eChapters

Introduction

Value chain analysis has gained considerable popularity in recent years. Although many definitions are applied, value chains essentially represent enterprises in which different producers and marketing companies work within their respective businesses to pursue one or more end markets. Value chain participants sometimes cooperate to improve the overall competitiveness of the final product, but may also be completely unaware of the linkages between their operation and other upstream or downstream participants. Value chains therefore, encompass all of the factors of production including land, labor, capital, technology, and inputs as well as all economic activities including input supply, production, transformation, handling, transport, marketing, and distribution necessary to create, sell, and deliver a product to a certain destination.

Mango, like some of the other perennial crops viz. Citrus has varied reproductive mechanisms i.e. both sexual and asexual. Understanding of the physiology of flowering in mango has remained largely inconclusive and tangible explanation for the irregular pattern of flowering during the recent years is not forthcoming. Mango is a highly heterozygous crop and this high heterozygosity in the cultivars which are used in hybridization and the inherent difficulties in obtaining large hybrid population have made accurate genetic analysis in mango very difficult (Iyer and Schnell, 2009). Despite the drawbacks ailing mango breeding like high heterozygosity, occurrence of only a single seed per fruit, breeding can be successful because of a number of positive attributes of the species like the wide range of available genetic variation and the ease with which a selected hybrid can be vegetatively propagated (Iyer and Schnell, 2009). However, in spite of the large variability, sufficient headway has not been made in the improvement. Naik et al., (1958), opined that it is the large variability in India, too many cultivars and heavy regional preferences which have hindered the production of new commercial varieties on a large scale. The various botanical features of mango along with features of cytology and breeding are discussed below:

In 1920, although electric vehicles were not used on the American farms about 5,000 electric industrial trucks were produced by 12 American manufacturers, while estimates of the total fleet ranged from 6,000 to 15,000, most of them built during the war. Most used an exchange charging system. Among the manufacturers seen in and around cities and towns were the Commercial Truck Company, the Lansden Company, the Walker Vehicle Company (now owned by Commonwealth Edison), the Ward Motor Vehicle Company, the Steinmetz Electric Motor Corporation, Walter Motor Truck Company, and the Baker R L Corporation.One step away from agriculture, Charles A. Ward of New York City, was head of his family’s baking company, made up of the Mackey Company, the Ward Corby Company, the Ward Bread Companyand the Ohio Baking Company of Cleveland. In 1911, Ward had decided to replace his horse-drawn delivery vehicles with electric trucks, thus doing away with the unsanitary stable hitherto part of or adjacent to bakery.¹

Alongside this, the challenge of using stationary electric agricultural machines continued to be met. Two innovations which entered into dairy farming were the milk cream electric centrifugal separator and the surge milker. The Babson brothers (Henry, Fred and Gus) of Chicago were friends of and dealers for electrical battery inventor and entrepreneur Thomas Edison, and importers of Belgian-made Méllote separators. In 1916, the Babsonsproduced their own Pine Tree milking machine. While the overall design was similar to others, the electrically powered Pine Tree Pulsator outperformed any other pulsator made. These machines were powered by a 32-volt Delco system with 12 batteries near the barn. Pine Tree Pulsators were simple enough that the farmer could maintain them himself. The Pine Tree Pulsator was patented in 1921. The problem with this unit was that it was difficult to keep clean.

Growing fruits can be fun, delightful experience and a challenging hobby. There are several good reasons to grow fruits. Fruits add beautiful colour and variety to your garden. Large amounts of fruit can be grown in a relatively small area.Store-bought fruits are often picked, shipped, and sold before they are fully ripened and generally stock selections that look prettiest but are not necessarily the best tasting. In addition, fresh garden fruits are a good source of vitamins; minerals, carbohydrates, fibre (Table 1) and will provide your family with flavorful, delicious and nutritious food. As an added bonus, the fruits you grow will taste much better than the fruits you find in the grocery store. Establishment of an orchard are a long term investment and require critical planning, selection of proper location and site, planting system and planting distance, varieties and the nursery plants to ensure maximum production.

Even if you have limited space, you can still enjoy growing fresh fruits in your garden by growing fruit plants in containers. You can grow any fruit tree in a container for a few years and then transplant it. You can also choose a dwarf variety, which is well suited to living in a container. If you carefully choose the kind and varieties of a fruit before you plant, you can harvest dessert-quality fruit from early summer through the fall. Many fruit plants are aesthetically pleasing and are good for “edible landscaping.” Some fruits, such as apple, citrus, blueberries and figs, make outstanding ornamental plants. Some people find a natural setting with plants placed throughout the landscape most aesthetically pleasing. But this makes maintenance more challenging.

1. Mango

Varieties released from I.A.R.I., New Delhi

Malliaka: (Neelum x Dashehari)

This variety was released in 1971. Tree moderate, semi-vigorous to vigorous, moderate spreading, bearing moderately and regular. Fruit large, ovate-oblong; beak slight, sinus absent, peel thick, apricot yellow; flesh firm, fibreless. Fruit quality superb with excellent sugar acid blend., TSS (24-20° Brix), good keeping quality (15 days). It is suitable for table and canning purposes. Maturity during 3^rd – 4^th week of July.

