eChapters

Alkali soil
 
Alkali soils are those that contain measurable amounts of soluble salts mostly as carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium. 

    1.    Salt affected soils;
    2.    Classification of salt affected soils; 
    3.    Formation of salt affected soils; 

    1.    Acid soil
    2.    Causes of soil acidity   
    3.    Problem of soil acidity 
    4.    Management or Amelioration of soil acidity 
        a.    Lime requirement (LR): 
        b.    Liming reaction in soils      
        c.    Benefits of liming on acidic soils 
    5.    Calcareous soil  
    6.    Formation, characteristics & management of calcareous soil 

Organic matter and its composition 
Decomposition  
Types microorganisms involved 
Enzymes involved in decomposition process?

N-Transformation and availability in soils     
    a.    N-Cycle 
    b.    N transformation in  soils 
Phosphorus transformation & availability in soils: 
    a.    P-Cycle 
    b.    P transformation in soils 
K-transformations& availability in soils: 
    a.    K-Cycle 
    b.    K-Transformations

The following graph is a visual representation of how plant growth and/or yield is affected by nutrient concentrations

Terminology

    ·    Nutrient: Nutrients are substances required by an organism for their normal     growth and reproduction. 
    ·    Plant Nutrient: The plant nutrient is a “food” which is composed of certain chemical elements often referred to as ‘plant nutrient’ or plant food elements considered very essential for growth and development of plants. 
    ·    Nutrition: The supply and absorption of chemical compounds needed for growth and metabolism of an organism.

Soil fertility -importance

From edaphological point of view soil is a medium for plant growth. It holds and nourishes the plants. Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to supply plant nutrients. Soil fertility and fertilizers are very much closely related terms; and cannot be neglected one from the other in their function. Soil fertility acts as a ‘SINK’ where in plants can draw nutrients for maximum productivity, where as fertilizer, acts as a ‘SOURCE’ wherein we can apply continuously different nutrients. The importance of soil fertility and nutrient management is being increasingly recognized in all countries recently to meet the demand for food and other agricultural raw materials. Intensive use of fertilizer, intensive cropping and high yielding seeds have no doubt increased the food production and reduced the food shortage but it has also ushered in innumerable problems of soil fertility, soil and water pollution. On the other hand, fast depletion of nutrients due to over exploitation, a wide spread deficiency of N, P, K and S coupled with micronutrients deficiencies specially Zn, B and Mo is taking place. Further deforestation, shifting cultivation, burning of crop residues, trees, bushes, grasses and cow dung, soil erosion, nutrient losses and imbalanced nutrient application, leaching losses etc., have aggravated the depletion of soil fertility status. The productivity of Indian agriculture solely depends on scientific management of soil fertility along with judicious and efficient use of fertilizers integrated with organic sources.

Black pepper is popularly known as ‘King of spices’, it is the dried berry of the pepper vine, so important in the International Trade Market. The crop has its origin in the tropical rain forests of Western Ghats of India.  Kerala is the leading State in the production of black pepper with the ubiquitous presence of this crop in coconut, arecanut and coffee plantations. Chief pepper producing countries are Indonesia, Brazil, Malaysia, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.

Coconut is the most important palm of the wet tropics as a  major source of vegetable oil which also provides food, health drink, medicine, shelter, fuel, timber and fibre.  Because of its versatile nature, it is eulogised as ’Tree of Heaven’, ‘Tree of Life’, Kalpavriksha, Tree of Abundance, Natures supermarket and king of palms.  Oil is extracted from dried endosperm  which is called ‘copra’. The unopened flowering spathe, on tapping process, yields a delicious sap (Coconut Inflorescence Sap) rich in sugars and vitamin B, is called toddy from which sugar syrup and many products can be extracted.  An intoxicating drink called arrack can be prepared by distilling fermented toddy. The hard endocarps of fruits supply fuel and charcoal and mesocarp yields fibre for coir industry. Leaves are used for thatching houses.  Young unopened leaves are used to decorate festive places.

Onion is one of the most important commercial vegetable crops grown all over India. Onions are bulbous, biennial, herbaceous and are typically grown as annual, which give off a distinctive and pungent odour when the tissues are crushed. Characteristic pungency and flavour in onion are due to a volatile sulphur compound, allyl-propyl disulphide. This organo sulphur compound has potential for anticarcinogenic secondary metabolites. Pungency varies with cultivar, growing condition, stage of maturity and storage conditions.

