eChapters

Introduction

Northeastern Region of India consists of eight States, viz., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim.  The northeastern states are located between geographical ordinates, 21° to 29°30' N and 89°46' to 97°30' E. The region, surrounded almost on all sides by Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Bangladesh, which can be broadly divided into two characteristic zones viz., Mountainous and Plain. Although distinguished in the altitude differences, both the mountain and plain are closely interrelated in terms of natural resource sharing and economic flow. According to the physiographic characters this region is divided into five physiographic units, the Assam Himalayas, the Brahmaputra valley, the Shillong plateau, the Barak valley and the Southeastern hill region. Except the Brahmaputra and Barak valleys in Assam and the Imphal valley in Manipur, the terrain is hilly and mountainous, only making 65% of the northeast an undulating land with elevations ranging from 200 to 900 m above MSL

Sustainability is one of the main guiding principles for our modern societies. Water and sustainable development are closely linked since the provision of water is sufficient quantities and of high quality have important impacts on our environment, society and industry as well as the well-being of next generation.

Nowadays, there are several emerging problems and risk that affects the sustainable management of water resources. Pollution diffusion pose major threat. Water resources and demand for water remain unbalanced at various levels. Groundwater abstraction and over exploitation have serious environmental impacts. Reservoirs for water storage, flood control, recreation and energy production remain controversial. Climate change on the other hand is creating lot of impact on both water availability and water demand. These problems have not only physical, chemical, biological and ecological dimensions but encompass also important socio-economic issues such as, regulatory framework for water resources management, methods to balance conflicting human and ecosystem demand, financial sustainability of water management system. This shows the complexity water managers face for sustainable management of water resources and the need to shift from strong traditional, local and regional water resources management approaches to more integrated river basin approaches dealing with uncertainties in environmental conditions, societal development and global change.

Drones have transformed the agriculture sector, altering farming methods by offering advanced solutions for crop monitoring and management. These unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have several applications that improve production, efficiency, and sustainability. Drones help precision agriculture by allowing farmers to collect real-time data on crop health, soil conditions, and field variability. Drones utilize high-resolution imagery and remote sensing technology to identify early signs of pests, illnesses, and nutrient deficits, facilitating targeted interventions. Drones also facilitate irrigation control, seed sowing, and crop spraying, thereby decreasing labor expenses and mitigating environmental impact. Consequently, drone technology is enabling farmers to make better informed decisions, improve resource utilization, and eventually enhance yields.
REAL-WORLD EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL DRONE APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE
Drones are increasingly being used in agriculture across India to boost productivity, ensure efficient resource use, and reduce environmental impact. In recent years, the Indian agricultural sector has witnessed significant adoption of drone technology, which has proven to be a valuable tool for precision farming. Below are some real-world examples of successful drone applications in Indian agriculture:
Precision Farming for Crop Monitoring
In the states of Maharashtra and Punjab, drones are being used by farmers for precision farming to monitor crop health and growth. The drones, equipped with multispectral sensors, capture detailed images of fields and analyze data on crop health, soil moisture, and pest infestations. One example is AeroFarms, an Indian startup that uses drones to monitor fields and help farmers detect early signs of crop diseases and nutrient deficiencies. By assessing the data from drone imaging

Introduction 
The Pleurotus species, belongs of the basidiomycetes class, are typically grown on non-composted lignocellulose substrates and have a shorter growth cycle compared to other types of mushrooms (Bellettini et al., 2018). These are shell-like fruiting bodies commonly known as “oyster mushroom” and also referred as “Dhingri mushroom” in India. The fanor spatula-shaped fruit body can be found in various colours depending on the species, including white, pink, yellow, grey, and blue (Verma et al., 2023). Their cultivation is popular due to the simple and low-cost methods. These mushrooms are highly favored not only for their taste, flavor, and pleasing texture but also for their nutritional and medicinal benefits (Sharma and Khanna 2019, Sarita et al., 2023). Pleurotus sp. are found naturally in both temperate and tropical regions across the globe which are cultivated more widely around the world due to their adaptable nature (Badshah et al., 2021). Despite their potential, India’s mushroom production has declined significantly, from 487 million MT in 2017 to 314.84 million MT in 2023 (Anonymous, 2023). Mushroom farming in Gujarat presents several opportunities due to various factors such as favorable climatic conditions, easy availability of raw material increasing market demand and supportive government initiatives. In India, rice straw is 80 Innovations of University Extension in Indian Agriculture mainly used as substrate for large scale mushroom production (Kundu et al., 2022). But, cultivation and consumption of mushroom were limited due to lack of awareness about the health benefits of this high valued food. However, by the efforts of KVKs under Agricultural Universities through the trainings and awareness programs, mushroom cultivation becomes popular among the people of Gujarat particularly in rural areas. Entrepreneurs and farmers can tap into this growing sector for profitable ventures, provided they are equipped with the necessary knowledge and resources.

These are a broad group of plants that have evolved in situations characterized by very high day temperatures and low night temperatures with very low available moisture in the growing medium. Their plant body is modified to conserve moisture with physiological adaptations that help to reduce moisture loss considerably and to survive in hot desert situations or drought conditions. Stems, leaves and roots of these plants are fleshy and rich in watery mucus. The unusual morphological features that these plants have developed to enable them to survive in their harsh native habitats, set them apart from other plants and have given them rarity value when grown as ornamentals. They are hence displayed individually or grown in a rockery where a landscape of rocks and stones highlight their features and at the same time provide desirable contrast with other garden plants. Many members of Cactaceae, Crassulaceae, Aizoaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asphodelaceae and Agavaceae belong to this group and are commonly referred to as rock garden plants.

