eChapters

23.1 Forms of Soil K

Ignoring potassium (K) in soilorganism, total K in soilmaybe classified as (i) water soluble K, (ii) readily exchangeable K (exchangeable K), (iii) slowly exchangeable K (non- exchangeable or fixedK) and (iv) mineral or lattice K. Thedifferentforms are in dynamic equilibrium with one another.

The development of a new drug begins typically in the chemistry laboratory and is followed by a wide range of biological studies in vitro (cells/tissues) and in vivo (animals), which forecast what the agent would do in humans. The focus of these studies moves from evaluating the safety of a drug for use in humans to looking at its clinical relevance. Pharmacodynamics involves a set of biological studies both in vitro and and in vivo to get a better understanding of the mechanism of action of a drug. Preclinical studies mainly include safety and toxicity to ensure its safety for use in humans. Typically, preclinical in vitro, in vivo, and Phase I testing may not be necessary if preliminary data on safety are available. However, preclinical data or clinical observations are still necessary to justify a rationale for use and safety in initial clinical studies.

Three main screening approaches are generally used in drug development. Simple Screening evaluates substances that have a particular property by one or two tests. There is no need for a series of tests in which the interpretation of results of one test may depend on others. Blind Screening is used for a new plant extract where no adequate pharmacological information is available. Blind screening may give clues for potential activity and worthiness to probe further for pharmacological activities. Programmed screening involves a new plant extract or substance with known pharmacological effects and results in more precise information.

Introduction

Most of the technological advances in the recent past in Indian Horticulture have been done for favourable agro-climatic regions. However, the vast and diverse land-scape of hot desert, arid, semi-arid and tribal area is not yet receiving logical thought for resource based horticultural development (Samadia and Haldhar, 2017). Although, the semi-arid regions of the country have now became potential hub for aonla, bael, ber, pomegranate, jamun, guava, fig and custard apple. There has been a steady increase in area and production of these fruits particularly under aonla, ber, custard apple and pomegranate in the country as a result of identification and development of suitable varieties and production technologies. The average productivity of these fruits in India is, however, low as compared to many developed countries. The main reasons for low productivity are old and senile orchards, low yielding varieties, poor orchard management and inadequate technological up-gradation and adoption by the growers. Presently, the continuing decline in the availability of cultivable land, rising energy and land costs together with the increased demand of fruit and fruit products, have given thrust to the concept of high density planting (HDP) in fruit crops. High density planting gives earlier production and return per unit area, shortens juvenility, eco-friendly, provides efficient land use and better use of resources like light, water and fertilizers, efficient pesticides application, besides, in this system the harvesting becomes easy(Mishra and Goswami, 2016). Among the factors such as cultivar, rootstock, quality of planting material and cultivation practices contribute to high yield of fruit trees, however, the number of trees^-1 is the most important factor which brings about radical increase in fruit production. Therefore, high density planting has great potential for increasing productivity in fruit crops (Mishra et al., 2003). The success of this technology in most of the fruit crops is dependent on the use of methods to control shoot growth and maximize light interception as the trees begin to bear fruit. The main aim of HDP is to achieve the twin requisites of productivity by maintaining a balance between vegetative and reproductive growth without impairing the plant health and fruit quality. The underlying principle of HDP is to make the best use of vertical and horizontal space per unit time and to harness maximum possible return per unit of inputs and natural resources.

Bonsai is a Japanese art form using miniature trees grown in containers. The first documented evidence of an oriental word for container planting emerged approximately 1600 years ago in China. Bonsai is a Japanese pronunciation of the earlier Chinese term pen zai. A bon is a tray-like pot typically used in bonsai culture. The purposes of bonsai are primarily contemplation (for the viewer) and the pleasant exercise of effort and ingenuity (for the grower). Bonsai is not intended for production of food, for medicine, or for creating yard-sized or park-sized gardens or landscapes. Instead, bonsai practice focuses on long-term cultivation and shaping of one or more small trees in a single container.

