but it presents challenges due to the presence of barbed beards. Its composition includes 0.30% DCP and 48% TDN.
Oat straw: It is regarded as one of the superior options for cattle feed, being soft, palatable and more nutrient-rich than other straw types. On average, it contains 0.3% DCP, 48% TDN, 0.38% Ca and 0.07% P.
Pulses straw: These includes varieties such as black gram, green gram, moth bean, pigeon pea and cow pea, is relatively palatable and nutritious for cattle. Among these, black gram, green gram and moth bean straws are particularly noted for their palatability and nutritional value. While the energy content of these straws is similar to that of cereal straws, they tend to provide a better
source of digestible protein. For high milk-producing cattle, supplementation with energy-dense feeds like cereal grains is often necessary.

5.1 Introduction

A steam can be defined as a flow channel in to which the surface runoff flowing over the land surfaces and base flow/ground flow flowing below the ground surfaces meet. It receives the total flow from a specified basin. Streamflow representing the runoff phase of the hydrologic cycle is the most important basic data for hydrologic studies. Interestingly, stream flow is the only part of the hydrologic cycle that can be measured accurately. Stream flow is a historical data and like rainfall and runoff, it is a stochastic hydrologic variable. It is also called as discharge or rate of flow. Discharge is defined as the volume of water flowing through a cross section in a unit time.

SYNOPSIS

In all probability the ancient farmer’s market originated on the streets of villages and later on, on the streets of towns. The street food survived through decades and centuries and now it has assumed its new role in fulfilling the readymade food demand of the working people of mega cities. The street food has now more relevance to the growing urban population. With the lapse of time and migration people to the cities, the business and activities of street food got expanded in qualitative and quantitative terms worldwide.

Street Foods-An Introduction

The National Policy on Urban Street Vendors (2004) defines street vendor as a person who offers goods for sale to the public without having a permanent built-up structure but with a temporary static structure or mobile stall (or head load). Street vendors may be stationary occupying space on the pavements or other public/private areas, or may be mobile in the sense that they move from place to place carrying their wares on push carts or cycles or baskets on their heads, or may sell their wares in moving trains and buses. The total number of street vendors in India has been estimated to be ten million and the number of street food vendors has increased sharply in the past few years (Bhowmik 2005).

The preparation and sale of street food is an age-old activity with historical roots and complex socio-economic and cultural implications. Street food vendors are mostly outside the regulation of the governments and unregistered thus making them an informal sector. Similar to most other informal sector enterprises street food operations too are carried out with minimal investment, infrastructure and as familial operations. Street food outlets are seen mushrooming at crowded public places like bus stands, cinema halls, market areas and parks. They operate as temporary structures or as pushcarts parked near the roadside or at pavements. Most street food vendors operate their food stands alone and are able to generate sufficient income for sustenance.

National journals play a crucial role in the dissemination of regionally relevant research, particularly in specialized fields such as agricultural sciences. These journals act as accessible platforms for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to share findings, innovations, and solutions tailored to local contexts. Strengthening national journals is essential for fostering knowledge exchange, promoting inclusivity in scientific communication, and addressing the unique challenges faced by different regions (Fig. 12.1).
This chapter explores strategies for improving the quality, visibility, and credibility of national journals, with examples from countries across the globe, including those outside North America and Europe. Case studies of successful initiatives are included to illustrate best practices for empowering local publishing platforms, with a particular focus on non-English publications.
12.1. The Importance of National Journals in Agricultural Sciences
Agricultural sciences are inherently context-dependent. Local factors such as climate, soil type, cropping systems, and socioeconomic conditions influence the challenges faced by farmers and the solutions that are most effective. National journals provide a vital medium for addressing these region-specific issues, enabling researchers to publish studies that may not align with the broader focus of international journals. Furthermore, these journals often cater to the immediate needs of local policymakers, extension workers, and educators, ensuring that research findings are translated into actionable outcomes.