It is such a unique vegetable, used throughout the year in the form of salad or condiment or for cooking with other vegetables. Onions are used for flavour, aroma and taste in preparation of vegetables and used in the form of dehydrated, freezing, canning and pickling. Onion salt is prepared by dehydration and used in flavouring.

Tomato, the ‘Apple of Love’ or ‘Golden Apple’ is one of the most popular, widely grown and highly praised vegetable in the world. In India, commonly referred as ‘Poor Man’s Orange’, has wider coverage in comparison to other vegetables. Tomato universally treated as ‘Protective Food’, is eaten raw or cooked or in processed form (soup, juice, ketchup, puree, paste and powder, green tomato - pickles and preserves) or it supplies vitamin C and adds variety of colours and flavours to food. It is a very good source of income to small and marginal farmers and contributes to nutrition of consumers. Tomato seed contains 24% oil used as salad oil and in manufacture of margarine. By virtue of its many attributes, it is considered as a favourite crop for research in physiology and cytogenetics, all over the world. Tomato is also rich in medicinal value. The pulp and juice are digestible, mild aperient, a promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier. Tomato, a primary source of lycopene, showed significant association with low prostate cancer risk and cancers of digestive tract. It is one of the best vegetables which keeps our stomach and intestine in good condition. Tomato juice has become an exceedingly popular appetizer and beverage.

Citrus is the world’s leading tree fruit crop, comprising of mandarins, sweet oranges, grape fruit, limes and lemons. It is one of the most important fruit crops grown under varying agroclimatic conditions in India except in the high hilly temperature regions. Mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata) is the most important commercial citrus in India followed by sweet oranges and acid limes. Citrus fruits are not only delicious and refreshing but also they provide vitamins, minerals and other substances. Different species of Citrus have different chemical composition. In sweet oranges, principal constituents of edible portions are sugars (glucose + sucrose) and acids (primarily citric acid and a little of malic acid), the fruits of acid groups contain primarily acids in fruit juice. Rind of citrus fruits is rich in pectin and contains essential oils and glucosides (hesperidin, naringin). Citrus fruits are a good source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid - 25 to 85 mg/100 ml juice), besides vitamin B, A and D. World-wide demand of orange is as fresh fruits, but orange marmalade is an important product and is one of the main uses of sour and sweet oranges. Grape fruit and mandarins are also taken as fresh fruits. Citrus fruit can be utilized in a number of other ways as salads, juices, squashes, cocktails, syrup, concentrates and pickles. Peel of thick-rinded fruits can also be made to delicious candy. Lemon is used in many culinary purposes. Grape fruit is utilized in preparation of wines and brandies and also for flavour and in perfumery.

Mango occupies a pre-eminent place amongst the fruit crops grown in India and is acknowledged as the ‘King of Fruits’. Mango is the pride of the garden and one of the choicest fruits known to mankind. Mango possesses unique nutritional and medicinal qualities apart from being a rich source of vitamins A and C. Young and unripe fruits are utilized for culinary purposes, preparing pickles, chutneys because of their acidic taste as well as for extraction of tannin and other astringent products. Ripe fruits are a delicacy for the table and are utilized in preparing squash, juices, nectar, jam, cereal flakes, custard powder, baby food, mango leather and toffee. Canned mango slices and pulp are indeed very popular. The inside kernel of the stone being rich in carbohydrates, calcium and fat, can be used as a source of food for certain industrial purposes.

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most important vegetable crops cultivated in the world. It is used as raw in salads and also used as cooked vegetable in the preparation of curries. Processed items such as tomato puree, ketchup, pickle, chutney, whole peeled tomatoes and tomato powder are also consumed considerably. It is a rich source of Vitamins A & C. Lycopene and other flavonoids in tomato serve as good source of antioxidants. Tomato occupies 5 million hectares with a productivity of 34t/ha. in the world. In India it is cultivated in an area of 0.88 million hectares with productivity of 21 t/ha.