INTRODUCTION

The evolution of National Natural Resource Management System (NNRMS) towards fully harnessing the potentials of space remote sensing and the development of the series of Indian Remote Sensing Satellites, besides establishment of necessary ground based data establishment of necessary ground based data reception processing and dissemination systems as well as remote sensing facilities at National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Space Applications Centre (SAC) and Regional Remote Sensing Service Centers (RRSSCs) for efficient and effective analysis of remotely sensed data are the major steps accomplished in pursuit of this goal. With the establishment of Remote Sensing Applications Centers in several States under many Governmental organizations, remote sensing today has come to stay as an integral part of the national development efforts in the vital sectors of agriculture, hydrology, geology, forestry, oceanography, mineral resources and disaster management like drought, flood, cyclone, earthquake, landslides crop pests, forest fires etc., thus touching every facet of national development. Today, India has acquired a strong self-reliant base to harness the full potential of this technology and as a result, the national objective of achieving sustainable development at micro level is being addressed through the integration of remotely sensed data with other relevant collateral information to arrive at locale specific, environment friendly, economically viable and culturally acceptable treatment packages (Rao, 1991 and Jayaraman, el at. 1993).

Abstract

Ethnobotany as an academic discipline surfaced in the 19^th century. Traditional medicine is used globally and is of rapidly growing economic importance. In developing countries, traditional medicine is often the only accessible and affordable treatment available. The chapter deals with importance of plants in the life of people, value of collecting the plant samples and adding knowledge to plants based on their economic potential and issues related to ethnopharmacology.

Keywords: Ethobotany, Ethnopharmacology, Drug discovery, Research ethics.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Geographic Information System (GIS) is the new emerging field and grows at very rapid pace. Now GIS is a billion dollar industry with applications in varied disciplines. At present, GIS is being used by professionals from various disciplines. In this decade, GIS is being used by experts who are good in GIS technology for various applications. The development trend indicates that GIS will be used by common man in near future and at the same time, advanced GIS analysis will be carried out by GIS experts.

Any technology is developed out of necessity and GIS is of no exception. When a large amount of data were available for water distribution systems, road network, sewer lines, telecom lines, electricity lines, gas pipe lines, state wise population, natural resources etc, it is important to store, maintain and retrieve the data for applications. It is not possible to manually browse through the large amount of paper records. Also even if the data is available in an unorganized way in the computerized environment, it is not useful. Hence if the data are referred to locations in earth surface and the data are stored in an organized way, it is possible to retrieve and analyse the data for applications. Hence the solution is GIS and developed today into reality. Developed countries are using GIS widely in many areas but developing countries are moving towards the development of GIS database for their resources.

Remote sensing, aerial photography, cartography, surveying and other field instruments for attribute data collection contributes to the data acquisition. Cartography, surveying, geography, geodesy contributes for mapping process. Disciplines like computer science and statistics, mathematics involved in processing and analysing data . Computer science and mathematics involved in storing the data structure.

GIS maps are intelligent. It has many advantages compared with paper map in this digital age.

Spatial data means data which are referenced to earth. Maps, satellite imageries, aerial photographs are example of spatial data. Attribute data which are attached to spatial data are called as aspatial data or non-spatial data.

If these data are brought into GIS then it is stored in a standard format, it is possible to update, share, retrieve, manipulate and analyse quickly. Much of the time and money is saved in case of reproduction and better decisions could be made

Abstract

India today has 1.30 billion people and would be the world’s most populous country by 2025. The challenge is how to feed India’s growing population with rising income, but limited land and water resources. Whereas area under crop cultivation has come down from 142 million ha to 138 million ha, asking for protecting the arable lands from mass urbanization and more productivity per unit area. The agricultural production systems are still operating at low productivity and high uncertainty in the country. There is little or no alignment between production, the growth of agricultural commodities in the market and the supply of these commodities. All this leading to considerable farm produce wastage, mounting tremendous pressure on natural resources and would pose a challenge to the country in providing food, water, health, shelter, sanitation and jobs to all.

While industry and services have grown, agricultural sector has lagged behind. Information technology sector is growing consistently at 30 per cent every year but agriculture has not even achieved 4 per cent growth. The contribution of agricultural sector to national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has continued to decline over the years; has shrunk from 55 per cent in 1951-52 to 14.6 per cent in 2015-16. Land fragmentation, reducing holding size, obscure marketing prospects, low water and inputs use efficiencies, modest level of mechanization, unorganization, unreliable returns from rainfed areas, inadequate storage infrastructure, weak processing sector and meagre investments continue to leave visible impressions on Indian agriculture. Nonetheless, agriculture remains a major source of employment, absorbing about 52 per cent of the total national workforce. Higher levels of investments in agriculture, both by the public and private sector can yield much better results if the reforms are undertaken to streamline not only the incentive structures for the farmers, but also the institutional framework to address the issues of integration, export orientation, infrastructure development, and information technology and management to achieve the objective of a innovative agricultural sector capable of providing food security to all. Farmer insecurity about crop failure also prevents them from adopting changes. A balance between risk and reward is considered to be an important economic factor for enhancing relationships. Trust among channel partners, power share and interdependence are other important factors for enhancing relationships in the supply chain system.

