eChapters

The present study was conducted on 36 adult dogs of six different breeds in order to standardize normal ocular parameters. Six breed specific groups of dogs were Group 1 (German Shepherd), Group 2 (Pug), Group 3 (Spitz), Group 4 (Labrador Retriever), Group 5 (Rottweiler) and Group 6 (Non-descript) with 6 animals (3 males and 3 females) each. STT values revealed non-significant difference between sex and eyes. Among groups only Pug breed showed significant difference with GSD breed. Intraocular pressure reflected a non-significant difference between sex and eyes. IOP values of Labrador group were within the normal range but differ significantly from Pug and Non-descript groups. B mode ultrasonography revealed internal structures with various echogenicity. In B mode ultrasonographic biometry a significant difference in all parameters was observed among groups except ODL and OND. Longest and shortest axial globe length was revealed in Labrador and Spitz, respectively. Overall mean for sex revealed a longer vitreous chamber depth, axial globe length and optic disc length in males as compared to females. Non-significant difference was observed in all the parameters between left and right eyes. Standardized breed specific ophthalmic parameters were useful in diagnosing various ophthalmic affections, viz. keratoconjunctivitissicca, glaucoma, cataract, retinal detachment etc. in clinical cases.

Three female goats with age of 3, 4 and 24 month with bodyweight 7, 6 and 15 kg, respectively were presented at Veterinary Clinical Complex, Uttar Pradesh Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evam Go-AnusandhanSansthan, Mathura, DUVASU during April-May 2024, with a history of right unilateral swelling below the ear and submandibular region. Based on physical examination, radiography and ultrasonography, swelling was found to be a fluid filled cystic structure. Exploratory puncture of the affected areas revealed colourless transparent fluid. Surgical exploration was done and the cystic structure was identified as Coenurus gaigeriupon parasitological inspection due to the presence of its characteristic four distinctive suckers on the scolices and a rostellum with a double crown of hooks. Coenurus gaigeri is the intermediate stage of Taenia multicepsgaigeri. Following surgical intervention, the animals were treated with praziquantel, antibiotic and an anti-inflammatory medication. By the 7th postoperative day, the animals showed uneventful recovery without any complications.

Introduction

A deep knowledge of veterinary anatomy is essential for more sustainable livestock management practices, enhancing productivity while minimizing environmental impact. Understanding the physiological structure and function of food-producing animals enables professionals to make informed decisions regarding production, meat processing, and food safety. In today's modern workforce, a comprehensive grasp of animal anatomy is essential for success in various fields, including agriculture, veterinary science, food processing, and quality control. Professionals can enhance their expertise, make data-driven decisions, and drive innovation in the food production sector by grasping animal anatomy. Ultimately, this foundational knowledge is vital for advancing careers and ensuring the highest standards of quality, efficiency, and safety in the industry. Meat processing professionals require in-depth knowledge of animal anatomy to guarantee optimal carcass handling, accurate meat quality evaluation, and streamlined production workflows. Expertise in animal anatomy is also crucial for food safety and quality control specialists, enabling them to ensure regulatory compliance and maintain consumer trust. Additionally, knowledge of animal anatomy allows these specialists to identify potential contaminants and implement effective control measures. By possessing a thorough understanding of animal anatomy, industry professionals can optimize efficiency, quality, and safety throughout the meat processing and distribution chain.

Bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency (BLAD) is a lethal autosomal recessive disease caused by a point mutation in CD 18 gene. Through Minimum Standard Protocol (MSP), Government of India made mandatory to screen all the breeding and newly introduced HF bulls for this BLAD. In this present study screening for mutation is carried out by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism technique (PCR-RFLP). Non availability of positive control made us to resort for synthesis of DNA probes with similar sequence of the gene with mutation and authenticity was verified by nucleotide sequencing. A total of 200 blood samples collected from phenotypically normal HF bulls from organized farms and subjected to PCR-RFLP technique. The results indicate that out of 200 bulls, 01 bull (0.5%) was found to be carrier for mutated gene CD18. Hence it is mandatory to screen each bull to prevent accidental transmission of mutant gene to a large number of future populations.

Ready to eat shami kebabs from goat meat with 25, 50 and 75 % levels of goat tripe were prepared and their quality evaluated. shami kebabs prepared with 100% goat were used as control. Significant (p<0.05) increase was observed for pH, diameter shrinkage, drip loss, protein and fat contents in goat tripe incorporated shami kebabs than control. However, significant (p< 0.05) reverse trends were observed for product yield and moisture content. Sensory evaluation scores for appearance and colour, flavor, tenderness, juiciness, binding and overall acceptability were highest for 25% goat tripe incorporated shami kebabs followed by 50% and 75% goat tripe incorporated shami kebabs. Physico - chemical and sensory evaluation scores of 25% goat tripe incorporated shami kebabs were comparable with control goat meat shami kebabs and the values did not differ significantly between them. Thus, it can be concluded that 75% goat meat and 25% goat tripe can be used for preparation of ready to eat goat meat shami kebabs without affecting quality and acceptability.

Introduction Adaptations in animals and birds are countless and extensive, which permit the species better suited in its environment and thus improve chances of survival and propagative success. There are three major categories of adaptations namely anatomical/structural, physiological and behavioural adaptations. Depending on the animal habitats, adaptations can be classified into terrestrial, aquatic and volant (flying). Terrestrial adaptations are exhibited by the organisms inhabiting in land habitats and are again grouped into cursorial, fossorial, arboreal and desert adaptations.

Terrestrial Adaptations

1. Cursorial Adaptations

Cursorial animals are those adapted for running over long distances, often characterized by adaptations that enhance speed and endurance. These adaptations include various skeletal features that optimize their locomotion and overall efficiency while running. These animals have streamlined and spindle-shaped body to minimize resistance in attaining the speed. Here are the key skeletal adaptations in cursorial mammals:

1. Long and Slender Limbs: Cursorial mammals typically have long and slender limbs, which reduce the amount of energy required per stride and increase stride length, thereby enhancing running speed. Lengthening of the limbs in these animals leads to the head placed away from the ground. Hence, as an adaptation to feeding and drinking, the neck and the skull become elongated.