1. INTRODUCTION

Sudan lays close to the east-centre of Africa between Latitudes 4° and 2° and longitude 22° and 28° east. It is the largest country in African continent (8.3 per cent) and Arab world and the ninth largest in the world (1.75) covering 2.59 million square kilometers of twenty six states (El Mustafa, 2005). It shares borders with Egypt, Libya, Chad, Central Africa, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia. It is a criterion for absolute continent in terms of the extent and variety of vast agricultural lands, vast agricultural and pastoral country with rich cultural diversity. It homes about forty million people, seventy five per cent of which inhabit rural areas, speaking over a hundred and thirty indigenous languages and dialects. The country is a gentle sloping land with the exception of Jebel Marra Massif, Red Sea hills, Ingessena hills and the Nuba Mountains (Ahmed et al., 2004).

The Nile and its tributaries traverse it for about 900 km. The rainfall ranges from less than 50 mm in the northern desert to more than 1500 mm in the tropical rain forest in the south.

In general, the soils include aridsols (sand dunes and sandy soils), aridisols and vertisols (clay pockets in the valleys) in the North, vertisols in the central and southern clay plains and oxisols in the south. Variations in rainfall, vegetation and soils resulted in the formation of seven main ecological zones classified as follows: desert (0-75 mm, 28.1 per cent,), semi-desert (75-300 mm, 19 per cent), low rainfall savanna on sand (300-400 mm, 26.6 per cent), low rainfall savanna on clay (400-800 mm, 13.3 per cent), high rainfall savanna (800-1300 mm, 9.5 per cent), Montana vegetation region (800-1000 mm, 0.3 per cent) and flood region (800-1000 mm, 3.2 per cent) which embedded in twenty six states.

Present study was undertaken to evaluate the ameliorative effect of α-tocopherol(100 mg/kg) against cartap (16.25 mg/kg and 32.5 mg/kg) induced toxicity following 28days oral exposure in adult male Wistar rats. Cartap exposure did not produce any clinicalsigns of toxicity in rats at both the doses. Weekly Average body weight gain wassignificantly reduced following cartap (32.5 mg/kg). Both absolute and relative organweights did not differ significantly between different treatment groups. Hematologicalparameters did not differ significantly in any of the treatment groups. Plasma Glucose,Total Cholesterol, Triglycerides, AST, ALT, BUN levels were found to be markedlyincreased in cartap alone treatment groups. Plasma calcium levels showed irregular butnon-significant change in response to cartap doses. α-tocopherol co-treatment with cartapproduced non-significant decrease in the plasma levels of Glucose, AST and ALT but thelevels of Total Cholesterol Triglycerides and Calcium were found to be significantlydecreased in both the co-treated groups. BUN levels remained unaffected following α-tocopherol co-treatment.

9.1 Introduction

Depleting natural resources, regulations on synthetic material, growing environmental awareness and economic considerations today happens to be major driving force for utilization of wastes from the agricultural crops and their residues throughout world [1]. These challenges have led to the introduction of sustainable waste management practices via optimization of processing technologies for minimization and creative conversion of the plant and the processing industries biowastes the world over [2,3,4,5]. Although world prices for sugar and petroleum products have shown spectacular variations during the last few decades, the long term outlook is very likely to be a continuous increase in the price of all fossil fuels and stagnation, at best, for the price of sugar [6]. This gloomy prospect led to the renewed interest in the wastes of the sugarcane industry during the last 50 years and has proved that the optimal use of wastes can provide not only a non-negligible support to the sugarcane industry but will also be able to redress the difficult situation sugar is presently experiencing [7]. Reliable statistics are not available to show the detailed end uses of these wastes on a world basis, but from a very rough picture of their trade, we can say that the wastes from the sugar and jaggery industry serve to be amongst the richest bioresource in this era of recycling of biowastes for renewable wealth generation [8].

CARBOHYDRATES AND SUGARS

Carbohydrates which include sugars and starches are among the most important of the food stuffs as well as the simplest of organic foods. They may be divided into three groups.

Group – I

Monosaccharides  : These are simple sugars that cannot be split into any simpler forms. The principal ones are glucose or dextrose, fructose and galactose. Glucose sometimes known as dextrose or grape sugar is found widely distributed in nature, especially in fruits and vegetables, and is one of the main constuents of honey.

It is in the form of glucose that sugar appears in the blood and is being burned continuously to produce energy. A certain amount of surplus glucose is absorbed from the digestive tract and stored in the liver as glycogen, which can be converted back into glucose when the need for more fuel arises. In the presence of yeasts, glucose undergoes fermentation and changes into alcohol.

Pure sugar when heated melts at about 160-1800c. at about 2100c sucrose loses water and becomes caramel.

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)

Sugarcane is an important agro-industrial crop of tropical and subtropical region of the world. Sugar industry is next to textile industry provide employment to large number of people. It is the main crop of earning foreign exchange. It shares about 2% GDP.

Family : Gramineae (Poaceae)

Importance (Second largest agro-based industry)

• It is cash crop used for sugar, Jaggery (Gur) and Khandsari.
• Green top is used as green fodder. Dry leaves used as mulching and as a fuel.
• Bagasse (By product) is used as fuel, for the production of fibre board, paper etc. and for power generation (electricity).
• Molasses is used in distilleries for the manufacture of alcohol and is also used as an additive to feed livestock.
• Press mud is used as soil amendments, organic manure

Indian canes probably originated in the moist parts of North Eastern India from some plants closely related to Saccharum spontaneum (Barber, 1931). Brandes (1956) concluded that tropical cane might have originated in some of the larger islands of Oceania countries most probably in New Guinea, where various forms of thick, tall tropical canes have been grown from ancient times. Parthasarathy (1946) believed that India is the original home of Saccharum officinarum.

