eChapters

Meat processing is the set of methods and techniques used to bring substantial chemical and physical changes in the natural state of meat. These are the methods which are used for making meat and their products attractive, nutritious and marketable as well as for the prolongation of shelf-life. In processing techniques, grinding, chopping, addition of seasoning, alteration techniques for colour, heat treatments etc. are included but cutting, trimming and deboning are not included in processing operations.

History

Meat processing dates back to the prehistoric ages and probably the first processed meat product was sundried meat. Lator it turns to burning of meat over wood fire while salting and smoking of meat was practiced first time in the time of Homer, 850 B.C. In 63B.C.-14 A.D. at the reign of Augustus honey was tried for preservation of meat. Lator various types of cooking such as roasting, smoking, steaming and oven baking came in existance. Salt-preservation was especially common for foods including meat and meat products for warrior and sailor’s diets, until the introduction of canning methods.

Modern food processing technology in the 19th and 20th century was largely developed to serve military needs. In 1809 Nicolus Appert invented a vacuum bottling technique that would supply food for French troops and this contributed to the development of tinning and then canning by Peter Durand in 1810. Although initially expensive and somewhat hazardous due to the lead used in cans. Canned goods would later become a staple around the world. Pasturization discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1862 was a significant advance in ensuring the micro-biological safety of food. In 20^th century, food processing advances with the development of spray drying, freeze drying and the introduction of artificial sweeteners, colouring agents and preservatives such as sodium benzoate. In late 20^th century ready to eat meat food products were introduced to cater the need of consumers.

Abstract: Lilium is one of the six major genera of flower bulbs produced worldwide. Species are native to diverse habitat within Northern hemisphere. Liliums have a lengthy association with various world cultures. As a result, flower breeders have created numerous genotypes during the millennia of breeding this crop which has enabled its establishment in the top ten cuts, potted flowering and garden crops worldwide. The crop arises from multiple species. Research has focused on development of late flowering genotypes with forcing ability, improvement of flower form/ shape, pollenless cultivars, disease resistance and floral longevity. The limited genetic information and trait heritability have been established for this crop. Wide crosses are routinely used to create new genetic variability. Breeders have created complex hybrids such as LA, OT, OTO, FA, FAA, FO and OA hybrids through in vitro embryo rescue techniques. Molecular biology is being used to engineer Lilium against LSV and TBV. Crop ideotypes prescribe numerous traits for incorporation by flower breeders and geneticists including short forcing time, late flowering in Asiatic lilies, enhanced shelf life, genetically controlled height, rapid propagation and cultivars requiring no vernalization for flowering.

Abstract: Petunias, popular bedding plants, with variety of forms, sizes and shapes are employed for landscape planning, garden designs and container gardening. The numerous phenotypes viz., Grandifloras, Multifloras, Millifloras, Waves, Hedgifloras, etc. are complex hybrids. The outstanding marketable series of P. x hybrida have been developed for upright, spreading and semi-trailing to trailing habits. The leaf colour ranges from light to dark green and also variegated types. Flower colours with charming shades and patterns, picotte, star and pronounced venation of darker colours are available on world market. Petunias are strictly cross pollinated and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern breeders. Numerous genes have been identified in the genus with some sequenced genes being used to create transformants with modified plant morphology, floral structure development, floral scent, and flower shelf life. Genes involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway has enabled precision in the creation of flower colours or modification of pigment production and expression. An exploitation of sterility and incompatibility for production of F₁ hybrid seeds is discusses in detail.

Introduction

Food grains have been the key component of the human diet for thousands of years and have played a vital role in framing human civilization. Rice, wheat, and maize, and to a lesser extent, coarse grains are major staples, crucial to the daily endurance of billions of people around the world. Cereal grains are consumed by more than 50% of world population to meet daily calorie requirements. Most grains undergo a milling process that ideally removes the outer bran (pericarp) and germ layers; catering to consumer market requirements. To a farmer, yield is the most prominent aspect. As the grain moves along the supply chain, and as the product reaches the market, quality becomes the key determinant of its sale-ability and economic value. Grain quality is defined by a range of physical and compositional properties where threshold necessities are set according to end consumer use requirements. Most industries and consumer markets have become habituated over the years to demand grain with specific attributes. Where consumers are close to the source of grain production (e.g. in local markets), their own preferences and the laws of supply and demand control the grain quality. However, where grain is traded over large distances, particularly internationally, consumers almost have no direct influence on quality, requiring regulatory standards to be established and imposed to protect consumer rights. Therefore in the grain supply chain, all points have effects with respect to grain quality.

Introduction

Farm mechanization is application of machine power to work on land, usually performed by animate and mechanical power. It is also defined as an economic application of engineering technology to increase the labour efficiency and productivity. However, it not only includes production, distribution and utilization of a variety of tools, machinery and equipment but also planting, harvesting and primary process. Mechanization has a major impact on demand and supply of farm labour, agricultural profitability and a change in rural dynamics.