2. Reduced Number of Toes: Many cursorial mammals have reduced the number of toes to streamline the foot and reduce weight. For example, horses typically have a single functional toe (hoof), while cheetahs have reduced and non-retractable claws.

In the present study, chicken (broiler) meat mince was used as protein sources. Incorporation of chicken meat minceat10, 20, 30, 40 and 50percent levelweretriedbesidesotheringredientswhichwereaddedincontrol.Chicken Biscuits incorporated with 20 per cent CMM were preferred the most on the basis of their sensory evaluation. Asthe chicken incorporated biscuits have not been reported in India and abroad. Majority of biscuits available in market are prepared from cereal (refined wheat flour), which has very low protein content & lack lysine, threonine & tryptophan essential amino acids. The biscuits thus developed can contribute good amount of nutrients especially protein if consumed in place of cereal (refined wheat flour) biscuits. The developed products can be used for feeding programme at institutes and school going children and elderly people, who are more prone to malnutrition particularly due to protein with essential amino acids deficiency. Chicken meat is also rich in threonine, tryptophan and lysine. Thus development of chicken incorporated biscuits using chicken meat and wheat flour would provide a nutritious, convenient and ready to eat food item. With an aim to develop biscuits by incorporating the chicken meat, the present study was planned. It was concluded that the biscuits with 20 per cent chicken meat mince and wheat flour would provide a nutritious with sufficient amount of essential amino acids (lysine, tryptophan and threonine), convenient and ready to eat food item. The cost of production of biscuits with 20 per cent CMM worked out to be Rs. 82.40 per kg.

Introduction

Lymphatic tissue in general consists of reticulin fibres and fixed cells (macrophages and reticulin cells), as well as free cells (lymphocytes, plasma cells and granulocytes). In loose lymphatic tissue, fixed cells predominate whereas, in dense lymphatic tissue, free cells predominate. The stem cells which colonize the embryonic thymus and bursa originate in the area pellucida or embryo proper in birds. Late in embryonic development, stem cells may be found in the liver and spleen. In adult life they exist primarily in the bone marrow. The avian lymphatic system is divided into:

A. Primary lymphatic tissue (central): Primary lymphoid organs in birds include the thymus and the bursa of Fabricius, which are the places where lymphocytes develop, and the T-cell and B-cell receptor genes rearrange. The avian primary lymphoid organs, the thymus and the bursa of Fabricius, undergo age-dependent changes leading in some cases to the complete atrophy of the organ. Interestingly, the bursa of Fabricius can act as both i.e. primary and secondary lymphoid organ. Primary lymphatic tissue is antigen dependant, and in it incoming stem cells differentiate into immunologically competent B and T cells, which then migrate to the secondary lymphatic tissue

B. Secondary lymphatic tissue (peripheral): It consists of the spleen, gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), including the caecal tonsil, lymph nodes, bone marrow, mural lymphoid nodules and variable aggregations of lymphocytes throughout the body. Secondary lymphatic tissue is antigen dependent "effector" tissue, in which B and T cells mature into respective effector cells.

The present study was envisaged to develop kodo millet incorporated chicken meat nuggets and to explore the effect of kodo millet flour on the shelf life of chicken meat nuggets. The chicken meat nuggets were developed by using kodo millet flour (KMF) at three different levels (T1-6%, T2-8% and T3-10%) by replacing lean meat. Appearance/colour and flavour score, juiciness and overall palatability were found significantly higher (P < 0.05) for T1. On the basis of sensory scores, control and T1 were selected for further comparison and storage studies in refrigerated temperature for 28 days and assessed for microbial analysis at regular interval of 7 days. Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) and standard plate count (SPC) values increased significantly (P < 0.05) in both variants during storage. These values were found lower in treatment. Results of sensory evaluation studies during storage also revealed decrease in sensory scores in almost all occasions. T1 (treatment containing 6 % KMF) was rated higher for flavour, texture, juiciness and overall palatability throughout the storage period. It was concluded that functional chicken nuggets could be developed by replacing the chicken meat in standardized formulation at the level of 6 % kodo millet flour. The developed product maintains better physiochemical, microbiological and sensory qualities during refrigerated storage and was acceptable up to 14 days of storage.

In the 19th century, Etienne Geoffroy de Saint Hilaire conducted pioneering studies on prenatal anomalies such as cyclocephaly, anencephaly, and twin monsters, and is credited with coining the term 'teratology'. The physician Josef Warkany is considered the father of experimental teratology. His studies led to the definition of both genetic and environmentally induced structural defects. The occurrence of congenital malformations varies significantly across species, breeds, and geographic locations. Studies suggest that approximately 1.5% to 6% of live-born domestic mammals exhibit recognizable congenital malformations. These malformations range from complex anatomical abnormalities to complicated enzyme defects detectable only through advanced molecular diagnostics. Occurrence of these malformation is very low in cat while in sheep, cattle and horses it is almost 3-4 % and highest in dogs and pigs and is range about 6%. The genesis of congenital malformations is understood as interplay between an embryo's genetic makeup and its developmental environment. Teratology thus highlights the critical periods during embryonic development when external influences can significantly impact normal growth and formation, underscoring the delicate balance between genetic predisposition and environmental factors in shaping fetal development. Teratogens are those substances which may cause inheritable birth defect via a toxic effect on an embryo or foetus. These defects include malformation, disruption, deformation and dysplasia which may cause stunted growth, congenital disorders that lack structural malformation. A fundamental principle of teratology is that the susceptibility to teratogenic agents those causing malformations vary with the embryo's developmental stage at the time of exposure. Exposure during the first three weeks of gestation (stage of preformation), when the basic body plan is established, typically results in early embryonic death or is compensated for by regulatory mechanisms within the embryo. Agents that disrupt the morula or blastocyst stages, or interfere with embryo maternal communication and proper implantation in the uterine mucosa, often lead to early embryonic mortality. The severity of malformation is depends on the frequency and dose of the teratogens. Most of the teratogens affect the embryo during early differentiation and organogenesis stage. It has been found that the organogenesis of urogenital system of bovines, equine, canines, porcine and felines are most susceptible for teratogenic agents.