Introduction
AMR is a critical global problem that affects human, environmental, and animal health. AMR is a complex problem; it is necessary to look at it from different disciplines to frame it within the One Health approach [Shrestha,2018].The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified AMR as a top ten global public health threat.Globally, there were an estimated 4.95 million deaths associated with bacterial AMR in 2019, including 1.27 million deaths attributable to bacterial AMR [O’Neill, J. (2016)]. The economic impact is equally alarming. The World Bank projects that AMR could lead to an additional US$ 1 trillion in healthcare costs by 2050, and over US$ 1 trillion in annual gross domestic product (GDP) losses by 2030.The One Health approach is defined as a joint effort of various disciplines that come together to provide solutions for human, animal, and environmental health. AMR is linked to each of these three components due to the irresponsible and excessive use of antimicrobials in various sectors (agriculture, cattle raising, and human medicine). Under the pressure of antimicrobial selection, bacteria acquire resistance genes and mobile genetic elements that can spread to other bacteria of the same or different genus. When bacteria acquire resistance to antimicrobials, they also acquire a greater ability to proliferate in animals, humans, and the natural world. Mismanagement of antimicrobials, inadequate infection control, agricultural debris, contaminants in the environment, and migration of people and animals infected with resistant bacteria facilitate the spread of resistance [Collignon,et.,al,2018]. AMR represents a global public health problem, for which epidemiological surveillance systems have been established, aiming to promote collaborations directed at the well-being of human and ani mal health and the balance of the ecosystem. Several international organizations (The World Organisation for Animal Health [OIE], WHO, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO]) have joined forces to develop a Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance-WHO. Action taken in this plan included understanding the AMR from surveillance and research. The advisory group established guidelines for AMR surveillance to ensure all countries implement integrated surveillance, which will cover the use and consumption of antimicrobials in the human and animal population. These guide lines will provide a clear understanding of how AMR spreads in different settings and specific areas. It will allow to study the correlation between AMR and antimicrobial use in a different setting (animals, humans, and environment) and to assess the effect of interventions within and between sectors [W.H.O 2015,2017].

Abstract

We are working with Soliga farmers and introducing simple ‘organic’ technologies to increase yields, diversify the farms, and conserve soil and water.  Introducing these technologies depends on a strategy of using on-farm trials for low-risk interventions and field-station trials for high-risk interventions. Low-risk interventions include the use of contour row-sowing rather than broadcast sowing, improved access to traditional varieties of seeds, and composting practices. The relatively high-risk interventions are to incorporate locally grafted high-yielding amla and related fruit trees, and selecting high-yielding local crop varieties, and crop rotation. All interventions were aimed to strengthen on-farm capacities, improve sustainable traditional technologies and enhancement of livelihood security.

29.1 INTRODUCTION

Some historians believe that it was women who first domesticated crop plants and thereby initiated the art and science of farming. While men went out hunting in search of food, women started collecting seeds from the native flora and began cultivating those of interest from the point of view of food, feed, fodder, fibre and fuel. This view is strengthened by the fact that women have been traditionally seed selectors. Even today this tradition has continued in many parts of the developing world. Women have played and continue to play a pivotal role in the conservation of basic life support system such as land, water, flora and fauna. They have protected the health of the soil through organic recycling and promoted crop security through the maintenance of varietal diversity and genetic resistance. In many hill and remote areas of developing countries such as Himalyan region, agriculture is largely in hands of women. Men tend to go to towns and cities in search of salaried jobs for fulfilment of family income. Therefore, without total intellectual and physical participation of women, it will not be possible to popularize alternative systems of land management for shifting cultivation, arrest gene and soil erosion, and promote the care of the soil and the health of economic plants and farm animals. Women also tend to look at problems in their totality from the sowing of the crop to its ultimate utilization either as food, feed or raw material for industry. Since they are usually involved in of marketing, they generally possess a clear understanding of market preferences and prejudices. Therefore, for an economically and ecologically sustainable agriculture the involvement of women farmers and farm women (agriculture farmers with and without assets) in the process of modernization of farming practices and village industries is absolutely essential. Horticulture is a major part of Indian agriculture. Although belated, their importance has now been recognized in India not only to provide the much needed balanced nutrition and gainful occupation to our populace but also to develop viable internal and export trade. Fruits like banana and vegetables like potato being energy rich are considered prominent food crops e.g. banana can produce as high as 37 million calories per hectare. Unfortunately the component of fruits and vegetables in Indian diet is hardly six per cent which should be raised at least five times so that the per capita per day consumption mathches the recommended dose of 85g. fruits, 75 – 125g. leafy vegetables 85g. other vegetable and 85g. roots and tubers. To achieve this present production of fruits and vegetables would need to be pushed up considerably by increasing the production levels and the area both.