ABSTRACT

Advances in biotechnology, particularly methods for culturing plant cells and tissues can provide new means for the commercial processing of even rare plants and th chemicals they produce. These new technologies will extend and enhance the usefulness of plants as renewable resources of valuable chemicals. Aristolochic acid is mainly found in the genus Aristolochia. Aristolochic acid has been shown to hav anti-tumour activity and has been recommended for its activity against various effect of snakebite and its capacity to inhibit phospholipase A2 or other enzymes Considering the importance of medicinal use of A. bracteolata and A. indica, in th present study, they were selected for in vitro development and rapid multiplication o plant through tissue culture. The study was undertaken to enhance the in vitr production of Aristolochic acid in different tissue cultures. Cell suspension culture was established from friable calli of both the species in M liquid medium. Bergmann plating technique was carried out for cell line selection fo more production of Aristolochic acid. Primary transformation was carried out by Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 / pTOK233 with Gus and hpt genes to confirm the transgenic potential of A. bracteolata and A. indica. In order to enhance the productio of aristolochic acid in in vitro culture condition, the physical, chemical and biologica conditions were altered. Aristolochic acid was isolated, identified and purified from naturally growing plants as well as from tissue culture plants and all other cultur stages.

In Comparison to Literature : A Comparative Account

1.1 Historical background of the Embryology

Embryology is a branch of Anatomy. It is the study of growth and differentiation undergone by an organism in the course of its development from a single fertilized egg cell into a highly complex and independent living being like its parents. It explains how one develops before he is born. Important changes also take place after birth and continue to occur even to adult stage. eg: Replacement of RbC and WbC is a continuous developmental process and reverting to activities seen in prenatal condition is seen in healing of wounds. So the term ‘Developmental Anatomy’ which includes prenatal and postnatal development is preferred over term embryology as Developmental Anatomy, includes prenatal and postnatal development and as the term embryology refers truly prenatal (Intra uterine) development.

Aristotle (384-332/322 BC) proposed two theories regarding origin of life

Agroforestry is a new name for a set of old practices. The farmers have been practicing agroforestry since ancient times. The general concept of agroforestry is to integrate trees and agriculture so as to create a more diversified landscape, while providing the producers with new environmental and economic benefits. In other words, agroforestry is a method of farming that allows trees and shrubs to grow along with crops and/or livestock, therefore blending agriculture and forestry in the same production system. This relatively young science was brought from the realm of indigenous knowledge into the forefront of agricultural research four decades ago and was promoted widely as a sustainability-enhancing practice that combines the best attributes of both forestry and agriculture.

What is DNA

DNA is a simple molecule

DNA is negatively charged

DNA has lots of ring structures; ring structures are generally quite hydrophobic.

DNA is a very robust molecule.

DNA work has lots of toys.

Drought

There is no universally accepted definition of drought. Early workers defined drought as prolonged period without rainfall. Drought is a situation when the actual seasonal rainfall is deficient by more than twice the mean deviation. American Meteorological Society defined drought as a period of abnormally dry weather, sufficiently prolonged for lack of water to cause a severe hydrological imbalance in the area affected.

Prolonged deficiency of soil moisture adversely affected crop growth indicating incidence of agriculture drought. It is the result of imbalance between soil moisture and evapotranspiration needs of an area over a fairly long period as to cause damage to standing crops and to reduce the yields.

Postharvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground, or separated from its parent plant, it begins to deteriorate. Postharvest activities include harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transportation and marketing. Losses of horticultural produce are a major problem in the postharvest chain. The diseases which develop on harvested parts of the plants like seeds, fruits and also on vegetables are the postharvested diseases. The amount or extent of damage depends mainly on the pathogen(s) involved, on the condition of the products and the condition of storage. Major tips to avoid postharvest losses include Tips to avoid postharvest losses include assessing maturity, to check your water quality, to check water temperature, avoid injury, keep the produce cool and proper storage.

“Storage” means the phase of the postharvest system during which the products are kept in such a way as to guarantee food security other than during periods of agricultural production at the marketing level, to balance the supply and demand of agricultural products, thereby stabilizing market prices. Grain, which includes dry kitchen ingredients such as flour, rice, millet, couscous, cornmeal, and so on, can be stored in rigid sealed containers to prevent moisture contamination or insect or rodent infestation. For kitchen use, glass containers are the most traditional method. Maturity indices are the sign or indication the readiness of the commodity for harvest. It is the basis for determining harvest date. Postharvest losses occur between harvest and the moment of human consumption. They include on-farm losses, such as when grain is threshed, winnowed, and dried, as well as losses along the chain during transportation, storage, and processing.