Mango (Mangifera indica L), the king of fruits, is cultivated throughout a wide range of frost-free climates (Litz 1998). It is commercially the most important fruit crop of India, accounting for more than 54% of the total mango production worldwide. The fruit of mango (Mangifera indica L.) is exceptional for its juicy, succulent, thick fruit pulp and nutrient abundance in terms of wide range of amino acids, sugars, organic acids, minerals including Ca, P, Fe, and K and vitamins. Out of several diseases which attack mango crop, mango malformation disease is a serious threat to its cultivation since it causes gross deformation of the vegetative and floral tissues (Ploetz et al., 2002; Kumar et al., 2011). Floral malformation is a major problem in mango, rendering mango cultivation unproductive in northern India and other regions of the world (Pandey et al., 1977; Ram, 1991).

Methylene-cyclo-propyl-glycine (MCPG), is a cyclopropyl derivative, grouped into the amino acids that have been isolated from the higher plants (Fowden, 1960). MCPG was identified to be closely related to two other cyclopropyl derivatives (Fig. 1), 1-aminocyclopropane – 1 – carboxylic acid from Vacciniumvitis-idaea and perry pears (Vahatalo and Viertanen, 1957; Burroughs, 1957) and â- methylenecyclopropyl alanine (MCPA or Hypoglycin A) from Blighia sapida (Hassall and Rayle, 1955; Anderson et al., 1958; Ellington, Hassall and Plimmer, 1958).

The orchids are commercially important group of flowering plants and their flowers are affluent in uniqueness in their shape, size and colour, exquisitely attractive, remain fresh condition for long period of time in comparison to other flowers. Orchidaceae is the second largest family among floriculture; about 25000 to 35000 species of orchids have been reported over the world (Rampal and Nagrare, 2006). India accounts for nearly 7 per cent of world’s orchids genetic diversity contributed 1300 species under 184 genera (Arora, 1983; Rampal and Nagrare, 2006) and 1150 species belonging to 164 genera (Satish Kumar, 1994) of which about 800 species are found in the North Eastern region of the country (Nagaraju et al., 2006) and many more are discovered year after year because of the prevailing congenial climatic conditions, diverse terrain and altitudinal variations, which provide suitable habitat for orchids.

The word Cymbidium has been derived from a Greek word ‘Kumbos’ meaning ‘hole or cavity’ referring to the structure of the base of the lip. The genus consists of 44 known evergreen species in the family Orchidaceae, subfamily Vandoideae, tribe Cymbidieae and sub-tribe Cryptopodiinae. It is distributed from northwestern India to China, Japan, south through the Malay Archipelago to the north and east Australia. (DuPuy and Cribb, 1988). Cymbidiums have been for over hundred years one of the most famous orchids in commerce.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most important tropical fruits of the world and is commonly known as the ‘King of fruits’ for its high quality fruits which are very popular among the Indians (Sharma et al., 2008). It is the oldest and extensively cultivated fruit crop in India having high socio-economic significance. India is the home of more than 1000 mango varieties, which originated in the Indo-Burma region (Mukherjee, 1958). India is the largest producer of mango, grown in about 2.3 million hectares with an annual production of 15.02 million tones. However, its productivity is only 6.5 tones per ha against 30 tones per ha in Israel (Bijay Jumar, 2010). Improvement of productivity in mango continues to be the foremost issue in mango production (Sauco, 1993). Of late, all the mango importing countries are considering the India as a source of quality mangoes due to its varietal wealth and availability. Hence, it is imperative to improve the productivity and quality of Indian mangoes to meet the global need (Balamohan et al., 2014).

Spices play important roles in daily life and India is a rich repository of spices. Various biotechnological approaches like micropropagation, somaclonal variation, in vitro conservation, synseed technology, protoplast fusion, production of flavor and coloring components, and development of novel transgenics have great significance in conservation, utilization and increasing the production and productivity of spices. Protocols for micropropagation and production of disease free planting materials are available for many spices. Efficient plant regeneration protocols are also available for exploiting somaclonal variation ,where the available natural variability is relatively low. Technologies for isolation and culture of protoplasts were reported in a few spices. Development of transgenics for disease resistance is gaining momentum. Synseed and Micro-rhizome technology are also available for many spices for safe propagation, conservation, movement, and exchange of germplasm. In vitro and cryo preservation technologies for conservation of spices germplasm are available for many spices.