Introduction
 
Sugarcane is an important cash crop of India. Since 1930-31 the area of sugarcane in the country has increased by about 4.3 times and production by about 9.8 times because of the rise in productivity of sugarcane by about 2.28 times, however, during the last decade there is no perceptible increase in productivity of sugarcane in the country. The domestic demand of sugar is around 22-23 million tonnes annually whereas the production of sugar in India is about 26 million tonnes annually. Data on nitrogen use efficiency of sugarcane from 1998-99 to 2013-14 in India is depicted in Fig. 1 and 2 show a decreasing trend (Anonymous, 2015). However, the escalating price of fertilizers in the market has become a cause of concern to sustain the productivity of the crop.

Red Rot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Practically all above ground parts are affected, but stalks are the main targets of stack.
• Spindle leaves (third or fourth)starts drying.
• Further stalks becomes discolored and hollow.
• Diagnostic symptom is th formation of red streaks, interrupted by white patches , inside the stalk.This can be seen by splitting the stalks longitudinally.
• White patches are characteristics of disease, not found in other stalk rots.
• After splitting opened the diseased stalk, a sour smell due to conversion of glucose to alcohol.
• Red longitudinal lesions are also seen on the mid ribs of the leaves on which black color fruiting body (Acervuli) are formed (Fig.1).

Introduction
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum Linn.) is a remarkable tall, perennial grass characterized by its thick, jointed stalks and long linear leaves. This remarkable plant, known for its ability to efficiently photosynthesize in warm climates, is a C4 plant. The propagation of sugarcane primarily occurs through stem cuttings, as it seldom produces flowers and seeds. It finds roots in regions with tropical and subtropical climates featuring warm temperatures, abundant sunshine, and well-drained fertile soil (Shukla et al., 2017). Cultivated for its sweet juice, rich in sucrose, sugarcane serves as the primary raw material for the production of sugar, ethanol, and various other valuable products. Its lifecycle comprises several growth stages, including germination, tillering, grand growth, and maturation, culminating in the harvesting of its valuable juice. Continuous advancements in botany and genetics have contributed to the improvement of sugarcane cultivation, enhancing yield and resistance to pests and diseases. The origins and domestication of sugarcane can be traced back to Southeast Asia, particularly in regions encompassing Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and their vicinity. The domestication of sugarcane is believed to have commenced thousands of years ago when early human populations in these regions recognized the sweetness of the cane and began cultivating it for its edible properties. Over time, through selective breeding and propagation of plants with desirable traits, these early cultivators played a pivotal role in shaping the sugarcane we know today. This indigenous Southeast Asian plant spread to other parts of the world through trade and exploration. Historical records indicate that sugarcane found its way to India around 500 BC and reached China in the 6th century AD. Subsequently, it traversed the Middle East, the Mediterranean region, and eventually reached the Americas during the early voyages of exploration and colonization (Grivet et al., 2004). Christopher Columbus played a significant role in introducing sugarcane to the Caribbean islands during his second voyage in 1493, and from there, it made its way to other parts of the New World, including Brazil and various South American countries. The cultivation of sugarcane emerged as an essential industry in these regions, profoundly influencing their economic and social landscapes. The domestication and widespread cultivation of sugarcane have left an indelible mark on the global economy, trade, and human history. Today, sugarcane remains one of the most significant crops globally, with major producing countries, including Brazil, India, China, Thailand, and others. It stands not only as a pivotal

The disease was fi rst reported in Java in 1893 and is prevalent in all sugarcane growing countries. In India the disease occurs in an epiphytotic form in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar during 1939-1940 and 1946-1947 and cause severe damage that threatened the existence of sugar industries.

In fruits, vegetables, and their products, the sugars are estimated as reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, and total sugars. Reducing sugars in fruits and their products represent glucose and fructose. A combination of reducing and non-reducing sugars gives total sugars, whereas non-reducing sugars mainly sucrose are calculated after deducting the value of reducing sugars from the total sugars as invert sugar and multiplying the remainder with a factor of 0.95. Many fruit, vegetables, and their products like jam, jelly, juice, preserve, candy, fruit toffees, etc., containing substantial amounts of sugars, are estimated as a routine by using Lane and Eynon’s method using Fehling’s solution. However, for products having a smaller quantity of sugars, more precise methods like colorimetric methods can be used.
Method: Lane and Eynon’s Method
Principle: Invert sugar reduces the copper in Fehling’s solution to red, insoluble cuprous oxide. The sugar content in a food sample is estimated by determining the volume of the unknown sugar solution required to completely reduce a known volume of Fehling’s solution. Glucose, fructose and other] sugars capable of reducing oxidizing agents are called reducing sugars and this property is used for the estimation of sugars.

ABSTRACT

This paper presents few measures to be taken up by academic institutions, professional societies, industrial bodies and governmental agencies for the propagation of information of IPR in terms of encouragement of publication of books on IPR, establishment of IPR cells in academic and professional institutions and making IPR education as part of curriculum in Universities and institutions of higher learning.

For the preparation of this book, the authors have drawn heavily from the following sources.

Aamodt,O.S and Johnston W.A. 1936. Can.J.Res.14: 122-152.

Adams, J. E. 1962. Agron. J. 54: 257-261.

Barrs, H.D. and Weatherley, P.E. 1962. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences, 15:413-428.

Blackman, V.H. 1919. Annals of Botany, 33:353-360.