The escalating global demand for livestock products, driven by rapid population growth and rising per capita consumption, presents significant challenges for the agricultural sector (Moreau and Jordan, 2005). Traditional livestock production methods are becoming inadequate to meet this demand sustainably. Biotechnology offers novel solutions to enhance productivity, improve animal health, and ensure environmental sustainability (Schmitt and Henderson, 2005). This review aims to explore the role of biotechnology in livestock, focusing on key innovations and their implications for the future of animal agriculture.

1. Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering has revolutionized the field of animal science by enabling precise modifications of the livestock genome to enhance desirable traits and reduce undesirable ones.

1.1 Transgenic Technology

A mouse was the first successful transgenic animal followed by pigs, sheep, cattle, and rabbits (Shakweer et al., 2023). Transgenic animals are created by inserting foreign genes that encode specific traits, such as growth hormone genes to enhance growth rates or disease resistance genes to reduce susceptibility to infections (Hammer et al., 1985). For instance, transgenic cattle have been engineered to produce milk with modified protein content (Zhang et al., 2019), improving its nutritional profile for human consumption (Brophy et al., 2003). Further, cattle genetically engineered to express human lysozyme in their milk have shown enhanced antimicrobial properties, making the milk safer for consumption (Moreau and Jordan, 2005). These modifications not only boost productivity but also improve the quality of livestock products, making them healthier and more nutritious.

Species determination in meat products is crucial for traceability and preventing fraud, especially in the buffalo meat industry, which faces significant price disparities across regions. The complex global trade networks, with many intermediaries and processing stages, increase the risk of obscured provenance and adulteration. This not only poses serious public health risks but also leads to economic losses. Thus, there is an urgent need for rapid, reliable testing methods to verify buffalo meat authenticity and detect mislabeling. Existing protein-based and DNA-based assays, including isothermal and non-isothermal amplification techniques, often lack sensitivity, specificity, practicality, repeatability, and accessibility. The present study introduces a Point-of-Care (POC) polymerase spiral reaction (PSR) assay for rapid, on-site identification of buffalo tissue, especially in resource-limited settings. The PSR method uses chemical-free snap-chill DNA extraction, highly specific mitochondrial d-loop gene primers for amplification, and unique chromogenic indicators for visual detection, overcoming the limitations of current detection methods. The effectiveness of the chromogenic indicators was validated against SYBR Green I and agarose gel electrophoresis methods. The assay showed high specificity, with no cross-amplification in common meats like beef, mutton, chevon, and pork, and sensitivity down to 10 fg of buffalo DNA. It detected buffalo meat adulteration as low as 0.1%. The assay’s accuracy was confirmed through comprehensive validation using diverse, blind, and processed samples, compatibility testing with a commercial DNA isolation kit, and comparison with standard buffalo-specific PCR. This study is the first to report a PSR colorimetric assay identifying buffalo tissue within 90 minutes in resource constrained settings.

Introduction

Neuroanatomy research covers a wide range of topics including, gross anatomy of brain and spinal cord, imaging technologies for diagnosis, surgical anatomy, microscopic anatomy on nervous system, ultrastructural details on neurons and neuroglia, research on gene and protein expression patterns using in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry. Despite many challenges, neuroanatomy in animals remains a crucial area of study for understanding the basic principles of structural organisation and its physiology. This review on the master glands i.e. hypothalamus and hypophysis cerebri, is mainly focused on the histomorphology and ultrastructural details reported in rat, rabbit, sheep, goat, buffalo and camel.

Mastering the Master gland

The hypothalamus (“hypo” meaning below, and “thalamos” meaning nuptial chamber / innermost room) is a major centre of the brain consists of regulatory circuits that controls internal body functions for survival. The hypothalamus is a small, central region of the brain composed of a conglomerate of hypothalamic nuclei and their nerve tracts. The hypothalamic neural connections to the pituitary glands in various mammals have been studied under light microscopic examination of sections of hypothalamus and pituitary gland together intact with infundibular stalk (Paramasivan et al., 2011). The nerve fibres of various hypothalamic nuclei coursed on as a distinct bundle into the infundibular stalk and then continued into the neurohypophysis. Through its connections with pituitary gland, the hypothalamus exerts an enormous influence over the endocrine system and thereby over the general metabolic functions and reproduction (Clemente, 1985). The pituitary gland (hypophysis cerebri) is considered as the master endocrine gland as it plays a critical role in influencing and controlling the activities of other endocrine glands viz. thyroid, adrenal, ovary, testis and pineal. However, the hypophysis itself is under the control of the hypothalamus which actually masters the endocrine function of various hormones released from the master gland i.e. hypophysis cerebri.

With the recent advances in cognitive science and applied ethology, it become imperative to assess the effect of various negative stimuli on the animal welfare and meat quality in goats during slaughter. The present study was designed to assess the effect of exposure of goats to slaughter ambient such as the smell of blood, vocalization, noise, movement of equipment, and unfamiliar workers could initiate stress responses, thereby affecting animal welfare and meat quality. Boer cross bucks (age 8-12 months of age, 25-30 kg live weight, n=18) were halal slaughtered into three groups viz., Control (slaughtered alone), E (exposed to act of slaughter), and S (slaughtered in front of E). The vocalization and avoidance behavior were present in 50% of goats upon exposure to slaughter ambient. The time to death and bleed out percentage did not differ significantly among treatments. The exposure of the goats to the slaughter resulted in a significant (p<0.05) increase in the nor-adrenaline, and β-endorphin. Based on the present study, it can be concluded that exposure to slaughter ambient had an effect on behavioral responses, carcass, and blood biochemical factors. Thus, the present study highlighted the issue of emotional stress and slaughter empathy in goats. These findings could help in harmonizing all practices of slaughter and improving animal welfare while fulfilling religious and customary demands.