Centuries before Greece and Rome were discovered, sailing ships carried Indian spices, perfumes and textiles to Mesopotamia, Arabia and Egypt. It was the lure of these that brought many seafarers to the shores of India. Emperors, kings, senators and the aristocracy transformed spices into the mostly highly prized commodities of ancient trade routes The story of Indian Spices is more than 7000 years old. By the 1400s, when navigational equipment had improved to the point that long-haul sailing became possible, European rulers set out to change the balance of world trade by funding spice-hunting missions of their own. Christopher Columbus who, in searching for a quick route to India, reached the Americas. Vasco de Gama was the first to surround Africa, and with a crew led by Ferdinand Magellan, fully circumnavigated the globe.

Soybean, a source of 40 per cent good quality protein, 20 per cent oil and other nutrients has great potential in meeting nutritional requirements and extending health benefits through soy based food products to Indian population. Soy foods are nutritious, economical and good for health. Regular food use of about 10 per cent processed soybean flour with cereal flours or 25-30 g properly processed soybean per day in a diet entitles the consumer to derive maximum nutritional and health benefits at a relatively low-price. Soy food products like fullfatsoyflour, soy-based bakery products and dairy analogs (soy milk, soy paneer (tofu), curd (dahi), soyshrikhand, soy amrakhand), being the products of acceptable type to Indian population, have good scope. Different organizations have given input in R&D work on soybean processing. SPU Centre at ICAR-CIAE, Bhopal has been involved in development of number of soybased food products, technology and equipment for preparation of those. To make available the properly processed soy food products to our population, the centre is actively engaged in capacity building of upcoming entrepreneurs and entreprise development for soybean processing for food uses. Around 500 cottage scale soy food enterprises have been established in different states of the country.

Pesticides are an undeniable part of modern life, used to protect everything from flower gardens to agricultural crops from specific pests. Pesticides have contributed significantly to improving quality of life and safeguarding the environment. Some 20 to 40 percent of the world’s potential crop production is already lost annually because of the effects of weeds, pests and diseases (according to the FAO reports) (www.CropLifeAmerica.mht). In addition to increasing crop yields, crop protection products used in stored products can also prolong the viable life of products, prevent huge post-harvest losses from pests and diseases and protect food safety for eating.

The vegetables and fruits are largely consumed fresh and day by day, their market demand is increasing due to nutritious quality. However, market supply is not sufficient to meet public demand throughout the year as production is inadequate because crop production has not increased substantially in recent years due to climatic changes. Another important reason for low production is the economic losses incurred due to damages of insect pests and plant diseases.

Since ancient times, reduction in pest and disease incidence is sought by spraying of pesticides including conventional preparations such as tobacco decoction, Bordeaux mixture, neem leaf extract etc. During the green revolution years, the synthetic pesticides were greatly recommended for pest and disease control and thereby increasing crop yields many-fold. Having experienced the spectacular improvement in both yield and quality of marketable produce, farmers were solely dependent on synthetics and ultimately abandoned other control measures.

Labour is one of the biggest input costs for vegetable growers. Vegetable farming is labor intensive and time consuming. Frequently, it is associated with low yield and poor quality production. The constraints are high labor requirements for land clearing, ploughing, bed forming, mulch laying, seeding, transplanting, harvesting and transporting. Mechanization is interjection of improved tools, implements, machines and other equipments between man and materials (soil, water, environment, seed, fertilizer, pesticides, growth regulators, irrigation water, agricultural produce and by-products such as fruits, vegetables, and seeds, etc.)

Every research in agriculture aims at developing a promising new technology or refines an age old technology that can help addressing the improvement in crop yield. This is a worldwide scenario to meet up with the food needs of the growing population and reducing agricultural land resources. Many traditions in the world are associated with vast knowledge of cultivating the food crops, vegetables, fruits etc using selected methods that are modified based on the needs, climatic conditions and the resources available in the place of settlements. Soil based agriculture is the most popular method of growing plants since soil is considered as the main source of nutrients and water required for the healthy growth of crops. Generally it includes 3 major steps, ploughing, sowing and harvesting.

“Standards are to Industry as Culture is to Society” said Shri C. Rajagopalachari, the first Governor General of India. Shri C. Rajagopalachari was inaugurating a conference on Standardization and Quality Control in February 1948. The great statesman has beautifully summed up the importance of standardization.

The basic principles on which procedures and practices are based had their origin in the United Kingdom, where the first national standardization movement started as early as 1901. Thereafter, procedures have been continuously developed, modified and improved till considerable similarity is achieved.