Systematics
Domain : Bacteria
Phylum : Firmicutes
Class : Bacilli
Order : Lactobacillales
Family : Streptococcaceae
Genus : Streptococcus
Species : Str. agalactiae, Str.dysgalactiae, Str. equi subsp. zooepidemicus, Str.
uberis, Str. equi subsp equi, Str.suis, Str. canis, Str. pyogenes (human)
History
Rivolta (1873) described chain forming organisms in pus from a case of strangles in horses. In 1878-79, Pasteur recognized this organism as a pusforming agent. In 1903, Hugo Schottmuller introduced blood to differentiate various types of hemolysis. In 1928, Rebecca Lancefield reported a serological method of grouping Streptococci.
Habitat
Streptococci are worldwide in distribution. Most of the Streptococci of Veterinary interest live as commensals in the mucosa of the upper respiratory and lower urogenital tracts. They do not survive for long away from the animalhosts.

Rivolta (1873) first described the chain forming cocci in pus collected from the equine infection. Later Rosenbach established the genus ‘Streptococcus’. Nocard and Mollereau (1887) first observed the relationship between the bovine mastitis and Streptococcus agalactiae.

Properties of genus

1. Morphology : Streptococci are gram positive cocci, capsulated, non-sporing and non-motile. Each coccus cell is 1µm in diameter.  They are arranged in a pair or chain of cells as the cell division occurs in one plane (Fig. 1). The chain formation and the chain length are variable. Streptococcus equi ssp equi is a constant chain producer, other species are not. The chain length is shorter in artificial media than natural one. Young cultures are gram positive whereas the bacteria present in the pus and older cultures in the laboratory are often stained as gram negative. 

Streptococcal capsule is polysaccharide in nature. It can be subdivided into different antigenic types (e.g. S. agalactiae, S. pneumonae). However capsules of S. equi, S. pyogenes are made of nonantigenic hyalu-ronic acids containing repeating units of glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-glucosamine. Synthesis of the polymer involves the products of three genes, hasA, hasB, and hasC, which are all in the same operon.

Streptococcosis has been reported from avian species worldwide. Bacteria produce acute septicemic and chronic infection. Streptococcosis has wide range of host ranging from many avian species including wild birds.

Etiology

Streptococci are Gram-positive, non-spore forming, non-motile facultative anaerobes. They occur singly, in pairs or short chains. S. zoozooepidemicus is species associated with disease in avian species. Other species of streptococcus (S. bovis, S. dysgalactiae, S. pleomorphus) have occasionally been isolated from birds.

Whenever a thin hanging wire is loaded, it elongates and the load moves downwards. Increase in length of wire is governed by the magnitude of the load and nature of wire material. Experimentally it is found that the cohesive force between the molecules of hanging wire offers resistance against the deformation.

Introduction

Climate change specifies long-term shifts in weather patterns, which are measured over decades to millions of years. In modern times, it predominantly concerns the increase in Earth’s average temperature due to human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels10. The rise in greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide traps heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming. In connection with animal health, climate change affects the ecosystems in which animals live, influencing the availability of water and food, the spread of diseases, and the physiological stress animals endure due to temperature extremes. Domestic animals, mostly livestock, are vulnerable to heat stress and reduced productivity, whereas wildlife faces altered habitats and increased exposure to pathogens. The connection between climate change and animal health is intricate, as changes in temperature, humidity, and weather patterns create new challenges for both domestic and wild species.