Chen, D; Sarid, A. and Katchalski, E.1968.Proc. Nat.Acad.Sci;US. 61: 1378-83.

De, G.C. 1989. Fundamentals of Agronomy. Oxford and 1 BH pulishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

El Sharkawy, M. Loomsi, R.S. and Williams, W.A. 1968. J. Applied Ecol.5:241-51.

Angier, Natalie (2009-11-09). “Pigs Prove to Be Smart, if Not Vain”. The New York Times (New York, New York, US: The New York Times Company).

Anonymous 2002-03. Annual Report of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Department, Directorate of Animal. Husbandry and Veterinary Department, Government of Mizoram, Pp 8

Broom, Donald M.; Hilana Sena, Kiera L. Moynihan (2009-11). “Pigs learn what a mirror image represents and use it to obtain information”. Animal Behaviour 78 (5): 1037-1041.

Burkholder JoAnn; Bob Libra, Peter Weyer, Susan Heathcote, Dana Kolpin, Peter S. Thorne, Michael Wichman (2007) Impacts of Waste from Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations on Water Quality. Environ Health Perspectives. 115:308-312.

Chandrashekhar Sahukar. (2000). Piggery India Year Book, pp. 343-347.

Christianson, L.L, Bane D.P, Curtis S.E, Hall W.F, Muehling A.J, and Riskowski G.L. 1989. Swine Care Handbook for Pork Producers Using Environmentally Controlled Housing. Des Moines: National Pork Producers Council.

Crucik Shank, R et al (1965). Medical Microbiology, ELBS, London.

Curtis, S.E., et al. 1988. Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching. Champaign III, Consortium for Developing a Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching.

Dalton, C. and. Kilgour R.1984. Livestock Behaviour; A Practical Guide. Granada Publishing, Lt., Frogmore, St. albans, Herts, U.K.

Daszak et al (2000). Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wildlife — Threats to Biodiversity and Human Health. Science Vol 287 pp 443-449

Delgado, C., Rosegrant, M., Steinfeld, H., Ehui, S., Courbois, C., 1999. Livestock to 2020. The next food revolution. Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper28. IFPRI, FAO, ILRI

DeShazer, J.A and ONil erhults D.G.1982. Energy Demand in Livestock Production. Livestock Environment, Proceedings of 2nd International Livestock Environment Symposium. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MO.

Donham K. (1998). “The impact of industrial swine production on human health”. In Thu K, Durrenberger E. Pigs, Profits, and Rural Communities. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. pp. 73-83.

Eastman, Wilbur F. The Canning, Freezing, Curing & Smoking of Meat, Fish & Game, Garden Way Publishing, 1975, ISBN 0-88266-045-4

Embog, H.D. et at (1996). How the Danish surveillance system for Salmonella has influenced the microbiological quality of swine carcase meat. Proc. Int. Pig. Vet. Soc.14:714.

FAO (1983). Integrated crops and livestock in West Africa. Animal Production and Health paper. Rome, No. 41. Foodand Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation.

FAO (1998a). Farm Animal Genetic Resources: Biodiversity for food and agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation.

FAO (1998b). Local animal breeds still threatened by extinction, No. 4. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation.

FAO (2001). Bulletin of Statistics. Vol.2, No.1. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.

If you have prepared yourself to make research as your career, it is most advantageous to read research papers/reviews/chapters/books published by the eminent scientists. It is not necessary to confine reading to your subject but a voracious reading will enable you to develop an idea about general problems related to science and our society; how scientists managed to solve them and with development of new knowledge, how you may tackle fresh or existing problems. A deep analysis may be done of those works which are so accurate that even after lapse of so many years, they still hold true. In our opinion, it is better to launch websites/blogs highlighting important works of eminent Parasitologists for the benefit of our research scholars; a beginning, in India in Parasitology, has been made in this direction with launch of a website on first time Rafi Ahmed Kidwai award winner (in Animal Sciences) late Dr SC Dutt (www.drscdutt.com). 

ABSTRACT

The paper presents the results of agroforestry trials that had been conducted in lower shivaliks for assessing soil and water conservation under different land uses. The experiments reveal that agroforestry is a profitable venture compared to monocroping in lower shivaliks, where agriculture is rainfed.

Introduction

The lower Shivalik is composed of an alternating sequence of well indurated, fine grained, purple and grayish-purple sandstones and purple and maroon clays in the lower part and grayish-purple, medium to fine grained standstones in the upper part. The formation attains a thickness of 1,300 m to 1,900 m in the Western Himalaya. The important places of lower Shivaliks are along Sambha-Udhampur Road, Jammu – Srinagar national highway, Nahan, Kalka, Nalagarh, Bilaspur, Sarkaghat regions of Himachal Pradesh. In Kumaon Himalaya, lower Shivaliks are in Kotdwar, Rathwadhab, Mohand, Haldwani and Tanakpur regions

Sulfate can have harmful effects on aquatic life in freshwaters, sulfate cause osmotic stress or specific ion toxicity in aquatic organisms, especially in soft waters where Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrations are low. Egg fertilization and early embryonic development were the most sensitive developmental stages of whitefish to sulfate (Karjalainen et al., 2021).
Sulphate (SO4 2-) may be estimated by either turbidimetric or gravimetric methods (APHA, 1995)
1. Turbidimetric method is more applicable in the range of 1- 40 mg Sulphate (SO4 2-)/ L
2. Gravimetric method is suitable if the concentration of Sulphate (SO4 2-) is above 10 mg/ L
Turbidimetric Method (Range 1 - 40 mg/L of sulphate) Principle
Sulphate ion (SO4 2-) precipitated with barium chloride (BaCl2) in an acetic acid medium in order to form crystals of barium sulphate (BaSO4).
BaCl2 + SO4 2-+ BaSO4 (precipitate)
The formation of these crystals is increased in the presence of an acetic acid solution containing sodium acetate, potassium nitrate, acetic acid and magnesium chloride. The suspended barium sulphate (BaSO4) is measured by spectrophotometer and concentration of sulphate (SO4 2-) is determined by comparison of the reading with a standard curve. Minimum detectable concentration is approximately 1 mg (SO4 2-) / L.