The scientific community working in the field of crop protection is experiencing an increasing academic and industrial interest in the discovery and development of new bio-insecticides as environmentally friendly pest control tools to be integrated, in combination or rotation, with chemicals in pest management programmes. In this context, Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) as a bio-control agent have proven successful and are now commercially mass produced in six of the seven continents to treat pest problem in agriculture, horticulture and forest crops. They actively search for the host, including those in cryptic habitat stages of insect pests in soil environment. They can be considered as good candidates for integrated pest management in ustainable agriculture due to plants and mammals which are not adversely affected and have ease of mass production. We present a general overview on the current state of knowledge of EPN and their mutualistically associated bacteria and their utilization as biological control agent against insect pests in world and India are briefly presented in this chapter.

Endophytic Microorganisms

Endophytes (‘endo’, inside; ‘phyte’, plant) include microorganisms that thrive inside the plant tissues without any obvious adverse effects on the host, and they include mainly bacteria and fungi (Hallmann et al., 1997; Bacon et al., 2002; Hardoim, 2015). Endophytic microorganisms share an intimate association with the host adding essential and functional capabilities. Therefore, plant may be considered as a superorganism composed of an amalgam of both selected symbiont microbiota and host cells (Hardoim, 2015) with the new concept of holobiome, i.e., plant together with the associated microorganisms collectively governing the plant activities (Hardoim et al., 2015; Vandenkoornhuys et al., 2015).

The shift from vegetative to reproductive phase in plants is the result of multiple gene cascades in response to photoperiodic and temperature dependent pathways, gibberellic acid pathway, vernalization pathway and autonomous pathway. The environmental cues are initially detected in the leaves and the mRNA of the flowering signal integrator FT gene, moving to the shoot apical meristem, acts as a long-distance signal for floral meristem identity. At SAM, FT-FD protein complex, based on signals from above said pathways in association with the signals from age-dependent and miRNA pathways, leads to the activation of master regulator gene of flowering AP1. The activation of genes involved in ABCDE model of floral organ differentiation, based on the directions of various cadastral genes lead to the development of floral organs. Thus, the sequential action of floral meristem identity genes, floral organ developmental genes, floral meristem size and organ number genes, floral organ pattern genes and cadastral genes leads to the flower development. This chapter sums up the gene interactions happening in leaf and SAM, leading to the development of a complete flower.

Today it has been understood that yeasts have great potentials as novel probiotics (Nayak, 2011). They have been found to be safe for human consumption in traditional fermented foods (Jakobsen and Narvhus 1996). Yeasts have a great physiological importance inside the gastrointestinal (GI) tract (Czerucka et al., 2007; Gatesoupe, 2007). Jespersen (2003) has mentioned the role of consuming fermented foods and the health benefits attributed with it.Yeasts are known for prevention of table olive (Arroyo lopez et al., 2012). Bonatsau et al. (2015) have shown multi-functional property of yeast as starters.

In spite of the problems with dosage and viability of probiotic strains, a lot more work is required for industry standardization and safety issues. However, it is noted that probiotics have considerable potential against many pathogenic and other diseases. A wide range of clinical trials are still needed to standardize and optimize the conditions. Ongoing basic research will continue to identify and characterize existing strains of probiotics, identifying strain-specific outcomes, determine optimal doses needed for certain results and assess their stability through processing and digestion.

What new research is needed, what trials and how will the ultimate consumer and Industry benefit?
 
In Brazil, the sales of functional foods amounts to US $ 500 million per year representing about 1% of the total sale of the Brazilian food processing industry. According to a report the interests are mainly for dairy products, nutraceuticals and soy-based products. ABIA forecasts a substantial growth of 4.5-5% for this segment of the market (Stanton et al., 2001). In order to exert the health benefits beyond inherent basic nutrition, it is necessary that the activity of the probiotic culture should be maintained at very high levels during the shelf life of the product.

Probiotics are measured in colony forming units (cfu). CFUs are generally measured in the millions or billions per serving. Probiotics are most commonly beneficial bacteria, but can also be friendly fungal or other organisms, that are typically freeze dried to stabilize them in an inert state during storage and production. Then their continued stability and viability, as measured by CFU counts when cultured, is dependent on limiting their exposure to stimulating environmental conditions such as temperature and moisture. Besides refrigeration, this protection can be done by packaging in glass or by adding freshness packets that helps to absorb and reduce moisture in the package.