Abstract

In order to estimate the irrigation need of the crop, stress degree day index computers from canopy and air temperature could be used. During rabi manon, two varieties (Seeta, Brassica Juncea) and (Benoy, Brassica Camperteris) were grown. The canopy temperature of the crop was measured on 45th, 60th  and 75th  days after sowing and stress degree day (SDDI) was also measured. About 67, 70 and 51 per cent activation between SDDI and dry matter production could be explained at 45, 60 and 75 DAS of the crop growth period. Reflectance by mustard canopy was 940 measured. Late sown crop reflected less radiation with the advancement of growth. Extinction coefficient was also measured and the increase in the value of extinction coefficient upon irrigation showed canopy development and better utilization of increasing radiation by the crop. 

Plants grow in the open in nature, hence are subjected to biotic and abiotic stress.

Biotic stress is due to living components such as:

Insects and pests

Nematodes, mites, snails, slugs etc.

Vertebrates like rats, birds, jackal, bats etc.

The plant experiences biotic stress when root, stem, bark, shoots, leaves, buds, flowers and fruits are damaged by the influence and activity of biotic factors.

Biotic factors Diseases

Like the pests, diseases also cause stress to plants. Diseases are caused by fungus, bacteria and virus. Sometimes the exposed part of insect eaten plant part becomes the entry pathway for fungus, bacteria and virus.

Both dryland crops and irrigated crops experience an assortment of ecological or environmental stresses which include abiotic viz., drought, water logging, salinity, extremes of temperature, changes in atmospheric gases and biotic viz., insects, birds, other pests, weeds, pathogens. Dryland crops are more vulnerable to stress in the present context of changing climatic scenarios. The ability to tolerate or adapt effectively by challenging these stresses is a very complicated phenomenon would be due to various plant interactions occurred in the specific environment. Both biotic and abiotic stresses occur at various stages of plant growth and development and frequently more than one stress concomitantly affects the crop. It is difficult to distinguish effects of these stress factors on the performance of crop plants with respect to yield and quality of harvested products. This is of special significance of maximizing productivity of dryland crops in changing climate scenarios, with complex consequences for ecologically and environmentally sound Indian agriculture. In order to successfully meet this challenge, one should understand the various aspects of stresses in view of the current development and to promote a competitive dryland production system.

Stress and depression can ruin your life and affect your health. Seeking support, being realistic and planning ahead can help ward off stress and depression.

For some people, the holidays bring unwelcome guests — stress and depression. And it's no wonder. In an effort to pull off a perfect Hallmark holiday, you might find yourself facing a dizzying array of demands — work, parties, shopping, baking, cleaning, caring for kids on school break or elderly parents, and scores of other chores. So much for peace and joy, right?

Holiday stress and depression are often the result of three main trigger points. Understanding these trigger points can help you plan ahead on how to accommodate them.

Here are the three issues that commonly trigger holiday stress or depression:

5.1 String Statement

String in python is stored as individual characters i.e. indexed wise. The index by default starts with 0.

So, here P will be represented by str[0] or str[-6], y will be represented by str[1] or str[-5]

Note: strings are immutable and hence you cannot change the individual letters of string using assignment operator.

Example:

name=“shyam”

Name[0]=“A”

Result error

Q.1 Let there be two factors A and B with p and q levels respectively which are applied to the larger strip by dividing the experimental material into p rows and q columns. The factors A and B are applied at random to these rows and columns respectively. Such a layout is known as strip plot design.