Microbial transformations of sulfur (S) are even more complex than those of nitrogen because of the large number of oxidation states of S and the fact that several transformations of S also occur abiotically. Although a number of oxidation states of S are possible, only three are significant in nature, 2 (sulfhydryl, R–SH, and sulfide, HS-), 0 (elemental sulfur, S0), and 6 (sulfate, SO₄ 2-). The bulk of S Earth’s S is in sediments and rocks in the form of sulfate minerals, primarily gypsum (CaSO₄) and sulfide minerals (pyrite, FeS2), but the oceans constitute the most significant reservoir of SO₄ ^2- in the biosphere. A significant amount of S, in particular sulfur dioxide (SO₂), enters the S cycle from human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels.

Hydrogen Sulfide and Sulfate Reduction

A major volatile S gas is hydrogen sulfide (H₂S). Hydrogen sulfide is produced from bacterial sulfate reduction or is emitted from sulfide springs and volcanoes. Although H₂S is volatile, different forms exist depending on pH: H₂S predominates below pH 7 and the nonvolatile HS- and S^2- predominate above pH 7. Collectively,H₂S, HS, and S₂ are referred to as “sulfide.” Sulfate-reducing bacteria are a large and highly diverse group and are widespread in nature. However, in anoxic habitats such as freshwater sediments and many soils, sulfate reduction is SO₄ ^2- limited. Moreover, because organic electron donors (or H₂, which is a product of the fermentation of organic compounds) are needed to support sulfate reduction, it only occurs where significant amounts of organic material are present.

Sulphur dioxide is used as a preservative in many fruit and vegetable products. It can be added either in the form of potassium metabisulphite or by exposingthe product to sulphur fumigation by burning sulphur powder. Food safety and standards regulations have specified the maximum limit of sulphur dioxide in the finished products. Products having sulphur dioxide content exceeding the limit are considered not conforming to Indian Food Laws. Therefore, the estimation of sulphur dioxide in food products is considered an important attribute for quality evaluation.
Principle
Sulphur dioxide added to the food products may exist as undissociated sulphurous acid, as free bisulphite ions, as free sulphite ions and/or as combined SO2 in the form of hydroxy sulphonates. Sulphur dioxide is measured as free or total SO2.
Free SO2 is measured by direct titration with iodine. In the estimation of total SO2, the combined SO2 is liberated by treatment with excess alkali at room temperature, followed by subsequent acidification to prevent recombination and titration with iodine. The method used is known as the Modified Ripper Titration Method.

Sulphur (S) occurs in soil in both organic and inorganic forms. Inorganic S fraction may occurs as sulphate (SO₄^2-) and compounds of lower oxidation state such as sulphide (S^2-), polysulphide (S_n^2-), thiosulphate (S₂O₃^2-) and elemental sulphur (S⁰). In well drained soils inorganic S usually present as sulphate. Under anaerobic condition (reduced or waterlogged soil) inorganic S mainly occur as sulphide and under extreme condition as elemental S form. Estimation of S is carried out in two steps:

1. Extraction of different forms of S from soil by suitable extractant.
2. The filtrate is then analysed for S by the turbidimetric method.

The turbidimetric method is the most widely used one because of its simplicity and rapidity.

Sulphur (S) occurs in soil in both organic and inorganic forms. Inorganic S fraction may occur as sulphate (SO₄^2-) and compounds of lower oxidation state such as sulphide (S^2-), polysulphide (S_n^2-), thiosulphate (S₂O₃^2-) and elemental sulphur (S⁰). In well drained soils inorganic S usually present as sulphate. Under anaerobic condition (reduced or waterlogged soil) inorganic S mainly occur as sulphide and under extreme condition as elemental S form. Estimation of S carried out in two steps:

Sulphur in nature follows similar cycle as that of nitrogen and shares many common features with it. In soils, decomposition of organic matter releases major portion of nitrogen and sulphur bound in proteins, as cystine or methionine amino acids, or vitamins, etc. In proteins, on an average, for every 36 atoms of nitrogen one atom of sulphur is present. Mineralization supplies a large fraction of nitrogen and sulphur to the plants. Secondly, both nitrogen and sulphur have several chemical forms under different soil conditions (Table 8.1) and both are subject to microbial reduction. Thirdly, both can enter or leave soil in gaseous form and both are subject to some degree of leaching in the anionic form.

This is a great Hahnemannian anti- psoric. Its action is centrifugal - from within outward - having an elective affinity for the skin, where it produces heat and burning, with itching; made worse by heat of bed. Inertia and relaxation of fibre; hence feebleness of tone chracterizes its symptoms. Ebullitions of heat, dislike of water, dry and hard hair and skin, red orifices, sinking feeling at stomach about 11.00am, cat-nap sleep; always indicate sulphur homoeopathically. Standing is the worst position for sulphur patients it is always uncomfortable. Dirty, filthy people, prone to skin affections. Aversion to being washed. When carefully selected remedies fail to act, especially in acute diseases, it frequently arouses the reactionary powers of the organism. Complaints that relapse. General offensive character of discharge and exhalations. Very red lips and face, flushing easily. Often use in beginning the treatment of chronic cases and in finishing acute ones.