6.1. Introduction

Solar crop drying has been demonstrated to be cost effective and an effective alternative to traditional and mechanical drying systems, especially in location with god sunshine during the harvest season. Considerable energy savings can be made with open sun drying since the source of energy is free and sustainable. However, this method of drying is extremely weather dependent and has the problems of contamination, infestation, microbial attacks, etc., thus affecting the product quality. Additionally, the drying time required for a given commodity can be quite long and results in post-harvest losses. Solar drying of agricultural products in enclosed structures by natural convection is an attractive way of reducing post harvest losses and low quality of dried products associated with traditional sun-drying methods. The crop is vulnerable to damage due to hostile weather conditions. The crop is also susceptible to re-absorption of moisture, if it is kept on the ground during periods of no sun, which reduces its quality. This type of problem can be solved by solar dryer. Many dryers have been developed and used to dry agricultural product in order to improve shelf life .Most of these either use expensive sources of energy such as electricity or combination of solar energy and some other form of energy which is not cost effective and dependent on regular supply of fuel.

Principally, drying requires temperature for removing moisture from product, air flow rate to remove moisture from drying chamber and optimum relative humidity within the drying chamber to allow fast drying. These all three requirements for drying can easily be achieved from solar energy. Solar drying is one of the direct applications of solar heat, which involves removal of moisture from the products through the application of solar energy. The removal of moisture requires only low temperature heating, which can be met easily by absorbing solar energy by the surface. This increases the temperature of the air inside the dryer. The moisture produced from the drying product is usually carried out along with the exhaust air. The characteristic of solar energy is good for the drying at low temperature i.e. high flow rates with low temperature rise. The intermittent nature of solar radiation can not affect the drying performance at low temperature. Further, solar energy is available at the site of use and saves transportation cost.

Vegetable research in India is of very recent origin. Research on vegetable crops was started by ICAR with the sanctioning of a nucleus ‘Plant Introduction Scheme’ at IARI, New Delhi in 1947-48. Simultaneously, the ICAR also started such ad-hoc schemes in different states like Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Tamil Nadu.

Prior to World War II, entire seeds of temperate vegetables were imported from European countries. When, during World War II, supply of vegetable seeds from Europe suffered a serious setback, the government of India felt the need for production of these seeds within the country. As a result of this, the government of India established a Vegetable Breeding Station at Katrain in Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh in 1949. This station was transferred to Indian Agriculture Research Institute in 1955 to undertake research on improvement of temperate vegetable crops, standardization of their seed production technology and to produce seeds of identified improved varieties of temperate vegetables. This research station is carrying out intensive research on all aspects of temperate vegetables including improvement, production technology and their seed production.

Further, a division of Horticulture was created at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi in 1956-57. However, vegetable research was organized on sound footing with the establishment of the Indian Institute of Horticulture Research (IIHR) at Bangalore with a full fledged Division of Vegetable Crops in 1968. The vegetable research in India received a further boost when a separate division of Vegetables Crops and Floriculture was started at IARI, New Delhi in 1970. The floriculture work was separated from the division of Vegetable Crop and Floriculture, IARI, New Delhi in 1982 and the division was then named as Division of Vegetable Crops, which was assigned the research work exclusively on different vegetable crops. In the Sixth Five-year Plan, IIHR, Bangalore started two Central Horticulture Experiment Stations, one each at Ranchi, (Bihar) and Godhra (Gujarat) to intensify research on horticultural crops in important tribal areas of the country where research on vegetable crops was also started to meet the specific requirements of these regions. Establishment of Agricultural Universities and All India Coordinated Vegetables Improvement Project gave further fillip to vegetable research in India.

Histology

Cell: Structural and functional unit of an organism

M. Schleiden & Theodor Schwan – proposed cell theory

- All living being made up of cell

Tissue: Group of cell and their extracellular product organized to perform a particular function

M. Malpighii – Father of histology

Abstract

Beekeeping or modern apiculture is the art and science of rearing, breeding and managing honey bee colonies in artificial hives for economic benefits. Beekeeping has evolved into a farming enterprise that involves the use of sophisticated and artificial techniques to keep honey bees for bee products. It is estimated that beekeeping is practiced in about four lakh villages and provide employment to over 3.50 lakh persons. The existing vegetation wealth of India can sustain six million bee colonies which would produce six lakh metric tonnes of honey besides generating part time employment to more than 15 million rural and tribal households. Rural women have long working hours, spent on food production and processing and/or waged labour, in addition to family care and domestic duties. However, beekeeping represents one opportunity for income generation which need not be time consuming and can fit in well with women’s priority activities. Population, female (% of total) in India was reported at 48.18 % in 2017, according to the World Bank collection of development indicators. Rural population (% of total population) was reported at 66.46 % (83.3 crore) in 2017 as compared to urban population (37.7 crore). There are fewer women than men beekeepers, but women beekeepers are found throughout the developing countries of every continent. Participation of rural women and youth in beekeeping activities provides a unique opportunity to improve rural livelihood and hence poverty reduction. Beekeeping as an agro-industry presents tremendous potential and requires attention on part of planners, policy makers, development agencies and researchers on the one hand and wider publicity about the commercial and scientific uses of beekeeping products on the other. In order to increase income accrued from beekeeping activities, promoting and support of training on processing of secondary bee products to women and youth beekeepers are important. Stakeholder’s involvement in promoting and support beekeeping awareness campaigns is crucial to enhance the contribution of the sector for livelihood improvement and environmental conservation.