Strobilanthes (of Acanthaceae) is a morphologically diverse and species rich genus extensively distributed in South and Southeast Asia (Carine,1997 and Moylan et al 2004). Approximately 74 species are found along the Western Ghats of Southern India - Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot (Carine, 1997). The mass flowering of Strobilanthes with blue coloured flower makes them promising plants for gardens.  The genus is subjected to several systematic revisions recently (Bennett and Scotland 2003, Carine et al. 2000, 2004 Carine and Scotland 1998, 2000, 2002 and Venu 2007). The most distinguishing character of the genera (Strobilanthes) is its monocarpic nature, i.e., flowers after a long period of vegetative growth ranging 1-15 years and in a few cases flowers after 35 years. Bremekamp (1944) used the term ‘plietesials’ for such monocarpic plants that take several years to reach maturity before flowering.

Strobilurins are a group of chemical compounds used in agriculture as fungicides. They are part of the larger group of QoI inhibitors, which act to inhibit the respiratory chain at the level of Complex III.Some common Strobilurins are azoxystrobin, kresoxim-methyl, picoxystrobin, fluoxastrobin,oryzastrobin, dimoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin and trifloxystrobin. Strobilurins represented a major development in fungus-based fungicides. They were extracted from the fungus Strobilurus tenacellus. They have a suppressive effect on other fungi, reducing competition for nutrients; theyinhibit electron transfer inmitochondria,disrupting energy metabolism and preventing growth of the target fungi. Strobilurins are miracle fungicides ever developed with novel mode of action & mobility that qualifies the Unique New Generation Fungicides controlling Pathogen from diverse class.

Strobilurins are a group of compounds used as fungicides in agriculture. They belong to the larger group of QoI inhibitors that inhibit the respiratory chain at the complex III level.Common strobilurins include azoxystrobin, cresoxime methyl, picoxystrobin, fluoxastrobin, oryzastrobin, dimoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin, and trifloxystrobin.Strobilurin represents an important development of fungal-based fungicides and is derived from the fungus Strobilurus tenacellus.They have an inhibitory effect on other fungi and reduce nutrient competition.They inhibit mitochondrial electron transport, disrupt energy metabolism, and prevent target fungal growth. Strobilurin is the wonder fungicide ever developed with a new MOA and mobility that qualify it as a unique new generation of fungicides controlling different classes of pathogens.

All agroforestry systems are characterized by three basic sets of attributes; productivity, sustainability, and adoptability (Nair, 2008).

Productivity: The majority of agroforestry systems, if not all of them, strive to maintain or raise both land productivity and output (of desired commodities). In several aspects, agroforestry may raise production. These include higher yields of related crops, less input use in the cropping system, enhanced labour efficiency, and higher production of tree products.

Sustainability: Agroforestry can achieve and indefinitely maintain conservation and fertility goals by conserving the production potential of the resource base, mainly through the beneficial effects of woody perennials on soils.

Adoptability: Improved or new agroforestry technologies that are introduced into new areas should fit the social as well as environmental characteristics of the land use system for which it is designed and should also confirm to local farming system.

Introduction

According to the Forest Survey of India (FSI) “all lands, more than one hectare in area, with a tree canopy density of more than 10% is defined as Forest” (FSI 2009). The status of forests and forest management systems contribute to the vulnerability of forests to climate change. Indian forests are extremely diverse and heterogeneous. Forests and Climate Change are intimately intertwined. Forests have regulated the climate, rain, groundwater, soil of the earth over millennia. Their transpiration act as a regulator of the balance of oxygen and carbon-di-oxide: the world’s forests and forest soils currently store more than one trillion tons of carbon – twice the amount found floating free in the atmosphere. The forest and soils are home of biological diversity.

27. STRIKE AND DIP

Outcrop : A part of the rock formation which crops out or exposed on the surface of the earth is called an outcrop.

The total area over which a particular rock unit occurs at the surface whether visibly exposed or not. The term outcrop is especially used for delination of such an area on a geological map.

Attitude : To study these outcrops their attitude help in better understanding the position of the bed on the ground surface or in field is attitude of a bed can be described with the help of two basic structural elements i.e. strike and dip.