The One Nation One Subscription (ONOS) scheme is a cornerstone of India’s ambition to become a self reliant and developed nation by 2047 envisaged by Hon’ble Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi Ji. The initiative is a significant step to enhance access to scientific and academic resources across the country. This initiative can positively impact Indian journal ratings and boost subscriptions by addressing several challenges listed below:
• Increased Access to Global Resources
• Enhanced Research Quality 118 | Promoting Excellence in Agricultural Sciences
• Support for Smaller Institutions
• Boost to Indian Journals
• Fostering Interdisciplinary Collaboration
By bridging gaps in resource accessibility and improving research output, ONOS can play a pivotal role in elevating the status of Indian journals on global platforms. While evaluating Indian Journals of Agricultural and Allied Sciences, comprehensive and inclusive databases with many characteristics listed below should be adopted so as to ensure equal focus and benefit from international exposure:
• The database should have regional and multi-lingual journals with proper translation or abstracting, interdisciplinary research output, more and new journals/technical reports/official scientific documents/conference proceedings etc, open access for smaller journals to ensure readily accessible cutting-edge research in agriculture
• The database should provide more nuanced metrics that value realistic impact and localized research contributions considering immediate practical applications
• The database should include a wide range of journals across diverse disciplines, including agriculture, forestry, veterinary sciences, and environmental science with more inclusion of regional and specialized journals, providing access to a broader spectrum of agricultural research
• The database should emphasis on journals from developing regions, which often publish research addressing local agricultural challenges. This diversity helps in showcasing research contributions from regions/countries with significant agricultural economies
• The database of agriculture-related journals should overlap with other related fields viz., environmental science, biology, and social sciences, reflecting the interdisciplinary nature of agriculture. This helps researchers access a more comprehensive set of resources
• The database have detailed subject areas, allowing researchers to pinpoint agricultural science journals within relevant subfields like:

True/False
 
Q.1.    The set of observations or measurements collected on specific characteristics from each item (individual) constitutes data.
Q.2.    Each characteristic that is measured or observed, varies from item to item and is called “Variable”.
Q.3.    “Blood type”, “stage of disease” and “weight” observed on a group of cancer patients, are three distinct variables.
Q.4.    A variable that can be expressed in numbers such as age, height, blood pressure, is said to be “Quantitative variable”.

Tropical forest bird community

Species richness at Silent Valley and Mukkali were similar. Most of the birds at Silent Valley were sighted with in a distance of 4m during the census. At Mukkali this distance was up to 9m. Yellowbrowed Bulbul was the most common and dominant species found at Silent Valley. Most common species found at Mukkali was Black Drongo and dominant species was Jungle Babbler. A total of hundred and thirty-seven species of birds were recorded from the study area. There is no significant difference in bird species richness between years during monsoon and summer seasons at Silent Valley. But a significant difference in species richness is obtained between years in both seasons, at Mukkali.

Four endemic and threatened species of birds were recorded from the study area. This shows the conservation value of the study area. Total number of birds sighted in each month showed significant difference at Silent Valley and Mukkali. This is due to the movement of birds influenced by the climatic and other parameters. Overall density of birds was high at Silent Valley (1122 birds/km²) and low at Mukkali (780 birds/km² ). This indicates the ability of tropical evergreen forest to harbour more birds than tropical moist deciduous forest. The number of individuals/km² recorded is comparable to other tropical forests in the world and from this observation we can also conclude that the study area is supporting a rich bird community.

Fish transport is a vast area comprising the problems of purely technical design on the one hand, and the chemistry of water, biological reactions of fish and the like, on the other. The above survey could only briefly mention and evaluate the relevant literature on these problems. Because of its purpose, the book was designed not only as an analytical-synthetic survey of pertinent literature but, at the same time, as a practical manual to be used for seeking at least partial answers to practical questions concerning fish transport. The live fish trade is a rapidly expanding component of commercial fishing and aquaculture industries.

Proper sanitization of all the equipment and accessories is one of the essential steps for the determination of oxygen uptake of fishes as well as all the other steps of fish transportation in this pandemic of COVID-19.

The Internet, new information and communication technologies today are being entrenched into the fabric of our society at a very rapid rate. The Internet has emerged as an extraordinary prominent medium having a tremendous impact on and within society.

The present study has been conducted in one of the agro-ecological zones of the state of West Bengal, New alluvial zone. Four villages from Haringhata block in Nadia district were selected from the new alluvial agro- ecological zone to conduct the study. One hundred farmers were selected from the villages of Dalilpur, Mitrapur, Fatehpur, 25 respondents from each. The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra krishi Viswavidyalaya, etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

This chapter presents the conclusions of the research study. Based on these conclusions, recommendations relating to the effective implementation and management of Cyber Reference Service (CRS) in agricultural libraries in Maharashtra are made.

6.1 Introduction

The overall aim of this research was to investigate and analyze CRS in the Agricultural College and University libraries of Maharashtra. The study adopted a mixed-methods approach by combining quantitative and qualitative methods to achieve its aims and objectives. 

Uncertainty is an inevitable character of any system where most of the contradictory factors are either unpredictable or unfathomable. The higher is the complexity, the lesser would be the resilience. Agricultural production system, as it is managed in Indian condition, is the most vulnerable one to a plethora of uncertainties. Mostly managed in an open air rainfed conditions, it has been exposed to weather and resource uncertainties, market volatility, poor access to technology and a fragile input delivery mechanism.