Antibiotic Resistance and Gene transfer
 
It is important that probiotic strains should be assessed for their phenotypical antibiotic resistance and potential to transfer resistance gene as otherwise they cannot be used in food (BgVV, 2000; Vankerckhoven et al., 2008). It is vital to do research on characterization of acquired resistance mechanisms and transferability of resistance genes and on methods for determining transferability.

Probiotic Fermented food products
 
An individual requires adequate nutrients like proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals to maintain diet. There has been an explosion of the consumer interest in the role of enhancing the health by some specific foods or physiologically active food components, so called functional foods (Hasler, 1998). The concept of functional foods evolved in the year 1990 in Japan.

The lack of mechanistic understanding of probiotic activity is a major drawback for the prediction of safety of probiotic intervention. The complex gut-associated microbial ecosystem and nutritionally related factors are the most important environmental triggers for the development and modification of chronic degenerative diseases including immune and metabolic pathologies. In fact, the interaction between the gut microbial ecosystem and the host is considered to be a critical factor in overall health or disease. Whether probiotics will exert protective, harmful, immune-stimulating or immune-suppressing effects on a host is dependent on the interaction between the microbial signals, the genetic make-up of the host and the effects by the environment. Many studies have revealed that certain probiotic bacteria stimulate immune cell proliferation and activity as evidenced by the production of cytokines and antibodies, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of the immune response against pathogens. Ng et al. (2009)

4a. Intestinal Disorders
 
History of health claims
 
According to Bottazzi (1983) it was in 76 BC that the Roman historian Plinius recommended the use of fermented milk for treating gastroenteritis. Metchnikoff claimed that the intake of fermented milk containing Lactobacilli reduces the toxin producing bacteria, thereby increasing the longetivity of the host (Metchnikoff, 1908). Tissier (1905) showed that there was an increase in the Bifidobacteria in breast fed-infants, thus claiming that the administration of Bifidobacteria to infants suffering from diarrhea was very beneficial as they supersede the putrefactive bacteria that causes the disease. Intestinal beneficial microfloras are responsible to resist the disease (Bohnhoff et al., 1954).

LAB constitutes a group of gram positive bacteria. They are nonsporulating, nonrespiring but aerotolerant cocci or rods, which produce lactic acid as one of the main fermentation products of carbohydrates, they do not have cytochromes. They belong to the phylum Firmicuttes, class Bacilli and order Lactobacillaceae. The group includes several genera such as Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Bifidobacterium, Pediococcus, Enterobacter, Corynebacterium, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc etc.

There are potential beneficial medicinal uses of probiotics for which research is limited and only preliminary results are available. Recent research on the molecular biology and genomics of Lactobacillus has focused on the interaction with the immune system, anti-cancer potential, and potential as a biotherapeutic agent in case of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, traveller‘s diarrhoea, pediatric diarrhoea, inflammatory bowel diseases and irritable bowel syndrome (Ljungh et al., 2009). Studies of some probiotics tested in vitro on human epithelial cell lines have shown that they could block the adhesion of shiga toxin producing E. coli (Sherman et al., 2005). These are claimed to be health promoting and/ or disease preventing beyond the basic function of supplying nutrients. Probiotic foods are emerging as an important category of food supplements. Earlier workers have shown the inhibition of diarrhea caused by E.coli using probiotic lactic acid bacteria and yeast (Yan and Polk, 2006). Ratledge et al. (2002) have studied the biochemistry and molecular biology of lipid accumulation in oleaginous microorganisms.

Newer technologies involve fermentation by specific strains of lactic acid bacteria which bring specific fermentation under controlled conditions to a specific fermented product with enhanced organoleptic, nutritional and therapeutic qualities. Today health is of primary concern. It is important to have nutritionally balanced food with good bacteria. For this, probiotic foods top the list. The functional food concept was initially developed in Japan in 1990‘s as there were many side effects of allopathic medicines. A regulatory system has been initiated by the ministry of health and welfare to approve certain foods to improve health. These are now recognized as Foods for specialized health use (FOSHU). According to American dietic association (ADA) these foods are potential healthful food or food ingredients that may provide health benefits beyond the traditional nutrients. Probiotics are beneficial microorganisms. Probiotic foods as yogurt and sauerkraut are very well known. Fermentation increases the nutrient content and taste with the shelf life.