The practice of bonsai is sometimes confused with dwarfing, but dwarfing more accurately refers to research and creation of plant cultivars that are permanent, genetic miniatures of existing species. Bonsai does not require genetically dwarfed trees, but rather depends on growing small trees from regular stock and seeds. Bonsai uses cultivation techniques like pruning, root reduction, potting, defoliation and grafting to produce small trees that mimic the shape and style of mature, full-sized trees.

Bonsai can be created from nearly any perennial woody-stemmed tree or shrub species. Which produces true branches and can be cultivated to remain small through pot Some species are popular as bonsai material because they have characteristics, such as small leaves or needles that make them appropriate for the compact visual scope of bonsai. Some of the plants highly suited for making bonsai

Maintaining the quality of fish begins with harvest and carries through the harvest-to- consumption chain. Careful handling of fish and shellfish while harvesting and during transport to the processing plant is critical if the high quality of the product is to be maintained. There are, however, several constraints on handling the fish; the important among them are the bacteriological, chemical and physical processes that cause degradation of fish. The surface of dead fish is an ideal growth habitat for bacteria and the end result of such activity is spoiled fish. Reduction of temperature can prevent the growth of many bacteria that cause the spoilage. Chemical breakdown due to oxidative and enzymatic reactions can lead to off odours and flavours and rancidity. Digestive enzymes can initiate decomposition in the dead fish. Physical factors can enhance the bacteriological or chemical processes: bruising, tearing, cutting etc. can expose fish muscle to more rapid bacteriological growth, cause internal bleeding which darkens the fillets and expose greater surface area for chemical oxidation.

Since fish is a highly perishable item of food, it has to be immediately processed to various products to preserve the quality and to increase the shelf life. Fish requires proper handling and preservation to increase its shelf life and retain its quality and nutritional attributes. The objective of handling, processing and preservation is to control or reduce the spoilage process so that the final product is wholesome and safe for the consumer. Fish and fishery products brought to market in a well-preserved condition will generally command higher prices, both at wholesale and retail levels, and thus give better returns to the fishing operation.

Low temperature preservation by chilling and freezing methods are widely practiced to maintain the quality and freshness of fish and fish products. Chilled storage method, i.e., keeping the fish in the unfrozen condition has only limited shelf life and it will vary between 4 and 20 days depending on the condition and species of fish. In frozen storage also the shelf life is restricted but it varies from few weeks to years. The various factors that affect the frozen storage shelf lives are condition of fish at the time of catch, handling, processing and product development, packaging and glazing of the product, freezing method adopted, frozen storage temperature, stacking methods and transportation techniques. These factors can be put together and can be termed as ‘Product, Processing and Packaging’ (PPP) and ‘Time Temperature Tolerance’ factors (TTT).

North Eastern Himalayan Region comprises mostly of seven states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura (Gill, 2005). This Himalayan Region stands entirely different from the rest of the country not only in language, dress, food habits and festivals but also differs in agricultural practices. Among agricultural practices shifting cultivation locally known as ìJhumî or ìBunî is the most important. According to Ministry of Agriculture, Arunachal Pradesh stands first in the ìJhumî cultivation followed by Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya (Agnihotri, 2003). In Meghalaya, the problem has assumed an epidemic proportion in Gargo hills where tracts of forests are burnt. The farmers of Khasi and Jainta Hills usually practise the ìBunî cultivation.

Introduction

The Indian poultry industry has emerged as one of the fastest growing segments in the Agriculture Sector, contributing significantly to the national GDP. The 20^th Livestock Census in 2019 estimated the total poultry population in the country at 851.81 million with an increment of about 16.8 % over the last one in 2012. The Indian poultry industry is annually growing at around 6.0% for the past four decades and is expected to touch 1066.2 million by 2030. The Per capita availability of meat and eggs is expected to increase accordingly so as to meet requirement projections made by the National Institute of Nutrition (NIN), by the year 2031. 