Objectives

1. To estimate and assess the general status of perceived uncertainty of farmers by scale and dimension

The present research had been conducted to study the Entrepreneurial communication and the process, factors and impact in Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at villages Radhikapur from blocks Kaliyaganj of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.

An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 75 respondents from the village were selected for the study through Systematic Random sampling method. The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra krishi Viswavidyalaya, etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

The general objective of the study is to estimate and analyze the “Entrepreneurial communication: The process, factors and impact in Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal” and the specific objectives are:

1) To study the present status of the entrepreneurial communication.

2) To measure the unique features entrepreneurial communication over the general communication.

3) To generate micro level policy implementation based on the empirical research.

4) To estimate intra and inter level of interaction among dependent variable and independent variable.

5) To isolate factors impactions on Entrepreneurial behavior.

7.1: Summary

19 Independent variables and 6 Dependent variables were selected for the study respectively and measured with the help of exact scales developed by previous social science researchers or by modifying the developed scale by structured interview schedule for requirement of the study.

Independent variables selected for the study are, Age (x1), Education (x2), No. of enterprise (x3), Year of enterprise (x4), Family size (x5),Average Family education (x6), Material possessed (x7), Size of land holding (x8), Size of homestead land (x9) No. of fragments (x10), Crop yield (x11), Cropping intensity (x12), Annual Income (x13), Family expenditure (x14), Marketed surplus (x15), Marketable surplus (x16), Family labor (x17), No. of male workers (x18) and No. of female workers (x19). The Dependent variables selected for the study are, cosmopo lite Farm enterprise information (y1), localite Farm enterprise information (y2), Information seeking and responding behavior (y3), Entrepreneurial communication behavior (y4), Economical communication (y5) and Transportation cost (y6).

7.1 Summary

The presentre search hadbeenconducted to study the Entrepreneurial communication and the process, factors and impactin Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at villages Mitrapur from blocks Haringhata of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.

An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 75 respondents from the village were selected for the study through Systematic Random sampling method.The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

The general objective of the study is to estimate and analyse the “Productivity, Income, Livelihood and Ecology: The resilience analysis in Argo ecosystem” and the specific objectives are

• To study the present statuses of 1. Income 2. Productivity 3. Livelihood and 4. Ecological resilience of the respondence under study in a selected locale.

• To estimate the intra and inter level interaction among and between the selected sets of variables to estimate the common point of the interaction of the ‘Y’ Protected characteristics.

• To generate micro sociological policy implication based on empirical evidence.

• To isolate factors impactions on ecological resilience.

6.1 Summary

The study analyzed the economics of family migration decision and its relationship with urban informal sector and agricultural efficiency. The study is mainly based on primary survey, though various secondary data Sources have been consulted. The primary survey has been conducted in Birbhum district of West Bengal covering 300 households with equal share of rural and urban households. The selection of the district is mainly guided by the dominance of rural-urban migration and the wide prevalence of both agricultural and non-agricultural activities. By tracing the reasons of migration across the states of India, the study provides a vivid picture of the rural-urban migration in West Bengal and it is associated linkages with agricultural efficiency and urban informal sector. Sophisticated statistical and econometric tools have been utilized to justify the economic explanation of rural urban migration in West Bengal.

The present research focuses on studying the Entrepreneurial Communication of Farmer Producer Organization (FPO) Members: The Process, Impact, and Innovation. The study was conducted in selected blocks of West Bengal, with a comparative analysis being carried out.

Fifteen Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) located in Uttar Dinajpur and Nadia districts of West Bengal were chosen. To ensure a comprehensive understanding of the research area, a pilot study was conducted to explore the geographical landscape, understand the local population, assess relevant institutions, analyze communication channels, and evaluate the extension systems.

With the help of CBBO, an exhaustive list of FPOs was prepared to ensure a representative sample. From this list, a random sampling method was employed to select seventy-five respondents for the study. Primary data were collected using structured interview schedules conducted through personal interviews.

The main objective of this research is to gain valuable insights into the entrepreneurial communication practices of Farmer Producer Organization (FPO) members and assess their impact on entrepreneurship. Additionally, the study aims to explore potential avenues for innovation within FPOs. By conducting a comparative analysis of various FPOs in West Bengal, this research seeks to shed light on their communication processes, effectiveness, and contributions to the overall entrepreneurial ecosystem. The findings of this study have the potential to significantly enhance entrepreneurial communication practices within FPOs, promoting innovation and facilitating the growth of agricultural entrepreneurship in the region of West Bengal.

Summary

It has been found from the study that for the independent variable Family size (x1 ), the maximum is 9.00, and minimum is 2.00 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 38.124 per cent, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high. For Average family education (x2 ), the maximum is 6.00, and minimum is 1.250 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 33.074, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high. Average age (x3 ) of the respondents, the maximum is 58.00, and minimum is 12.500 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 35.341, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high. The study reveals that Average family income (x4 ), the maximum is 10833.00, and minimum is 3666.00 where Coefficient of variation is 30.796, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high and Family land holding (x5 ), the maximum is 5.500, and minimum is 1.00 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 38.241, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution Family land of holding is high. In the study maximum and minimum House type (x6 ) of the respondents are 9.00 and 2.00 respectively where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 30.399, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high. In case of material possession (x7 ), the maximum is 13.00, and minimum is 1.00 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 70.780, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is medium. Source of information for migration (x8 ), the maximum is 4.00, and minimum is 1.00 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 35.679, which shows that the distribution of the variable is high. It has been found from the study that for the independent variable money required for migration (x9 ), the maximum is 5.00, and minimum is 1.00 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 26.639 per cent, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high.