A diverse microbial population colonizes the sterile mammalian gastrointestinal tract during and after the birth. This organized and long-lasting process of colonization by microorganisms has developed into flourishing relationships creating diverse environment within the host gut (Mazmanian et. al. 2005). There are various factors that affect the optimum colonization of gut microbiome and their normal functioning on various organ systems of the host body directly or indirectly. The gut microbiome comprises of a complex combination of microbes (Mezouar et. al. 2018). The mammalian gastro-intestinal tract harbors this complex ecosystem in equilibrium with the host immune system. The most magnificent feature of this commensal relationship is that the host not only tolerates but has also evolved to require colonization by commensal microorganisms for its own development and health. There are various factors that affect the optimum colonization of gut microbiome and their normal functioning on various organ systems of the host body directly or indirectly. The process of colonization is a two way interaction between the host and the microorganisms.

This study aimed to optimize the incorporation levels of whole egg powder (WEP) and skim milk powder (SMP) and to evaluate the storage stability of the resulting protein-rich pasta. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with a Central Composite Design was employed for optimization; thirteen formulation combinations were tested. The best formulation was identified as 5% WEP and 10% SMP. This optimal mix resulted in a significant improvement in the proximate composition of the fortified pasta compared to the control. Both the control and fortified pasta were stored under aerobic conditions at 20-30±5°C in aluminium foil-LDPE laminate pouches for 60 days. The pasta samples were analyzed at intervals of 1, 15, 30, 45, and 60 days. Storage studies revealed an increase in TBARS, FFA, peroxide values, and microbial counts in both pasta types, but the control samples exhibited a significantly lower rate of increase (p<0.05). Sensory evaluation showed lower scores for the fortified pasta compared to the control. Despite these findings, the fortified pasta with 5% WEP and 10% SMP maintained its physicochemical, colour, textural, microbiological, and sensory qualities over the 60-day storage period. Microstructure studies revealed increased interaction between added protein (WEP & SMP) and starch molecules, indicating a potential option to produce high quality pasta with enhanced nutritional and functional properties, thereby enhancing the practical implications of the research.

Forensic science has traditionally been associated with human criminal investigations, but its application to veterinary cases is gaining momentum. Hair is a specialized outgrowth of epidermis, a component of the skin. Hair is chemically stable especially when compared to other physiological materials such as blood, semen or any other f luid as it is strongly resistant to decomposition and this property makes hair a nearly ideal type for physical evidence. However, the forensic identification of animal hair requires different skill sets and competencies to those required for human hair comparisons (Tridico et al. 2014). Hair carry a lot of biological information, their examination is easy and very cost effective. Recently Funes et al. (2023) has reviewed both macro and micro quantitative methods for human hair analysis.

The study of the animal hair could represent a useful tool in veterinary forensic investigation and thus can be helpful in species identification in veterolegal cases, illegal transport of slaughtered animals, poaching or wildlife crime, fraud in textile and fur industry, traceability of predators and identification of their victims (Dahiya and Yadav 2013). The use of hair analysis in forensic science dates back to the 19th century, with early forensic scientists recognizing its potential in criminal investigations. Over time, techniques have evolved from simple visual comparisons to sophisticated microscopic and biochemical analyses.

Research techniques are the various methods and tactics strategically used to collect the materials, record the observations and analyse the data for study. These approaches provide a structured framework for achieving research objectives and validate the findings.

Anatomy is the oldest scientific discipline of the medicine, which deals with the form and structure of the organisms. The first documented scientific dissection on the human body were carried out as early as in the third century BC in Alexandria. At that time anatomists explored anatomy through dissection of animals, primarily on pigs and monkeys. The first written evidence of anatomical terms and rational observations can be found in the Egyptian medical papyri. The work of Andreas Vesalius played a significant role in medical research and education. During the 19th century the research in anatomy increased due to discovery of microscopes which allowed in-depth studies of body tissues and their components. However, in the last 100 years due to technological innovations and the growing understanding of related sciences progress in anatomy took place at a much faster pace. A thorough knowledge of research techniques in anatomy is very important to perform systemic experiments to reach a definite conclusion. The technique should be selected according to the aim and field of research. Here we are going to discuss some of the important gross anatomical techniques.

Veterinary anatomy is a cornerstone of veterinary education, essential for diagnosing and treating animals. It imparts knowledge about origin, form, structure and function in animals. Traditionally, veterinary anatomy education has been delivered through lectures, dissections, and practical sessions. Anatomy teaching has undergone significant changes to keep up with advances in technology and to cater for a wide array of student specific learning approaches. In recent time a generalized decline in dissection based veterinary anatomy teaching has been observed due to implementation of new curriculum of veterinary anatomy by VCI, legal and ethical issues, unavailability of ethically sourced cadaver, reduced teaching hour to veterinary anatomy, reluctance of students as well as teacher to handle formalin fixed cadavers and specimens etc. Even with the introduction of modern instructional technology and improved teaching methods, dissection continues to remain a foundation of veterinary anatomy teaching. Conventional methods, while foundational, face significant limitations, including the availability of resources and variability in hands-on experiences. As veterinary education evolves, there is a growing recognition of the potential for disruptive technologies to address these challenges and enhance learning outcomes.

As we delve into the subcellular world, we uncover pivotal insights for advancing our understanding of animal health and disease. Immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) is the same as immunohistochemistry or immunocytochem istry at the light microscopy level. The Power of IEM combines the high-resolution imaging capabilities of electron microscopy with the specificity of immunolabeling. This robust procedure allows us to visualize the precise local ization of proteins and other molecules within cells, providing a detailed cellular architecture and function map. This technique is known as immunogold staining (IGS) or immunogold labelling (De Paul et al., 2012).

Principle of Immunoelectron Microscopy (Iem)

The basic principle of IEM is based on the specific binding of a primary antibody to the target antigen in the sample. A secondary antibody, which is conjugated to colloidal gold particles, is then added. This secondary antibody binds to the primary antibody. The gold particles are electron-dense, meaning they scatter electrons effectively. If viewed under an electron microscope, these particles appear as dark spots, indicating the location of the target antigen. This method demonstrates very specificity and high contrast, making it easier to visualize and study the distribution of proteins at the ultrastructural level (Schwartzbach & Osafune, 2010; Murtey, 2016).