Abstract

Bacterial diseases of solanaceous crops like tomato, brinjal, chilli, capsicum and potato are the most serious and destructive diseases affecting both under field and greenhouse conditions. Under moist field conditions they can cause epidemics to affect total crop loss, quality of the produce and reduce market value. These diseases can be distinguished from each other on the basis of their symptoms appearance of the various parts of the plant as well as by using advanced techniques of diagnosis. Diagnosis of the disease is important step to detect pathogen at early stage of disease and subsequently manage it effectively in efficient manner.

Keywords: Bacterial diseases, solanaceous crops, symptoms, diagnosis.

Introduction

Bacterial diseases of solanaceous crops like tomato, brinjal, chilli, capsicum and potato are the most serious and destructive diseases affecting both under field and greenhouse conditions. Under moist field conditions they can cause epidemics to affect total crop loss, quality of the produce and reduce market value. These diseases can be distinguished from each other on the basis of their symptoms appearanceofthe various parts of the plant as well as by using advanced techniques of diagnosis. Diagnosis of the disease is important step to detect pathogen at early stage of disease and subsequently manage it effectively in efficient manner. Therefore, the early detection of the bacterium from asymptomatic plants, soil, and water and plant residues could facilitate elimination and certainly reduce the risk of crop loss. Powerful tools for the identification and detection of the bacterium in diverse substrates (plant, seed, water and soil) are available for diagnosis of the bacterial diseases. DNA amplification of pathogen offers many advantages over classical techniques; neither purification nor cultivation of the pathogen is required and the specificity, sensitivity and response time of tests are improved. Nevertheless, the PCR method has not yet become a routine diagnostic tool for many laboratories, mainly because of the inhibition of the amplification reaction by compounds contained in crude bacterial extracts, which give false negative results or low detection sensitivity.

Exercise 1: Studies on climate classification

The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems. It was first published by the Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846-1940) in 1884, with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936.Later, the climatologist Rudolf Geiger introduced some changes to the classification system, which is thus sometimes called the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system.

Low rainfall or failure of monsoon rains is a recurring feature in India. This has been responsible for drought and famines. The word drought, generally, denotes scarcity of water in a region. Though, aridity and drought are due to insufficient water, aridity is a permanent climatic feature and is the culmination of a number of long term process. However, drought is a temporary condition that occurs for a short period due to deficient precipitation for vegetation, river flow, water supply and human consumption. Drought is due to anomaly in atmospheric circulation.

INTRODUCTION

Insect pests cause variable and complex problems for potato farmers. Insect pests account for 16% of the crop losses of potato worldwide, and reductions in tuber yield and quality can be between 30% and 70% for various insect pests. India has a greatdiversity of insect pests that attack potato. Thesepests can damage potato plants by feeding on leaves, reducing the photosynthetic area and efficiencybyattacking stems, weakeningplants and inhibitingnutrient transport, and by attacking the potato tubers destined for consumption orfor use as seed. In India, approximately 60 billion rupees (US$1.2 billion)worth of potato tubersare lost annually due to pest damage, which accountsfor 10–20% of total production (Chandel et al., 2013). The potato pests are grouped into soil pests, foliage feeders, sap feeders, and storage pests. Inseed production, aphids and whiteflies are of greatest concern. In ware production, the key pests may be insects which attack tubers, such as tubermoth, whitegrubs, and cutworms. In some situations, foliage feeders suchas noctuid moths and coccinellidbeetles are also important.The Potato cyst nematode (PCN) (Globodera spp.) and root knot nematodes (RKN) (Meloidogyne spp.) are amongst the most economicallyimportant nematode pests of potato. Cyst nematodeshave amazing adaptation for long term survival in the soil, even in the absence of a suitable host whichmakesthemchallenging to the farmers, scientists and policy makers. They are subjected to stringent quarantine and/or regulatory procedures, wherever they occur and presents a serious threat to domestic and international commerce in potatoes. RKNs are prevalent all over the world and can cause significantcrop loss in both warmand cool climatic conditions, depending on their species. In this chapter, the current information on biology, ecology and management of the major potato pests is discussed in the Indiancontext.

Abstract

Demand for horticultural commodities is increasing over a period of time. There is increasing pressure on available land for growing of such crops. The production of quality fruits, vegetables and other horticultural crops can be enhanced either by increasing productivity, use of improved cultivars/hybrids and effective production system, bringing additional land under horticultural crops or by promotion of protected cultivation which supports production in adverse climatic conditions and off seasons. Among horticultural crops, production of vegetables, flowers, medicinal and aromatic plants under protected condition is the best alternative to use the land and other resources more efficiently. Greenhouse cultivation is useful and is in practice in all kinds of climatic conditions, may it be severe and extreme cold (Canada and Russia), intolerant summer (Israel, UAE and Kuwait), excessive rains (Phillippines) and in moderate climate in several other countries. Nursery production of crops under protected conditions is highly economically viable.

The area under protected cultivation was only 0.23 per cent of the total area under horticultural crops in India in 2012. To boost up this, a number of varieties are bred for cultivation especially under polyhouse conditions. Greenhouse for vegetable production encompasses glasshouse, polyhouse, insect-proof net house, low tunnel polyhouse and zero energy polyhouse. Protected structures are of different kinds, viz. open-ventilated; closed polyhouse with fan and pad system; shade net house; sloped roof, rain shelter etc. Micro-irrigation has proved its efficacy in saving water, improving the yield and also is responsible for reducing diseases which develop in rather moist conditions. Protected structures appeared as the best means and are being used by many nursery growers for multiplication of healthy planting materials and are becoming popular especially in the hilly regions. Use of techniques like soilless culture, production of high value and low volume flowers and vegetables, hybrid seed of important vegetable crops and grafting of promising varieties on desirable root stocks can be made more efficiently under protected environment. Seed yield of many crops can be 3-4 times more under cover compared to their open field cultivation along with ensured quality.