The quality and effectiveness of extension services are critical to the agricultural sector’s long-term viability and output. Farmers have been getting agricultural information from extension workers via interpersonal communication for many years. Still, the number of extension employees has been declining while the number of farming families has increased. As a result, the country’s current extension service needs to improve in reaching out to farmers with timely and relevant agricultural information. ICTs are considered a partial answer to quickly getting information to the growing number of farming households because relevant and timely information is vital in agriculture. Farmers may receive up-to-date knowledge and information on agricultural technologies, best practices, markets, price patterns, and customer preferences through its use.

Since farmers in many parts of India, including West Bengal , are becoming more mobile and internet savvy, disseminating useful real-time information about crops, soils, climate, cultivation practices, financing, produce storage, and marketing to farming communities is more important and challenging. Many concerted efforts from the government, non-government organizations, and industry are now required to make our farmers ICT -friendly so that the benefits of rapidly evolving technological advancements in farm production, storage, and marketing can be shared equally among all communities and sectors of farming.

7.1 Summary

Never ever in the annals of human civilization, the importance of ecological resilience has become so important and imperative as we are perceiving now. Both the need and greed of food economics have driven the resource bases of our ecosystem, to a dilapidated and fragile status. By 2050 the world’s population will touch close to 9.5 billion and we have to scale up our food production 60% more then what it is right now. In India by 2040, we have to cross 450 million tons of our targeted food production to keep rhythm with population growth. By 2035 we are going to cross the population of China. Understanding the cascade of risks for climate change, as well as the vulnerabilities to these risks, is key to frame ways to adapt. Reducing vulnerabilities is key to reducing the net impacts on food security and nutrition and also to reducing long-term effects. Increasing resilience of food security in the face of climate change calls for multiple interventions, from social protection to agricultural practices and risk management..

When population pressure is soaring up, the need to produce more food from less and less available land and water, the issues of ecological resilience are coming up more swashbuckling and humongous. The aftermath of green revolution has contributed to achievement in food security on one hand, the other hand water has been contaminated and depleted, soil has been eroded with a sharp decline of organic carbon. We are losing 15 tons of topsoil per hectare per year and inviting a disruptive agro-ecosystem, the syndrome of which are quite vivid and prominent.

The present research had been conducted to study the Entrepreneurial communication and the process, factors and impact in Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at villages Radhikapur from blocks Kaliyaganj of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.
An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 75 respondents from the village were selected for the study through Systematic Random sampling method. The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra krishi Viswavidyalaya, etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

The unique topography and terrain of North East (Manipur, in the study) have provocated the inquisitive minds to set off a study on altitude based extension approach and variability. While there have been changes of biodiversities with the change in altitude, there should have been a change of socio-cultural practices with the change of altitude too. It would critically analyse the unique flow of information, the texture of praxis, the curve of enthnobotanical configuration and the enterprise mixes including crops, animals and birds enterprises.
However, due to hilly terrain, erratic climatic conditions and shortage of trained manpower, the full potential of these resources is underutilized. Also, severe soil erosion, water scarcity during dry season, fragmented land holding and sloppy terrains are some of the major bottlenecks for mechanized farming.
Extension education, by becoming both system and function for technology socialization, can’t go without location specific references. With a change of altitude and slope, the panorama of biology and sociology keeps transforming and hence, the altitude of a hill becomes a major character itself in deciding on strategy of extension for a synergy of geography with extension policies.
What is happening since past and till today is a kind of blanket extension recommendations is being made to cover all geographical variations and social scores, along and across the slope or terrains in a given hill ecosystem. The North East Hill eco system of India is blessed with bounty of nature and is one of the hot spots of the World. Altitude extension, the first of its kind in extension domain, has attempted to study the variations along with the altitude of a hill ecosystem in designing the extension approach with social, technological, and cultural variants. In this research and with this innovative approach, an empirical study has to be conducted to find out the variations with the change of altitude, for ultimately designing a both gross and subtle extension plan for desired changes in the agriculture of hill ecosystem.
Keeping in view all the aforesaid discussed issues the present study entitled “Altitude Extension: The Concept, Approach and Dynamics” was carried out with the following objectives:

The unpredictable and frequently tumultuous nature of events affecting farming and rural life, such as weather patterns, market fluctuations, and policy changes, is referred to as uncertainty and chaos in agricultural extension, particularly with regard to livelihoods. These factors can interfere with farmer income and agricultural output, making it difficult for extension agencies to offer consistent assistance. Adaptive management techniques, such as encouraging diversified farming methods, boosting early warning systems for weather and market trends, and improving education and training for resilience development, are necessary to address these problems. Data-driven decision-making, adaptable policy frameworks, and cooperative efforts with local communities can all aid in managing uncertainty and averting chaos, which will eventually support more stable and sustainable livelihoods for farmers.
Objectives
1. To delineate the present status of transforming and transformed livelihood in present terrains of social ecologies.
2. To find the factors contributing to transformation dynamics of rural people.
3. To estimate the intra and inter level interaction amongst and between the sets of dependent and independent variables.
4. To delineate micro-level policy based on empirical studies and deliver its implication to other social ecologies.
For the study, a total of 21 independent variables and 5 dependent variables were chosen, and each was examined using a structured interview schedule or precise scales created by earlier social science researchers for the study’s requirements.
Independent variables selected for the study are, age (x1), education (x2), family size (x3), sex ratio (x4), cost of energy consumption (x5), cost of smart phone maintenance(x6),cultivated land (x7), homestead land (x8),irrigated land (x9), cropping intensity (x10), crop diversity index (x11), yield of crop(x12), cost of cultivation (x13), on farm income (x14), off farm income (x15), total annual