Introduction

Equines are a fascinating and diverse group of mammals that have played a significant role in human history and continue to do so today. From the majestic horses used for transportation, sport, and work, to the hardy donkeys and mules used for farming and packing, equines have been an essential part of human societies for thousands of years. Equines are social animals and usually live in groups or herds. They form strong bonds with their herd members and communicate with each other through a range of vocalizations, body language, and scent cues. Equines also engage in playful behaviour, particularly when they are young. They can be seen running, kicking, bucking, and frolicking in the fields as a way of expending energy and developing physical coordination [6].

This is a group of mammals that belong to the family Equidae known for their slender legs, hooves, and long faces. Large, soft and expressive eyes, a velvety muzzle, a forelock adorning a smooth face these are just a few of the attributes of the equine head that beckon horse lovers. The equine head, which accounts for 10% of a horse’s total weight, houses a series of intricate turbinates within the nasal passageways. Turbinates are a network of bones, vessels, and tissue that warms, humidifies, and filters the air the horse inhales. In addition, seven air-filled sinus cavities called the paranasal sinuses sit on each side of the head, above, below, and between the eyes. A young horse starts out with teeth that extend up into the sinuses; with wear and age, the teeth descend into the mouth. Eventually, in a horse’s golden years, the sinuses are mostly empty of teeth.The head also contains a plexus of nerves and blood supply in addition to the eyes, ears, nostrils, lymph nodes, guttural pouches, brain, and more than 30 bones[6,7].

The present study was carried out on gross anatomical and morphometrical studies of extensor and flexor muscles of digits of forelimb and hind limb in six adults non-descript dogs irrespective of sex. Common digital extensor muscle was originated from the lateral (extensor) epicondyle of the humerus with multiple tendons of insertion whereas lateral digital extensor was originated from the lateral ligament of the elbow joint. Extensor pollicis longus and indicisproprius muscle was present under the lateral digital extensor and superficial to the abductor pollicis longus and originated from the middle third of the dorsolateral border of the ulna. Deep digital flexor muscle was comprised of two heads, flexor hallucis longus, and flexor digitorum longus.The average tensile strength for common digital extensor, lateral digital extensor, extensor pollicis longus and indicisproprius, and abductor pollicis longus muscles were 2.65 ± 0.36 kg, 2.20 ± 0.47 kg, 1.60 ± 0.38 kg and 1.95 ± 0.35 kg respectively. Mean Muscle belly length for common digital extensor, lateral digital extensor, extensor pollicis longus and indicisproprius, and abductor pollicis longus muscles was 8.30 ± 0.51 cm, 6.68 ± 0.45 cm, 4.80 ± 0.68 cm and 8.08 ± 0.73cm respectively. Mean tensile rest strength for the superficial digital flexor, deep digital flexor, interosseous muscle, f lexor pollicis brevis and lumbricales was 7.61 ± 0.56 cm, 8.53 ± 0.51 cm, 2.76 ± 0.47 cm, 0.73 ± 0.13 cm and 0.85 ± 0.17 cm respectively. Mean muscle belly volume of superficial digital flexor, deep digital flexor, interosseous muscle, flexor pollicis brevis, and lumbricales muscles was 6.61 ± 0.72 cm3, 7.84 ± 0.53 cm3, 0.24 ± 0.07 cm3, 0.03 ± 0.01 cm3, 0.02 ± 0.00 cm3 respectively.Mean tendon cross section area for muscles tibialiscranialis, long digital extensor, lateral digital extensor, and extensor digitorum brevis was 0.05 ± 0.00 cm2, 0.06 ± 0.00 cm2, 0.04 ± 0.00 cm2 and 0.04 ± 0.00 cm2 respectively.

This practical assignment is related to write the technical matters in simplest form to be digested by the common readers. It also helps in summarizing the entire matter related to new technology or innovation in a nutshell.

PURPOSE

 To acquaint the students how to write summary of a topic

 To improve technical writing skills

Definition

Fracture of Upper 3rd of tibio-fibula Presence as a difficult Problem for the Surgeon to immobilise it Perfectly. As the fracture site generally moves within the imobiliser. Its healing becomes difficult. The aimof immobilisation technique of upper 3rd tibio-fibula fracture is to fix the upper 3rd of tibio-fibula with the anterior half of ring of thomas splint with bandages. This is an important step for achieving no movement of fracture fragment during healing.

Indication

Correction of upper 3rd fracture of tibio-fibula (Fig.1) by thomas splint application.

There is an urgent need to take up productivity improvement programmes in the senile plantations, with fresh stock supported with appropriate and integrated combination of inputs, pruning and grafting as well as training techniques taking care of health, vigour and productiveness. This require proven technology implementation through individual farmers, farmers’ cooperatives, self-help groups, NGOs, growers’ associations and commodity organizations. However, technology depends upon the nature and requirement of a particular fruit crop. The rejuvenation technology for transformation of old senile orchards into young productive ones in sustained manner requires well-planned and concerted efforts. Though processes and procedures require scientific skill with precision in application/implementation as these important commercial crops have been associated with livelihood of many farmers/growers, i.e. why economic production is of utmost important for the growers as it holds true for all the region specific important commercial fruit crops in general.

The successful translation of rejuvenation technology in old senile orchards includes sequential operational steps. They should be followed in scientific manner for different category/group of fruit crops.

Research methodology is the process of planning and executing a research study, including defining the research questions, selecting appropriate research design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The methodology is a blueprint of the research study that guides the researcher through each step of the research process. The research methodology is essential to ensure the validity, reliability, and generalization of the study.

This chapter provides an in-depth explanation of the research methodology used in the research. The purpose of this chapter is providing a clear understanding of the methods, techniques, and concepts used to design, implement, and analyse the research study. By understanding the methodology, readers can evaluate the reliability and validity of the study results.