7.1 Introduction

The earth's crust is made up of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Each variety of rocks exhibit some columnar joints in Igneous rock, characteristic structures like bedding in sedimentary rocks and fabrics like schistosity and gneissosity in metamorphic rocks.

As a result of tectonic activities in nature, rocks may suffer deformation, rupture, dislocation of beds (Fault) or other planar structures.. The whole study of such deformation is known as structural Geology. It has been observed that sedimentary rocks are most suitable for studying structures, because these rocks are deposited in quiet environment, and initially the beds arranged in horizontal position. As a result of stress due to kinematic movements/tectonism, the horizontal beds tend to deviate from their horizontal disposition to dipping position or get folded or faulted. Thus the rock develops various kinds of structures. There are following structures present in sedimentary rocks:

Application of the principal of geomorphology provides information, which will be of value in predicating the geometry of aquifers. On weathering and erosion, many geological formations develop landforms that are distinctive in respect of slope continuity of outcrops and symmetry of valley flanks. The surface topographic features of bedrocks can some times be extrapolated to reasonable depths to predict the thickness of alluvium or aeolian sands occurring as valley fill deposits, by treating slope profile as mathematical curves for which equations similar to regression equations can be found (Doornkamp and King, 1971).

The influence of tectonic movements and resultant structural features on landform is of paramount importance for hydrogeomorphologists. The control of structure on landforms and hydrogeological processes are being discussed here. The structural geology concerns with the features such as uniclinal or inclined beds, folds, faults and joints. Of these the structural features like faults, fractures, joints etc appear as linear feature.

Linear features on the surface of the earth have attracted the attention of geologists for over one hundred years. This interest has grown most rapidly since the introduction of aerial photographs into geological studies. Geologists have recently proven that various structural features perceived in remotely sensed images are reliable indicators of geologic resources (Caran et al, 1982). These structures have been used in many applications: petroleum and mineral exploration (Blanchet, 1957); nuclear energy facility siting (Seay, 1979); geothermal assessments (Woodruff et al, 1982); and water resource investigations (Lattman and Parizek, 1964). Lattman and Parizek (1964) established a relationship between the occurrence of groundwater and fracture traces for carbonate aquifers, and in particular zones of localized weathering and increased permeability and porosity underlying these structures.

Introduction

Bundelkhand is an important region of Central India which is often called as heartland of the nation. It is spread in the geographical area of 7.08 mha, includes 14 districts seven, each of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh and supports 1.84 crore (as per 2011 census) of socio-economically and culturally diverse population. The present region of Bundelkhand lies between approximately 23°10’ and 26°27’ (north) latitude and 78°4’ and 810 34’ (east) longitude. It lies between the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the north and the Vindhya Range to the south. Bundelkhand is a hot and semi- humid climate with highly variable depending on the region and with gently sloping upland, distinguished by barren hilly terrain with sparse vegetation, although it was historically forested. As with the rest of the Indian sub-continent, Bundelkhand experiences two main seasons, monsoon and dry. The monsoon brings over 90 percent of the annual rainfall between the months of June and September with the highest precipitation occurring in July and August. On an average, the region receives 75 cm to 125 cm of rain each year. The dry plains in the north usually receive less rain compared to the south- eastern part of the region. Minimum temperature varies from around 6-12 ^?C and maximum temperature varies from 38- 48 ^?C.

The region is blessed with plenty of natural resources. It had truly been endowed by nature, with beautiful mountains, good perennial rivers, fast flowing seasonal rivulets, large rich forest areas with valuable timber, fruit trees, numerous medicinal plants / herbs in almost each district. The rainfall here had been on average much better than many parts of India. Bundelkhand is a part of the central zone of India with a group of north-bound perennial rivers flowing and paying tribute to river Yamuna. From west to east these are Sind, Pahuj, Betwa, Dhasan, Ken, Baghein Paisuni and Tons. Along with Chambal and Yamuna these are ten major rivers. Other water resources in Bundelkhand are in form of water stored / conserved on surface termed as ponds, tanks, lakes etc. Bundelkhand has, undoubtedly, been one of the regions in India very much known for its historical rain-water management through man-made ponds, tanks and lakes. Topography here helped to build such structures but more than anything it reflected fore-sight and positive attitude of those rulers towards conservation of nature.