Protected cultivation technologies in Himalayan high altitudes of India for the welfare of the soldiers and the society are a landmark in cultivation of horticultural crops in non-conventional areas. The protected production system has the potential to contribute greatly for achieving high productivity and stability to production in the present scenario of climate change. Extension of growing/harvesting period including off season is another desirable feature associated with protected cultivation.

Abstract

Floriculture is the fast emerging sector in horticulture sector and people are changing very fast from the traditional field crops to flowers because of high returns per unit of area and better price. The flowers are being used during all the occasions. Though the art of growing flowers is not new to India, large scale commercial cultivation and protected cultivation in polyhouses is relatively new in India. With the opening up of world market in the WTO regime, there is a free movement of floriculture products worldwide. India is having a better scope in future as there is a shift in trend towards tropical flowers and this can be gainfully exploited by countries like India with high amount of diversity in indigenous flora. The major flowers grown under protected cultivation are rose, chrysanthemum, gerbera, carnation and lilium. Even some of the flowers are location specific and made a dent on the state economy, the best examples are carnation in Himachal Pradesh and gerbera in Maharashtra. Now with market trend is changing and biotechnological tools must be exploited for the crop improvement to evolve novel varieties with desirable colour traits. The other major area of work is on protected cultivation of cut flowers which is coming up on a large scale and value addition in floriculture i.e. extraction of pigments, essential oils, pharmaceutical and nutraceutical compounds have emerged as frontline avenues in floriculture. We have many challenges ahead like trained HRD, quality planting material, technical knowhow, limited choice of the varieties and products in the market to compete in global market.

History on Classification of Herbicides

Copper sulphate (CuSO₄) was the earliest inorganic salt used as selective herbicide for controlling dicot weeds in cereal crops during 1896 in France, Germany, and USA. Sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) was used as herbicide in cereals during 1909. In selective killing action depends on the fact that it runs off the leaves of the cereals and scorches rough surfaces of certain seeds. Sodium chlorate (NaClO₃) under the name mort-herbs is used in France for killing deep rooted perennials. Another non-selective herbicide, ammonium sulphamate (NH₄SO₃NH₂) was introduced in 1945 as ammate for the control of woody plants. Organic herbicides are more effective and selective.

Classification of Herbicides

Classification of herbicides is modified periodically as and when new herbicides are developed. Herbicides are classiûed based on their method of use (soil and foliage applied), mode of action (systemic or translocated and non-systemic or contact herbicide) and chemical key structure (aliphatic-aromatic, dinitrophenal, etc. Some herbicide molecules contain more than one classifying key structure and they are put into the group most likely to be contributing activity.

Any approved herbicide is known by three names: common name, chemical name and trade name. Common name of herbicide is a technically accepted abbreviation of its chemical name. Chemical name reads out its full molecular structure. Trade names refer to their formulations offered by the chemical companies for the consumers.

Persistence of Herbicide in Soils

Most of the herbicides are applied to soil as pre-emergence for weed control under different situations. For effective weed control, herbicides must remain in soil in active and available form until their purpose is served. Larger persistence poses hazard to subsequent land use and is undesirable. The length of time that an herbicide remains active in the soil is called persistence or soil residual life. The quantity of herbicide that remains in the soil after its mission is accomplished is referred as residue. The term residue infers the continued presence of herbicide in the soil in very small quantities even though it may not be present in herbicidal quantities or available for plant absorption. Herbicide residues in soils are undesirable mainly because they may

Injure sensitive crops in a cropping system,

Be absorbed by succeeding crops and residues accumulated in unlawful amounts in the produce,

Result in building up of herbicide residues following repeated treatments that exceed their rate of dissipation, and

Inhibit growth of soil micro-organisms.

Knowledge of persistence and carry over residual effect of herbicides is essential to use them safely and effectively. Persistence of herbicides in soils pose hazard when

Highly persistence herbicides are used,

Crop failure necessitates replanting,

A susceptible crop follows a short term crop which received a persistence herbicide, and

Decomposition of the applied herbicide proceeds very slow.

1. SEED PATHOLOGY

The area of science that studies the relationship between pathogens and seeds is seed pathology.

2. TYPES OF PATHOGEN

Diseases of plants are caused primarily by three types of pathogens: bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Despite that fungi comprise the largest group of pathogens, the bulk of seed-specific diseases are caused by bacteria or viruses. This is due to the fact that bacteria and viruses are more adopt at entering and then travelling through the veins of the plant, a phenomenon known as ‘systemic infection,’ and from the vascular system may make their way into the developing embryos of seeds.

Fungi, in contrast, tend to be restricted to the outer layers of the plant, where they initiate infection by means of air-borne spores and then proceed to spread by attacking nearby cells of the outer layers. Fungi are much less likely to enter the vascular system of the plant, and thus infect seed mostly when they either ‘crawl’ all the way to seed on the outside of the plant, or else send out spores that land on the seed. In either case, the fungal spores are on the outside of the seed, in the layers of the seed coat, spores on the seed coat are more prone to either dry up and die, or else to get sloughed off with the seed coat during seed germination, thereby failing to cause disease on the next generation of plants.