The chapter is divided into several sub-headings for easy understanding of the methodology used:

• Research locale

• Sampling design

• Pilot study

• Variables and their measurements

Soil organisms play vital role in agri-ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycling, soil detoxification and organic matter decomposition. They also influence water infiltration by improving soil porosity through production of polysaccharides. Rhizosphere microorganisms help plant to acquire macro and micronutrients, produce phytohormones for better crop establishment. Soil microbes process organic matter to provide a balance of minerals and nutrients which are utilized by plants to achieve healthy and vigorous growth. Microbes also colonize on plants parts and offers protection by excluding many plant pathogens. They are the basic indicators of soil fertility and are responsible for maintaining a hospitable environment for crop growth.

Analytical methods for study of soil microbes

The analytical techniques for study of soil microbes are grouped under the following heads :

• Determination of form and arrangement of microorganisms in soil
• Isolation and characterization of soil microorganisms
• Detection of microbial activity in soil
• Determination of microbial biomass.

For the above, the different analytical methods used are described below.

Schultz Method for Cholesterol
Frozen sections; cold calcium-cadmium-formalin fixed sections
Protocol
1) Thoroughly wash the sections in distilled water for 24 hours, changing the water several times.
2) Incubate the sections in 2.5% ferric ammonium sulphate solution at 37oC for 7 hours.
3) Wash the sections three times in fresh acetate buffer, allowing 1 hour for each wash.
4) Rinse briefly in distilled water.
5) Immerse in 5% formalin for 10 minutes.
6) Mount the sections onto slides, blotting the edges to remove excess water. Do not let the sections dry out.
7) Place a drop of a 1:1 mixture of sulphuric and acetic acids on a coverslip. Invert the slide and lower it onto the coverslip. Then turn the slide rightside up and gently press the coverslip to flatten the section. Hold the coverslip by its corners and gently oscillate it a few times to ensure even spreading.

The drones are configured to traverse the field and acquire photos and sensor data in alignment with the predetermined flight plan. High-resolution cameras get visual data, whereas multispectral sensors gather information on light wavelengths beyond the visible spectrum, thereby offering insights into plant health and stress levels.
During drone flights, essential techniques for data acquisition encompass photogrammetry utilizing overlapping high-resolution images, GPS tracking for accurate location data, IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) sensors for monitoring attitude and movement, ground control points (GCPs) for precise georeferencing, multispectral or hyperspectral imaging for comprehensive spectral analysis, LiDAR scanning for the generation of 3D point clouds, and data logging systems to document sensor readings throughout the flight, all while meticulously planning flight paths and accounting for variables such as lighting and weather conditions.
Drones have emerged as a vital competitive advantage in the inspection of various asset types, optimizing time, reducing costs, and mitigating risk. Historically, an inspection necessitated an inspector to ascend the structure, capturing images and doing measurements manually from considerable heights.
This procedure is intricate; it necessitates extended hours and the presence of numerous experts on site for safety. The data generated by inspectors through manual pictures and measurements is limited: manual inspections may necessitate many trips to collect adequate information for necessary maintenance.
Manually operating a drone to obtain the data necessitates training, expertise, and extensive experience. A pilot collecting data for a tower inspection must comprehend the requirements of the inspectors. The pilot must comprehend how to maneuver an aircraft accurately around an asset to obtain precise aerial photos, regardless of barriers, wind conditions, or the necessity to replace batteries during the trip. The data must be examined and converted into a digital format that is

Examination of faecal sample for helminthic infections

Gross Examination: It precedes the microscopic examination of faecal sample and includes collection of information as below:
    a)    Consistency: Condition of the faeces should be noted as soft, watery (diarrhoeic) or hard but it should be kept in mind that the description varies with the concerned animal species.
    b)    Colour: It is to report the unusual faecal colour, if any as mud coloured foul  smelling faeces in calves indicate ascarid infection; tarry coloured faeces in dog is pinpointing of hookworm infection.

Principle

The majority of cell lines are cultivated as monolayer adherent cells, meaning they only grow on the surfaces of culture vessels. However, there are particular cells that are non-adhesive and do not rely on external support for their growth, referred to as suspension cells. A suspension culture, is a cell culture where individual cells or small cell clusters grow and multiply in a stirred growth medium, forming a suspension. Subculturing, also known as passaging cells, involves transferring cells from a previous culture into fresh growth medium to allow the cell line to continue growing. Suspension cultures involve the suspension of cells in a liquid medium and agitation at a specific speed to ensure that the cells are uniformly exposed to nutrient media from every angle. This method prevents cell aggregation and enhances nutrient absorption, thereby promoting cell growth. The maintenance of these cultures is achieved by transferring the cells from the early stationary phase to a fresh medium through subculturing. During the incubation period, there is an increase in both cell division and cell enlargement, leading to rapid cellular growth. The viability of cells in the suspension decreases after the stationary phase due to the exhaustion of certain factors or the accumulation of toxic substances in the medium. This decrease in the viability of the cells further reduces the growth rate of the entire culture. Next, a portion of the cell suspension is added to the freshly prepared medium with the same composition.

Laparoscopy is an operative procedure designed for the visual inspection of peritoneal cavity and biopsy of organs. Laparoscopy is a valuable diagnostic and therapeutic tool in clinical medicine. In the field of cholecystectomy, appendicectomy, vagotomy, hernia repair and adhesion release laparoscopy surgery offers significant advantages over open surgery in humans. For gynecological problems like ovarian cyst or in the case of oophorectomies and hysterectomies, laparoscopic surgery (‘scarless surgery’) is now considered a better alternative in addition to laparoscopic sterilization. Only in the last 15 years laparoscopy is widely used in different animal species for research and clinical diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. The first canine laparoscopy procedures were performed in the early 1900’s (Kelling, 1902). Anderson (1937) used dogs to perfect his skills prior to human clinical trials. The first clinical application of laparoscopy in dog’s involved ovarian function studies in the early 1960’s and Lettow reported the first laparoscopic liver biopsy procedure in a dog in 1972.