National Horticulture Board

Commercial floriculture includes production of cut flowers, foliage plants, bedding plants and growing and forcing bulbs and corms of flowering plants for whole and retail sales. The floriculture industry has become highly specialized. Floriculture industry uses many devices to ensure steady supply of flowers and foliage plants irrespective of the season and minimum loss to industry, because of perishable nature of flowers.

Today, floriculture has transformed into a viable agri-business. Estimated area under flower growing in India is about 65,000 ha. More than two-third of this area is devoted for the production of traditional flowers. Production of cut flowers comes to about 500 million numbers. The interesting aspect is that 80% of Indian exports consist of only roses. Other major cut flowers include gladiolus, tuberose, carnation and orchids. With the emerging trends and constant urge for new innovative products, it is high time that Indian floriculture industry shifts towards new or novelty crops (Singh, 2005).

Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) commonly called as Rajanigandha produces waxy, white and fragrant flowers on long spikes which are mostly used as cut flowers for making garlands and extracting essential oil. Among the ornamental bulbous plants, it has great economic potential for cut flower trade and essential oil industry. The predominant characteristics of this crop are its lingering, delightful fragrance and excellent keeping quality.

Rose the ‘Queen of flower ’is undoubtedly the world’s most favourite and popular romantic flower. It occupies a prestigious position in cut flower industry and as a garden plant. For thousands of years, the rose has been a symbol of love, adoration, innocence and all other virtues. Countries like England adopted rose as their national flower. In India, rose adorned the gardens of not only the rich and the famous, but also the ashramas of the saints. Rose cultivation initially developed with the distillation of rose for essential oil. Today the importance of rose is in its value as a cut flower. It is one of the most important commercial flowers throughout the world. Roses are also used for preparation of rose water and ‘Gulkhand’ 

Orchids are the royalty among flower crops. They exhibit an incredible range of diversity in size, shape and colour of flower. They are valued as cut flowers and potted plants and are the most pampered plants. Orchid flowers are famous for the long lasting characteristics and bewitching beauty. No other plant has probably acquired the status of orchids. They have always been considered as mysterious plants.

Marigold is one of the easiest annual flowers to cultivate, having wide adaptability. Flowers are attractive, have good keeping quality with a wide spectrum of colour, shape and size. They produce marketable flowers in a short time and are used widely for religious and social functions as well as for garden display. 

Importance and Uses

 Marigolds are sold as loose flowers, as cut flowers and widely used for various decorations and garland making. They are also excellent landscape plants widely used for bedding purpose, in herbaceous borders and can also be grown in pots. French marigolds, being dwarf, are suitable for hanging baskets, rockeries, edging and window boxes. In fact, marigolds rank next only to jasmine in popularity in South India 

Jasmine (Jasminum spp) is one of the oldest fragrant flowers cultivated by man. They are the most common flowers in India gardens.

Importance and Uses

They are traditionally important flowers not only as fresh flowers but also as source of high grade perfume oil. Mention of jasmine is there in ancient Indian literature like Kamasutra (AD 300-400) and Mahabharatha (500 BC). The odour of jasmine flowers cannot be imitated by any known synthetic chemical or natural isolates, thus giving it a unique status in the perfume world.

Heliconias are tropical plants of princely dimensions grown for their attractive foliage and brilliant flower spikes. They are some of the most unusual flora of the tropics. Strikingly elegant flower heads rise from banana like clumps of oval leaves, which are sometimes rather slender and, with a few varieties, extremely large. They are found naturally in the tropical forests world wide and in moderate climates. A popular landscape plant and cut flower in tropical and subtropical areas of the world, heliconias are native to Central and South America, the Caribbean Islands and some of the islands of the South Pacific. Their easy cultivation and spectacular presence have made them favourite garden subjects throughout the world. Heliconias have several common names including lobster’s claw’s, ‘parrot’s flower’, ‘parrot plantain’ and false plantain. Depending on variety, heliconias will range in height from 60 to 700 cm, often with extensive rhizomatous growth. The flower or inflorescence of heliconia is nearly always terminal and may last from several days to several months. They are particularly desirable as cut flowers because of their long lasting characteristics.