ICAR Frontline Extension Programmes

It was recognized by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in the early sixties that agriculture development requires interdisciplinary and multi institutional approach. The integrated functioning of agricultural research, education and extension was for the first time recognized as the cardinal principle of agricultural development system, and accordingly agricultural research, education and extension function were integrated in the ICAR institutes and State Agricultural Universities (SAU). ICAR established a Section of Extension Education at its headquarter in 1971, which was later renamed as Division of Agricultural Extension to promote the transfer the agricultural technologies through the ICAR-SAU system. The present position, as on 31.03.2020, of ICAR institutes, Central Agriculture Universities and SAUs are as follows:

If the reader has endeavoured to follow the basic chemistry in the first chapter, he would be in a positions to follow up the various reactions that take place in soils and which hitherto had baffled him. Soils contain particles of various sizes ; some so fine that they would remain suspended in water for a long time; others so coarse that they would be sieved out by even a coarse sieve. Soils contain some salts that can be washed out by leaching with water; they contain some water which can be readily evaporated away by exposing to hot sun or by heating slightly. They also con-tain a little organic matter which can be burnt away or dissolved in alkali. When all the extraneous substances have been completely removed we are left with what we might call soil framework. This framework gives mechanical support to the roots of the plants. Without this framework the plant would not stand up even if it could be supplied with all the food material.

Let us suppose a soil freed from all the extraneous matter by continuous leaching with water or a dilute acid. In the former case the removal of all the extraneous matter is extremely slow, whereas by leaching with dilute acid everything except the soil framework is removed in a short time.

When soils from different localities are subjected to leaching with dilute acid we find that the soil framework in every case, behaves in a similar manner. No matter from what part of the world the soil has been obtained, the properties of its mineral framework only differ in quantity but not in kind.

Introduction

Today, according to Global Assessment of Land Degradation and Improvement (GLADA), nearly one forth area of our world land has been degraded (Arora 2019). The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is leading the issues of soil or land degradation to restore valuable natural resources for achieving a land degradation neutral world by 2030 (Cowie et al., 2018; IPBES, 2018; Bhattacharya, 2020). Land degradation neutrality (LDN) can be achieved primarily through adoption of sustainable land management practices. Soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a multifunctional role and is sensitive to land management practices and a key indicator of soil quality, soil health and LDN. Soil is a major reservoir of terrestrial C in the biosphere and plays an important role in global C cycle. Therefore, a little change in SOC pool can significantly influence the atmospheric CO2 concentration. In general, 1 Pg of SOC stock is equivalent to about 0.47 ppm of CO2 in the atmosphere, and vice versa (Lal, 2018). Besides this it maintains overall soil sustainability and enhances food security.

Achieving carbon neutrality in Indian soils is a major challenge. Because, productive land goes out of cultivation and marginal or degraded land comes under cultivation due to urbanization, industrialization and various development activities. Also, it is very difficult to increase SOC because climatic condition prevails with a high rate of decomposition. According to an UN report, India will be the most populated country in the world and expected to add 273 million people between 2019 and 2050 which will exert huge pressure on natural resources, particularly soil and water to fulfil the increasing food demands of such ever-growing population. The extensive use of natural resources along with intensive cultivation will enhance greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission, slow down agricultural productivity, enhance land degradation, and decline factor productivity of major production systems. Due to change in distribution of rainfall and concurrent rise in temperature owing to climate change, the fertile top soil becomes more prone to degradation.

Introduction

The post-harvest and marketing system comprised of a series of interconnected activities which starts after the harvesting process and continues until the distribution of food products to the consumers. An effective post-harvest system makes sure that the food product reaches the customer in a short time without sacrificing volume, quality, and safety of the food product (Gardas et al., 2018). Increasing population growth in the last few centuries and the requirements from industrialization forces the need for sustainable food production and better food processing technologies. There is a requirement of balance between sustainable food production practices, a healthy environment, and a healthy population due to the rapid changes in the climate and population. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), there will be a requirement of a 70% increase in food production in 2050 due to the growing population across the world (FAO, 2017).

The challenges such as improper land use, decrease in biodiversity, aquatic eutrophication by over-fertilization, global warming, water shortages due to improper irrigation etc. imposed awareness among the stakeholders to bring more efficient approaches in agricultural and food production practices. This brings the idea of terms such as recyclable and eco-friendly packaging, buy local, whole foods, free-from, and fair-trade (Boye and Arcand, 2013). Recent trends in climate and changes in the environment may pose challenges to achieve the required food production in the future. In addition to the steps taken for increasing food production, the steps to reduce food loss are important. In 2011, it was calculated that 11.3 billion tonnes of food was wasted in a year, which is almost one- third of the total food production (FAO, 2011).

The crops are very sensitive to climate. The crop production is dependent on climatic parameters like rainfall, light, temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Each kind of cultivated crop plants has its own optimum growth requirements. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past, but the inherent climatic requirements of a specific kind of crop have not changed materially.

Weather and climate have also great influence on farm animal production. The environment in which an animal lives is referred to as its habitat. A habitat includes both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of the animals’ environment. Abiotic components of an animal’s environment include temperature, humidity, oxygen, wind, soil composition, day length and elevation. These potential environmental stressors can directly and adversely affect animal farming. The indirect consequences of weather include their impact on feed quality and availability.