Introduction

India is considered as one of the emerging superpowers of the world. This potential is attributed to several indicators, the primary one being its demographic trends and a rapidly expanding economy. In 2015, India became the world’s fastest growing economy with a 7.5% estimated GDP rate. But in the year 2020, the pandemic lockdown situation created adverse impact on the global economy. At this juncture, there is an urgent need to focus on native and indigenous resource mapping and judicious utilization of it to be a self-reliant. The COVID-19 pandemic has necessitated a new set of reforms to strengthen the economy. The first mention of this came in the form of the ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan’ or ‘Self-Reliant India Mission’ by the Government of India during the announcement of the coronavirus pandemic related economic package on 12^th May 2020. Almost 70% of India’s population depends directly and indirectly on agriculture for their survival. This means the country cannot have a development model that ignores agriculture.

It’s time to take a look at India’s agriculture economy. Over the last 10 years, (2008-19) India has been a net exporter of many farm produce. In fact, in 2018, the government has come up with a new agricultural export policy aimed at doubling farm income by 2022. However, in 2019-20, agri-exports were just $36 billion and the agri-trade surplus was $11.2 billion. The net agri-trade surplus has been falling over a period of time, making it difficult to achieve doubling of farmers’ income and doubling of agriculture exports by 2022as well.

India is not yet self-reliant in various essential agriculture commodities and depends heavily on imports. India imports around 15 million tonnes of edible oil every year — more than 9 million tonnes of palm oil and about 2.5 million tonnes each of soybean oil and sunflower oil. It buys palm oil from Indonesia and Malaysia, and soy and sunflower oil from Argentina, Brazil, Ukraine and Russia. There is a need to create self-reliance in theses commodities enhancing productivity of Indian farms to create competitive advantage for domestic producers. India can step up cultivation of sunflower, groundnuts, mustard and oil palms. Presently, India has about two million hectares of land that is suitable for oil palm cultivation.

Abstract

The tradition of growing of flowers is age old. The flowers have travelled from the bowl of prayers to gardens to commercial sector for revenue. The quality concerned world demands for round the year production and supply of quality produce which can only be possible under controlled environment production. A range of location specific and crop specific infrastructures are being commercially used for production of planting material and flowers. General and crop specific guidelines for trade of cut flowers are available which the producers and policy makers must know for successful promotion of export of cut flowers from the country. The producer can also use practical methods for vase life study of their produce which is of great relevance in cut flower trade.

Keywords: Protected floriculture, trade, crop specific guidelines, export, cut flower

Introduction

Indian floriculture industry is shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers for export purpose. The liberalized economy has given an impetus to Indian entrepreneurs for establishing export oriented units (EOUs) under controlled climatic conditions. The wide variations in agro climatic conditions in India permit us to grow various types of tropical and subtropical flowers. Though such plants grow successfully in open conditions without cover, they fail to meet the quality requirements of being blemish free. High quality ornamental plants meant for export should be scientifically grown only in plastic, glass or fibre glass greenhouses or at least under partial cover. Though initial investment is high in protected cultivation, the products in them will obtain far more attractive prices.

Family No. 1

Name and address:

Smt. Jamuna Khajuriputia

Age - 45 years, Caste - ST

Village – Rajbadei

Block – Similiguda, Koraput

Family size: A total of five members, husband Gopinath (50 years), the son Ramesh and Podu, daughter-in-law Dana and herself. Male : Female ratio is 3:2

Educational status: All members have education except daughter-in-law, Dana. The status score is 4.16 in 10 point scale.