Bielschowsky’s Method for Axis Cylinders and Dendrites
Tissues fix in 10% neutral buffered formalin and process for routine paraffin sections Protocol:
1) Deparaffinise the paraffin sections with two changes (10 minutes each) of xylene.
2) Descending grades of ethanol from absolute to 50% solution (2 minutes each).
3) Hydrate the sections with distilled water 5 minutes.
4) 2% Silver nitrate solution for 48 hours, in the dark.
5) Rinse quickly in double distilled water.
6) Ammoniacal silver solution 10-20 minutes or until sections turn a deep brown.
7) Rinse in distilled water.
8) Reduce in 20% formalin solution for 5 minutes. Sections appear a dark brownish black.
9) Rinse thoroughly in distilled water.
10) Tone in gold chloride solution for 1 hour. Sections will be a reddish violet colour.
11) Rinse thoroughly in distilled water.
12) Sodium thiosulfate solution for 1 minute.
13) Wash in tap water.
14) Dehydrate in ascending grades of 90% to absolute ethanol (one minute each).

The Millon Reaction
Tissues fixation in 10% neutral buffered formalin solution
Protocol
1) Deparaffinise the paraffin sections with two changes (10 minutes each) of xylene.
2) Descending grades of alcohol from absolute to 50% solution (2 minutes each).
3) Hydrate the sections with distilled water for 5 minutes.
4) Transfer the sections to a small beaker with the reagent and gently boil.
5) Stop the heating process and let the solution cool to room temperature.
6) Remove the sections and rinse them three times in distilled water (2 minutes each).
7) Dehydrate in ascending grades of 90% to absolute alcohol (one minute each).
8) Clear in xylene, two changes of 30 minutes each.
9) Mount glass cover slip with DPX.

9.1. ITKS for Seed Treatment and Sowing

• Yield of almost all the crops depends on seed quality.
• Even if it is a quality seed, it should be a dried one because well dried seeds will have higher longevity and keeping quality.
• It better to change the seeds at least once in two years.
• To maintain the seed viability and prevent it from outside damage, the outer shell is not separated.
• The seeds are generally stored along with the leaves of neem (Azadirachta indica), pungam (Pongamia pinnata), notchi (Vitex negundo) and thumbai (Leucas aspera).
• Six weeks nursery period is enough for six months duration of the crop.
• Shallow sowing is followed in dry lands.
• Severing the broadcasted seeds in dry lands with soil.
• Dragging, over the fields, the thorny branches with weight over them for covering seeds the sown on dry lands.
• It is better to start planting from ‘Sani moolai’ (north east) of the field to get higher yields.
• It is better to perform sowing and planting operations during evening hours.

Techniques to Conduct Digestion Trial Under Stall Conditions

Digestibilty definition. The digestibility of a food is most accurately defined as that  proportion which is not excreted in the faeces and which is , therefore, assumed to be absorbed by the animal. It is commonly expressed in terms of dry matter and as a percentage, the digestibility coefficient. For example, if a cow ate 11 kg of hay containing 10 kg of dry matter and excreted 4 kg dry matter in its faeces, the digestibility of the hay dry matter would be

Introduction

Germfree (GF) animal is one which is isolated from all demonstrable living microorganisms like bacteria, virus, fungus, parasite, algae, yeast. The aim of GF work is isolation (Prevent contamination from air, water, food and environment). It can be attained mechanically and scientifically. GF animal research began in 1895 but in 1897 Nuttall and Thierfelder started to rear GF guinea pigs in their lab. Chicks are classical animal for GF research. Rats and mice are reared through reproduction. Permanent breeding colonies of these have been established.

Synonyms : Axenic animal –meaning free from strange. Gnotobiotic – known life derived from Greek word-Gnoto & biota means known flora & fauna.

Gnotobiote (Gnotobiotic animal ) : Is an animal derived by aseptic caesarian or sterile tatching of eggs that is restored & continuously maintained with Germ free technique under isolator condition in which flora & fauna is clearly defined.

Flora animal: A gnotobiote maintained under isolator condition in international association with one or more known types of microorganisms.

Committee recognized throughout world on laboratory animal called International Committee on Laboratory Animal (ICLA) This committee is responsible to make the rules and regulations and laws which governs production, maintenance and usage of laboratory animal. This committee has defined Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) animal which are free of specified micro organisms and parasites but not necessarily free of the ones which are not specified. Example pasteurella free SPF animal.

Synonyms of SPF Animals

• Disease free animal
• Healthy animal
• Pathogen free animal
• Clean animal
• Caesarian derived animal

The main aim for the production of GFA is for isolation of animal free of all organism.

Weeds can be considered a significant problem because they tend to decrease crop yields by increasing competition for water, sunlight and nutrients while serving as host plants for pests and diseases. Since the invention of herbicides, farmers have used these chemicals to eradicate weeds from their fields. Using herbicides not only increased crop yields but also reduced the labor required to remove weeds. Today, some farmers have a renewed interest in organic methods of managing weeds since the widespread use of agro-chemicals has resulted in purported environment and health problems. It has also been found that in some cases herbicides use can cause some weed species to dominate fields because the weeds develop resistance to herbicides. In addition, some herbicides are capable of destroying weeds that are harmless to crops, resulting in a potential decrease in biodiversity on farmers. It is important to understand that under an organic system of weed control, weeds could never be eliminated but only managed. In organic agriculture weeds are the resources as they are mostly native to the field/areas of existence (Children’s of the soil)

One of the primary targets of genome analysis is to manipulate it at the level of genes, the units of inheritance. Genes, as explained earlier have distinct positions and sequence configurations in the genome which are expressed in the form of RNA or proteins controlling the functionality and identity of an organism. To understand the function of a gene several methodologies may be adopted. As genes have conserved sequences like promoters preceding the reading frame, initiation sequences, exon-intron junctions and end sequences, these features can be used to screen genome sequence to identify the regions containing genes. An open reading frame (ORF) is the sequence of a gene for which functions have been assigned, i.e., the sequence codes for a protein or RNA. On the other hand, an unassigned reading frame (URF) is a sequence which has structural features of a gene, but no function has yet been assigned to it.

New techniques and approaches to groundwater studies are always in deep concern with the hydrogeomorphologists. The designing of new techniques or adapting existing techniques with better enhancement to solve practical problems in the study of groundwater are of central concern. One of the recent technical developments include the mathematical model of groundwater flow that has become the most widely used computer-based model in the groundwater industry. Techniques to identify and date recently recharged water that is useful in characterizing the susceptibility of hydrogeologic environments to contamination are utilized by various research groups all over the world.