We must know our family, its members and their relationships. Let us first look at basic relationships which often figure in the questions. If you are conversant with the given items in the table below, half of your battle is already won. It is not required to mug-up these names, but instead make a clear picture in your mind as you go through each one of them. This will go a long way in retaining the details of these given shortcut tricks for solving Blood relations problems for logical and analytical reasoning. Read the following thoroughly before moving on

Introduction

Food is the most vital prerequisite for sustenance of human life and provides adequate nutrients for the metabolism. Recently several hypothesis supports that, beyond meeting nutritional needs, they play beneficial roles in improving health, and minimize the risk of illnesses (Roberfroid, 2000a). In this way, a novel term “functional food” was introduced and plays an outstanding role in improving the overall conditions of the human body (e.g. pre- and probiotics), lessening the threat of some ailments (e.g. cholesterol-lowering products), and also as therapeutics for several diseases (Roberfroid, 2000a, Roberfroid, 2000b, Mollet and Rowland, 2002).

Recently throughout the world, an extensive array of functional foods were developed which includes prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, foods supplemented with anthocyanins, phytosterols, isoflavones, antioxidants, and fat, sugar and salt-reduced foods. Amongst them, probiotic functional food has exerted beneficial effects on the health and is comprised of both probiotic dairy foods and probiotic non-dairy foods. The demand for dairy probiotic foods are increasing as it attributes to the beneficial health effects on the host by improving the survival of gastrointestinal microflora, production of bioactive compounds and prevention of lactose intolerance. Consequently, production of these foods is a significant research importance for both food manufacturing units and research institutes.

Probiotics are the important ingredients for foods with a “healthy” image. It could be combined with other beneficial ingredients or simply used to supplement the natural functional qualities of whole foods. The amalgamation of probiotic bacteria with nutrient rich foods, like dairy products, will have the additional value of improving consumer nutrition.

Preamble

Historically, food has been an integral part of human civilization and diet with varied food components has sustained human life on this planet over the centuries. Similarly, culturing of food with natural fermentation as means of preserving foods with extended shelf life for future use. In the background of sustaining food security, advances made in biotechnology and molecular biology has provided ample scientific platform to use the advances in increasing and expanding food production on a global magnitude, so as to meet the needs of an ever-growing world population.

The intestinal microbiota is a key component of both the metabolism and immunity of humans and animals. The desirable microbes do have a significant role to play in healthcare through control of digestive disorders and foodborne illnesses. The continued research in this area over the years has led to the identification of important molecules that regulate major functional attributes in the betterment of human health and wellness in the long run. The science and technique of genetic engineering through molecular biology approaches has enabled in enriching the beneficial molecules for the benefit of human life. The accuracy in targeting and designing of molecules will go a long way in developing genetically modified (GM) lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and GM probiotics to significantly rewrite the medical care with food-based approach in the form of targeted specific diets – “Dietomics”.

1. INTRODUCTION

Wine is the alcoholic product obtained by fermentation of fruits like grape, plum, peach, pear, apple and apricot (see chapter 25). Different types of wine which can be made from various fruits are:

• Table wines
• Fortified wines
• Sparkling wines

In preparation of table, fortified and sparkling wine many steps are common. It is out of scope of this text to discuss these specialized wines. But the general steps involved to in wine making are described here.

The results pertaining to the present investigation, “Diagnostic Study of Farmers in context of Price spread analysis, marketing pattern and Potential assessment of agricultural diversification in Chenani Block of Udhampur district” have been presented in this chapter.

4.1 Cost and return analysis of cereals, vegetables and fruit crops

For financial analysis of different enterprises, it is necessary to workout costs of various inputs, which needs to be deducted from the value of inputs. The cost and return analysis of cereal crop and vegetables in Mantalai village of Chenani block is presented in Table 4.1. Per hectare Cost A which included all the variable costs excluding the family human labour were found to be highest (?55416.38) for the cultivation of garlic followed by tomato (?54260.75) whereas raddish incurred lowest of ?29361.33. The cost B which included the fixed costs in addition to cost A were ?39020.89 for maize, ?59074.66 for tomato, ?37280.11 for cucumber, ?33361.33 for raddish, ?41053.97 for beans and ?59416.38 for garlic. The cost C i.e. total item wise per acre operational costs which also included the imputed value of family labour were found to be highest (?149074.66/ha) in tomato and lowest of ?39361.33/ha in raddish. The cost C increases in case of tomato to such an extent only because of the addition of family labour. Cost C* was also calculated by adding 10 per cent of cost C as management cost to total cost.

In order to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, plant breeders’ rights and the farmers’ rights and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants it has been considered necessary to put in place a legal protection mechanism the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001 has been enacted in India (www.plantauthority. gov.in). For the purposes of this Act, Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Authority has been established and is located at NASC Complex, DPS Marg, Opp - Todapur, New Delhi-110 012.

The 15 CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research) Research Centers are independent, non-profit research organizations, conducting innovative research. Home to more than 8,000 scientists, researchers, technicians, and staff, CGIAR research works to create a better future for the world’s poor. Each Center has its own charter, board of trustees, director general, and staff. CGIAR Research Centers are responsible for hands-on research programmes and operations guided by policies and research directions set by the System Management Board.