Structure

Structural unit of edible portion of most fruits and vegetables is the parenchyma cells and makes up bulk of cells. A parenchyma cell is rather thin walled and may be polygonal or cubical in shape.  Walls of parenchyma cells in young plants are composed almost entirely of fibrils of cellulose. In parenchyma cells of plants actively metabolising protoplast portion represents only about 5% of total cell volume. This protoplast is rather film like and is pressed against cell wall by large water filled central vacuole.  Protoplast has inner and outer semi permeable membrane layers between which is confined cytoplasm and its nucleus. 

2.1. Structure of fruits and vegetables

2.1.1. Fruit

• Fruit is a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the flower, mainly one or more ovaries (Fig. 1). Plant product with aromatic flavors, which are either naturally sweet or normally sweetened before eating.

2.1.2. Vegetables

• It exhibits wide verity of plant structure like edible seeds, roots, stems, leaves, bulbs (Fig. 2), tubers and non-sweet fruits of herbaceous plants.

• Vegetables are grouped into 3 main categories

? Seeds and pods-contain natural wax coating. Eg. Many legumes

? Bulbs, roots and tubers with no coating, but tuber has suberisation

? Flowers, buds, stems and leaves having low shelf life

The word meat comes from the old english word mete, which referred to food in general. Most often this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs, livers, skin, brains, bone marrow, kidneys and lungs etc. In other words we can say meat is those animal tissues which are suitable for use as food by the man. It is composed of numerous types of tissues like muscle tissues, epithelial tissues and nervous tissues but the major component of meat is muscle. Particularly skeletal muscle is the principal source of muscle tissue in meat while smooth muscle contributes little to meat. The muscle and connective tissues are the major compositional components and contributes towards qualitative and quantitative characteristics of meat. Broadly muscle can be classified into striated and smooth muscles. Striated muscles have transverse band pattern as seen in skeletal and cardiac muscle. However, smooth muscles do not show such pattern and mainly found as a component of blood vessels.

This chapter introduces the biological structure and formation of the hen egg. It examines the shell, cuticle, shell membranes, albumen, yolk, vitelline membrane, chalazae and germinal disc and explains the functions of each component. The chapter also describes the reproductive system of the laying hen, oogenesis and the sequence and timing of egg formation within the oviduct. Comparative egg structures of other poultry species and shell pigmentation are discussed, along with shell ultrastructure and quantitative composition.

ABSTRACT

Homegarden is a least studied agroecosystem of the world. Present study, conducted in 430 homegardens before Tsunami in five island groups namely North Andaman, Middle Andaman, South Andaman, Car Nicobar and Noncowry (former three, Andaman group and later two, Nicobar group of islands), India, reports composition, species structure and its distribution and functioning of the system. The homegarden is comprised of 6 components i.e., garden, livestock, poultry, fishpond, homesteads, and rice fields. Coconut and arecanut trees predominate in the garden. Fruits, spices and agroforestry trees are other ligneous species, which together with the former trees form multistorey canopy structure. But, composition and dominance of the tree species vary across the islands. Arecanut to coconut ratio is greatest invariably in all the homegardens in the Andaman. Family members do maximum 70 per cent labour in the homegarden and consume 35-65 per cent fruits, poultry, livestock and fishpond products, however, surplus is sold. Free range grazing in nearby protected forests is an age old practice of animal feeding whereas poultry birds are fed among the garden trees and household refuge. Livestock includes cattle, buffaloes and goats in Andaman and pig and goat in Nicobar. Cattle are used for milk, he buffaloes as a draft animal and pig and goat for meat. Cattle, mostly local breed, yield a little amount of milk, an average, 1 liter cow-1. Plantation crops production is low: coconut 18-30 nuts palm^-1 and arecanut 0.75 kg palm^-1. The homegardens serve the subsistence as well as earn income, but low (US$ 2357) to the house. In Nicobar, Nicobarese huts interspersed in a big natural coconut plantation form the homegarden. Tribe Nicobarese do not know crop husbandry, rather they pursue round the year sea fishing and pig rearing. They relish most pork, unripe boiled wild banana, Nicobari tuber, fruits and seeds of Pendanus and fried fish.