Introduction

To accomplish the objectives of the organisation, the administration often performs a standard set of tasks. Administration is the direction, leadership, and supervision of a group’s actions toward certain common objectives (Newman, 1950). It suggests sincere efforts made to plan and manage human activities in order to accomplish set or desired goals. Organising, leading, and controlling people and resources to achieve predetermined goals.

The term project originates from the Latin word projectum derived from the Latin verb proicere, “before an action” which originates from pro-, signifying precedence, something that occurs prior to something else in timing, and icere, “to do”. The term “project” therefore initially signified “before an action. “. A project is a distinct kind of production system that produces a sole unit of product. Like, building a ship or a house, moving a department or a plant, developing a new product or performing a study are examples of such one-of-a-kind products.

In modern business and science, a project is a joint effort, encompassing research or design, that is carefully organized to accomplish a specific goal. The project can also be described as a collection of interconnected tasks to be performed within a defined timeframe and under specific budgetary and other constraints. Projects can be additional defined as temporary instead of enduring social systems or work systems that are formed by teams within or between organizations to achieve specific tasks under time constraints. And all must be expertly managed to deliver the on-time, on budget results, learning, and integration that organizations need. A project in business and science is a provisional endeavor engaged in to produce a distinct item, service, or result. Basically, it is planned to attain a specific goal. The aim of a project is to achieve its goal and subsequently conclude.

Abstract
Food insecurity and malnutrition are on the rise globally, impacting millions, especially in rural regions where extreme poverty and food insecurity are deeply rooted. Vulnerable groups, including women, youth, and indigenous peoples, are disproportionately affected. Producing foo  that meets dietary needs and ensuring its availability in the future is essential for sustainable development and food sustainability. Addressing the growing global food security concerns and supporting the increasing population requires the continual expansion of plant-based proteins’ significance. Legumes are excellent sources of proteins, carbohydrates, and both soluble and insoluble dietary fibers. Legumes, with their high dietary fiber and low-fat content, help maintain body weight and lower the risk of cardiovascular disease. They are also rich in essential minerals such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and iron, and provide important vitamins like folate, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), and niacin (B3). Additionally, pulses contain various phytochemicals, including phenolics, flavonoids, phytates, lectins, tannins, saponins, oxalates, enzyme inhibitors, phytosterols, and antimicrobial peptides, which offer numerous potential health benefits. These phytochemicals exhibit anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, and anti-ulcerative properties. Incorporating legumes into agricultural systems can foster more sustainable and climate-resilient farming practices. In developing countries, legumes are often used to supplement cereals or starchy foods to combat protein-energy malnutrition, as animal proteins tend to be expensive in these regions.
Keywords: Antioxidants, Food security, Legume, Malnutrition, Healthy diet

5.1 Introduction

The development of quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping methods to identify genes or QTLs controlling quantitative traits was a landmark achievement in plant genetics research in the late 1980s. Since then literally thousands of research papers have reported the identification of genes or QTLs for important traits across a diverse range of plant species. This wealth of genetic information was built on the foundation of decades of research in crop molecular genetics and genomics.

The selection and enrichment of QTLs within breeding material was the inevitable next step from QTL discovery to application, and there have been numerous reports of successful tracking of genes and QTLs within breeding programmes. DNA (or molecular) markers have enabled selection of major genes or QTLs for critical or important traits in a process called marker-assisted selection (MAS), which has revolutionized plant breeding. DNA markers are used as tools by breeders to improve the accuracy or efficiency of selection as well cost and time efficiency. Apart from MAS, DNA markers have numerous applications including DNA fingerprinting, genetic diversity analysis and parental characterization.