Wings develop internally 

Metamorphosis complete 

Immature stages (larvae) differ from adults in structure, habitat and feeding habits 

Pupal stage present, e.g. all holometabolus insects

Nisin is produced by strains of

a) Streptococcus lactis b) Pseudomonas

c) E. coli d) Clostridium

Q. 1 A submersible pump may be
(A) Single stage pump       (B) Multi stage pump
(C) Centrifugal pump         (D) Both (A) and (B)

Cajanus cajan ( L ) Millsp. (Fabaceae): Eng.- Pigeon Pea / Cajan Pea; Hindi – Arhar; Kash.- Lokut Chana [RC]. An annual erect herb, stem woody, leaves trifoliate. Flowers yellowish diffuse red, borne in axillary racemes. Pods flattish with fawn brown coloured seeds having light yellow cotyledons. The pulse has been lately introduced and is under marginal cultivation.

 1. A mineral that forms an original component of rock is called

a. Primary         b. Secondary

c. Essential         d. Accessory

Salinity is a measure of the total concentration of dissolved solids, which is usually expressed in parts per thousand (ppt). Chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate, and bromide are anions (- charged). Cations that are positively charged are sodium, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and strontium. The main solids are sodium and chloride.

A neuron is the basic unit of nervous tissue. It is specialized for the function of reception, integration and transmission of information in the body. The nerve cells are excitable, i.e. capable of generation of electrical impulses at their membranes. The electrical impulses generated in the excitable tissues, in most instances, can be used to transmit signals along the membranes.

The general concept of agroforestry is to integrate trees and agriculture so as to create a more diversified landscape, while providing the producers with new
environmental and economic benefits. In other words, agroforestry is a method of farming that allows trees and shrubs to grow along with crops and/or livestock,
therefore blending agriculture and forestry in the same production system.

Small millets and Pseudo cereals are staple food for millions of small and marginal farming community and household in developing and under developed countries. They are major source of fodder and feed material for livestock. They are nutritionally alike or superior to major cereal grains with additional advantage of proteins (gluten-free), enhanced fiber, lower glycemic index and bioactive phyto chemicals made them an appropriate balanced health food.

Since times immemorial, cereals have always been the main source of the food for human population. Although the three major cereal crops, i.e., wheat, maize and rice have dominated the scene of food production for human sustenance, but due to climatic changes, water shortages and weakening global food security, world's attention has been turning towards achieving a sustainable food supply through long-forgotten grains such as, various millets, which are also resistant to drought and heat. These grain crops have been utilized by the human population not only for food but also as fodder for their animals.

Water is essential for life and most of the civilization flourished on bank of rivers like Indus valley, Mesopotamia, May, INCA and also destroyed in lack of water. Scarcities and famines were the common phenomena of the world civilization. Systematic dry cultivation started around 1850 and improved techniques were started in use in USA. 

ABIOTIC FACTORS: Environmental influences produced other than by living organisms for example, temperature, humidity, pH and other physical and chemical influences. Contrast it with ‘biotic factors’ - meaning effects due to biological components.

Ours is a Living Planet because ours is a Water Planet. The health of the Living Planet depends on the health of its water resources. Ironically, the health of its water resources is at stake. And so of its life! The waters of the Earth are in the grips of pollution. Much of the water is already polluted and the rest is increasingly becoming polluted. Water pollution, indeed, is one of the worst problems life on Earth is faced with. Water pollution is halting human progress and is phenomenally affecting all walks of human civilization. Water pollution is even putting a question mark on our sustainable future. This chapter presents the causes, magnitude, and consequences of water pollution and also suggests ways and means to prevent and control water pollution and also attempts to manage water resources.

Most of the ecosystems prevailing on Earth have ceased to be virgin. They are now modified following anthropogenic designs. The Blossoming of a community in its climax stage is a rare sight. As human intervention with nature has gone on increasing, all types of biodiversity - genetic, species and community, and alpha, beta, and gamma - have been put under stress. The Earth has already lost much of its diversity due to anthropogenic factors and now it seems to be under severe stress due to climate change, which is also largely due to human-induced environmental disruptions.

Continuous loss of biodiversity at an alarming rate is posing a serious threat to life on earth. With this dismal state of the environment, we cannot usher in a sustainable future. We do not have the right to snatch the future from our younger generations. The Earth belongs to our children more than it does to us. The Earth belongs to future generations more than it does to present generations. Conservation of biodiversity is a matter of ethics. Ethics has the human face of biodiversity. Economic attributes of biodiversity have importance, but ethics of life 

Wastewater is defined as water that has been altered by certain substances, resulting in changes in its physical, chemical, or biological properties. These changes render it unfit for certain uses, such as the purpose of drinking. Since almost all of man’s daily activities are dependent on water, therefore ‘waste’ is discharged into the surroundings as a result of these actions. There are a number of substances that can be harmful to the environment and make people sick, including chemicals, detergents, household cleaners, dirt, microorganisms (germs), and body wastes. The water supply generates a great deal of wastewater, so it is essential that it is treated in order to reduce the amount of waste that it generates. Essentially, wastewater treatment ensures that a healthy environment is created and public health is protected by removing the majority of pollutants found in wastewater through the treatment process. Consequently, wastewater management plays an important role in protecting the planet, and public and economic health, as well as social, economic, and political stability.