Geophysical methods for determining the hydraulic properties of fractured rocks gained the importance in the hydrogeomorphic studies. Predicting the movement of water and contaminants through fractured rocks has been one of the most challenging problems in hydrogeomorphology. Besides conventional and above mentioned techniques the techniques discussed in this chapter are Remote Sensing, Geographical Informational system (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), Digital Elevation Model (DEM), Groundwater Information System (GWIS), Digital Surface Terrain Modelling (DSTM), Multicriteria evaluation (MCE) and Thermal Infra Red (TIR) Mapping and Microwave Data.

Common rules for fine laboratory techniques call for:

    ·    A laboratory should have a record and a complete up to-date record of all the equipments and their operating manual.
    ·    A laboratory should have a record and detailed up to-date record of all the chemicals including the name of manufacturer with their     grade and arranged alphabetically in specific area
    ·    Strong acid and bases in safe area.
    ·    Chloroform, alcohol which are volatile or toxic must be stored in fume hood.

2.1. GERMPLASM COLLECTION
a. Propagation techniques
There are four main propagation techniques that are used in plant reproduction for most plants, viz;
• Seed
• Cuttings
• Marcotting
• Grafting
Note: That not all plants can be propagated by all the four methods mention above.

Introduction

During the last decade, there has been a dramatic increase in use of artificial insemination (AI) by commercial swine producers in many European countries. Till 1990, less than 7% of sows & gilt in the USA were bred by Artificial Insemination. Today, over 70% of the animals are bred by AI. Maybe in a couple of years all swine producers will probably utilize this technology.

In India, it is still in infant stage. Some research work has already been done in scattered ways in various Research Institutes but it is still in the four walls of the laboratory. Some Govt. farms have been doing AI in swine with liquid semen.

Pig is the most important livestock in all Northeastern Hill States and there is no superior indigenous germplasm available in this region. Productivity of local pigs is very low. All through, improvement programmes had undertaken in different state Govt. farms, Central Govt. farms through upgrading with the help of suitable exotic pig breeds like Hampshire, Large Black, and Large White Yorkshire etc. Superior germplasm was distributed to farmers for better productivity. But, improvement till date is not impressive due to lack of superior germless, high feed cost, lack of breeder farmers and lack of incentives to the poor farmers. Maintenance of breeding boar for small farmers is very expensive not only in individual capacity but also on community basis. So, AI is the only tool for quicker, safer, quicker and economic why out for swine improvement like cattle.

1. HAND EMASCULATION AND POLLINATION

The male part of seed parent is removed by hand before anthesis to check the self pollination from the crop plants with bisexual flower having fertile male and female part. This process is known as emasculation. These emasculated flowers are then pollinated by the pollens collected from pollinator parent to produce hybrid seed (Fig. 1). Eg. Cotton, tomato, brinjal.

The measurement of greenhouse gases (GHGs) has been started during middle of the last century. Initially, CO₂ and water vapour were measured with other common meteorological variables like temperature, sunshine hours, rainfall, humidity etc., for monitoring the weather condition and pollution. The absolute or relative concentrations of gasses in atmosphere are used to measure basically for monitoring purpose. However, limited studies were dealt with actual gaseous exchanges of fluxes. The concern about gaseous flux measurement and GHGs-exchanges started after 1900s when people got concerned about anthropogenic pollution, environmental sustainability and climate change issues. The GHGs-exchanges in earth-atmosphere systems primarily occur due to change in meteorological variables, soil responses and physiological activities of crops. If we are interested for environmental data inventories, then absolute GHGs concentrations of atmosphere at a specific time is required. However, presently researchers, students, environmentalists, climate scientists are primarily interested for quantitative data on GHGs fluxes and or GHGs-exchanges. They want to know what and how much quantity of a particular GHG is emitting from unit area at unit time.

Flux refers to the amount of any gas emitted per unit area per unit time. The dimension of that is M A^-11 T^-1. (Where, M= Mass/ Quantity; A= Area; T= Time). The SI unit of flux is g m²s^-1. Therefore, flux is a vector. It has magnitude as well as direction. As for example positive flux of CO₂ from earth surface means, CO₂ is moving out from earth surface to atmosphere. If it moves in opposite direction then the flux would be negative. In that case CO₂ gas may be absorbed by the soil surface from adjacent atmosphere. Similarly, GHGs fluxes of earth surface are either positive or negative. Generally, positive GHGs flux refers to emission of GHGs from earth to atmosphere and vice versa.

One of the important aspects of dry flowers is the pleasure of gathering flowers and grasses to make wonderful dried arrangements. The only drawback is that the original colors fade and the floral arrangements can end up looking like a bunch of straw. To enhance the colors of dried flowers, dyeing is advocated. While coloring ferns or small leaves, it is better to work on an aluminum foil or waxed paper so it can collect extra paint, which can be used on another leaf. Leaves should be lightly brushed, and never saturated with paint. The painted specimens are placed on the waxed paper or on a computer paper to dry. Newsprint should not be used.

17.1 Introduction

It is well known fact that planners as well as end users have to consider any resources as technology from economic point of view. Therefore, it is important to have techno – economic analysis of each energy source option. In the feasibility study of particular energy option, three tier judgment approaches is required, which include technical feasibility, economical viability and social acceptability. Hence in the rural energy planning programme one has to considered techno socio economic analysis of an individual energy option. Since in integrated rural energy planning, locally available energy resources are used, presuming that it is socially recognized. Hence in the IREP project, the need and scope of techno economic analysis in terms of economic analysis of different technical feasible options, before between “economic” and “finical” analysis should be kept in mind. An economic analysis is needed to verify that a particular energy source will provide “net benefit” to society as a whole, before its final integration in the energy context, while a financial analysis integrated in the energy practices. In simple words, a financial analysis is concerned with goods and services, money inflow and outflows and the transfer of payments. An economic analysis also considers the social benefits and costs of goods and services which are not traded in a market.