Recent developments in genotyping platforms and systems to implement molecular breeding schemes offer new tools for modern plant breeders. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers are biallelic, co-dominant markers which are abundant in the genome. Insertion-deletion (Indel) markers are also prevalent and can be screened using high-throughput genotyping platforms. These platforms are cost-efficient, can handle large sample sizes and provide fast data turn-around time. The availability of genome sequences and genomic resources continues to provide a wealth of SNP and Indel markers which will undoubtedly be the marker type of choice for decades to come.

The availability of high-throughput SNP platforms in conjunction with advances in computational methods has also led to the molecular dissection of traits using genome-wide association studies (GWASs) across diversity panels and the development of genomics-based molecular breeding strategies. Association mapping (AM) has now emerged as a standard method for gene and QTL discovery for major crops.

Introduction

Improvement of growth rate and feed efficiency through formulating effective diets are mostly considered for its effect on gut health. Several factors need to be well thought-out such as genetic makeup of the birds, feed source and quality, environmental condition and disease incidence. Apart from these factors, maintenance a good gut ecosystem or enhancement of it is essential for the welfare, optimum performances and productivity of birds. 

Abstract
All the technologies are applied from harvesting of fruits to its final consumption is called as post harvest technology. Development of processing industry takes care of surplus produce as well as of those fruits that are of lower quality. With the development of processing industry citrus fruits can be utilized for the production of wide range of commercial products. The large variability in physico-chemical characteristics of citrus fruits provides an opportunity to select desirable types for commercial exploitation. In India citrus fruit is available in large quantity that can be processed in to different processed products very easily. The fresh citrus fruits are not consumed in large quantity as fresh fruit due to high acidic in taste. The post-harvest technology including value addition would provide opportunity for commercial exploitation of the citrus fruits and leads to the marketing and processing in to quality products.
Keywords: Post harvest technology, Processing, Physiological disorders, Squash, Cardial, Marmalade

Quality control plays a vital role in ensuring food safety and freshness. Inspecting, testing, and grading fruits and vegetables is essential to confirm that food products meet safety standards. In today’s globalized food industry, quality control tests are conducted at various stages throughout the supply chain, from cultivation and harvesting to processing, packaging, transportation, and distribution.
In agriculture, the quality of grain is determined by its intended use. In ethanol production, factors such as starch content are crucial, while in food and feed manufacturing, properties like protein, oil, and sugar are of primary importance. In the milling industry, the soundness of grain is the most significant factor in determining its quality. For grain farmers, high germination percentages and seed dormancy are essential characteristics to monitor. For consumers, visual qualities such as color and flavor are key indicators of quality. Quality control ensures that the grain meets the needs of both producers and consumers while maintaining food safety.
RESOURCES FOR QUALITY CONTROL
PRE-HARVEST TESTING
Pre-harvest tests are essential tools that help growers assess the needs of their crops. These tests assist in making informed decisions regarding nutrition or pesticide applications, determining the optimal harvest windows, and supporting various farm management decisions. By conducting pre-harvest testing, farmers can enhance crop health, improve yields, and ensure that their crops are ready for harvesting at the best possible time.
Starch Iodine Test
Starch is a carbohydrate present in various plants, including apples. As apples ripen, the starch gradually converts into sugar. The amount of starch in an apple

The integration of all components of community mobilization for natural farming represents a complex, multidimensional process that requires systematic coordination across social, institutional, technological, and economic domains to create coherent and sustainable agricultural transformation. This integration transcends simple coordination of activities to encompass the development of synergistic relationships between different mobilization elements that collectively enhance the effectiveness, sustainability, and scalability of natural farming adoption while building resilient communities capable of ongoing innovation and adaptation. Systems thinking approaches provide the conceptual foundation for integration by recognizing that community mobilization components function as interconnected elements within broader social-ecological systems rather than isolated interventions. This perspective emphasizes understanding the relationships, feedback loops, and emergent properties that arise from component interactions while designing interventions that strengthen system coherence and resilience. Systems approaches require analyzing how training programs, institutional support, communication strategies, and policy frameworks influence each other 

Summary

Fertilizers are materials when applied replenish lost soil nutrients on farmer’s field. Without the use of fertilizers farmers would find it extremely difficult to increase their production to meet the ever-growing mouths. The purpose of this session is to discuss what a fertilizer is, and the different terminologies used in fertilizer technology.

Genotypes × Season interaction is of major importance to the plant breeder in developing stable high yielding varieties of crop plants. When new varieties are tested over a series of seasons, the relative ranking of the varieties for any given attribute is rarely the same at each season. This increases the difficulty of identifying superior stable genotypes. Comstock and Moll (1963) have shown statistically the effect of large genotype × environment interaction is reducing the progress from selection.

In order to minimize the genotype × season interaction, stratification of the seasons can be practiced. The implification in stratification is that suitable selections could be made for the infavourable and favourable seasons encountered within the sampling units proposed. Stratification of environments has been practicised for a long time to identify suitable selection that could be made for the narrower range of environments encountered within the sampling units proposed. However, even with this refinement of technique, the interactions of genotypes with locations in a sub-region and within environments encountered at the same location in different years, frequently remain too large (Allard and Bradshaw, 1964). Little is known about the environmental factors contributing to such interactions. Sprague (1966) suggested that even if such information are available, the possibility of materially reducing genotype × environment interaction in field experiments would remain questionable.

On line with Allard and Bradshaw’s (1964) statement, the interactions of genotypes with locations in a sub-region with different seasons at the same location in different years, may remain too large. As far as sesame is concerned, practically nothing is known about the factors contributing to such genotype × season interactions. Hence, the progress in breeding a stable variety of sesame has been slow. Since sesame in India is grown essentially as rainfed crop, fluctuations in yield levels closely follow changes in the environment and seasons. Breeding for multiseasonal variety for may small regions within a state is being considered necessary. There is widespread awareness of achieving stability of production as well as improvement in yield of sesame under low and high-in-put conditions as well as for different seasons.

Review of Health Claims

Regulators of different countries have different procedures and views to review health claims of traditional medicine, herbal medicines, botanicals, functional foods, nutraceuticals, health products, diatory supplements and such other natural forms of materials intended to use for health promotion. However, if such products carry any therapeutic or health benefit claims then the regulators may provide general guidance and demand for sufficient evidence base in support of such claims. For instance, U. S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) provides general guidance to review of health claims in functional foods and dietary supplements. Ethnopharmacological preparations involving herbal medicine and traditional medicines prepared from natural ingredients also will need similar process. The scientific review process for health claims of such products is comprehensive and mainly focuses on review of individual studies³²⁴

1. INTRODUCTION

Fermentation is an age old technology. It has been used by man since antiquity. It has been employed to produce a number of fermented products such as wine, beer, curd, vinegar, pickles and several others. Fermentation was discovered quite early and by chance but the underlying principles were discovered very late. Primarly fermentation was used as a method of shelf-life extension of the produce in the time of glut production, though the final product had modified sensory qualities. Thus, fermentation and drying were the main methods of preservation. With the discovery of new methods of preservation, fermentation as a method of preservation has gone into background and as technique of flavour development and product with modified sensory quality came into practice. In this chapter, fermentation as a method of preservation has been described.

Introduction

Over the years, antibiotics have been used at sub therapeutic levels for enhancing the production and immunity of birds. The advantages of using antibiotics as feed supplements in terms of improvement of growth and feed efficiency have been well documented. However, the growing concern over the transmission and the proliferation of resistant bacteria via the food chain led to a ban on the use of antibiotic growth promoters (AGP) in livestock within the European Union in 2006.Thus, quest for alternatives to AGP gained momentum in the first decade of this century. There has been emergence of various feed additives like prebiotics, probiotics, organic acids, enzymes, essential oils, fatty acids, phytobiotics etc. Feed additives are used in to elicit the production performance and health of chicken.