Abstract

The tradition of growing of flowers is age old. The flowers have travelled from the bowl of prayers to gardens to commercial sector for revenue. The quality concerned world demands for round the year production and supply of quality produce which can only be possible under controlled environment production. A range of location specific and crop specific infrastructures are being commercially used for production of planting material and flowers. General and crop specific guidelines for trade of cut flowers are available which the producers and policy makers must know for successful promotion of export of cut flowers from the country. The producer can also use practical methods for vase life study of their produce which is of great relevance in cut flower trade.

Keywords: Protected floriculture, trade, crop specific guidelines, export, cut flower

Introduction

Indian floriculture industry is shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers for export purpose. The liberalized economy has given an impetus to Indian entrepreneurs for establishing export oriented units (EOUs) under controlled climatic conditions. The wide variations in agro climatic conditions in India permit us to grow various types of tropical and subtropical flowers. Though such plants grow successfully in open conditions without cover, they fail to meet the quality requirements of being blemish free. High quality ornamental plants meant for export should be scientifically grown only in plastic, glass or fibre glass greenhouses or at least under partial cover. Though initial investment is high in protected cultivation, the products in them will obtain far more attractive prices.

8.1 Introduction

In the fields like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Engineering and Economics; their laws and principles contains various parameters and their derivatives. The mathematical relationships of such parameters with their derivatives constitute the differential equations. In calculus, differential equations were firstly introduced by Newton and Leibnitz. Newton listed the three kinds of differential equations:

8.1. Downy mildew of cruciferous vegetables

Cruciferous vegetables are important Kharif vegetable crops, which are grown both for table and seed purpose. This vegetable group constitutes crops like cauliflower, cabbage, radish, turnip, broccoli, brussel’s sprouts; knol-khol and rutabaga .The vegetable crops affected by downy mildews pathogen Peronospora parasitica are members of the genus Brassica and the downy mildew diseases on these crops are widespread in those regions of the world, which have cool and wet climate.

Geographical distribution

The downy mildew disease on cruciferous crops has worldwide distribution. The disease was first recorded in 1883 in USA on Brassica spp. (Farlow, 1883). In India, this disease was first reported by Butler in 1918. Subsequently various authors reported this disease from many countries of the world (Channon, 1981) particularly Angola (Serafim and Serafim, 1968), Argentine (Lindquist, 1939), Australia (Samuel, 1925; Anon., 1955), Austria (Glaeser, 1970), Bermuda (Waters-ton, 1940), Brazil (Grillo, 1937), Britain (Moore, 1959), Brunei (Herb. IMI), Canada (Jones, 1944; Downey and Bolton, 1961), Chile (Mujica and Vergara, 1960), China (Porter, 1926; Pai, 1957), Columbia (Orjuela, 1965), Costa Rica (McGuire and Crandall, 1967), Cuba (Fernandez Rosenada, 1973), Cyprus (Herb.IMI), Czechoslovakia (Rydl, 1968), Denmark (Gram and Rostrup, 1924), Dominica (Anon., 1972a), Egypt (Elarosi and Assawah, 1959), Ethiopia (Herb. IMI), Fiji (Anon, 1969), Finland (Herb. IMI), France (Darpoux, 1945), Germany (Neumann, 1955), Greece (Herb.IMI), Guatemala (Muller, 1950), Haiti (Anon., 1972a), Hong-Kong (Johnston, 1963), India (Thind, 1942), Iran (Ershad, 1977), Iraq (Herb.IMI), Israel (Peleg, 1953), Italy (Ciferri, 1961), Jamaica (Leather, 1967), Japan (Hiura and Kanegae, 1934), Kampuchea (Soonthronpoct, 1969), Kenya (Anon., 1957), Korea (Anon., 1972b), Libya (Herb.IMI), Malawi (Peregrine and Siddiqi, 1972), Malaysia (Mcintosh, 1951), Malta (Herb.IMI), Mauritius (Orian, 1951), Mexico (Rodriguez, 1972), Morocco (Herb. IMI) , Mozambique (Decarvalho, 1948), Nepal (Bhatt, 1966), Netherlands (Thung, 1926b), New Zealand

Extension Teaching Method

The function of extension education is to bring about desirable changes in the behaviour of a human being. The changes in human being are produced by increasing his/her knowledge level, improving skill and changing attitude. For all these to happen, an individual has to be taught, trained and communicated. So, the extension education emphasizes the process of communication, and if you examine, you will find that the extension education is broadly a teaching-learning process in which a learning situation is created by an extension worker/ teacher by which an individual attempt to change his/her behaviour. The learning situation created in extension education process is a condition or environment in which the elements like teacher, learner, subject matter, physical facilities and teaching methods and aids for promoting learning are present in a dynamic relationship with one another. The quality of learning depends upon the conditions created by the teacher for learners to learn. However, the learner is the key element in the teaching and learning process. His willingness and desire for change are very important. The third element; subject matter is the content of the message that the extension worker wants to transfer to the client. Transfer of the subject matter will be easy and effective if it is valid, correct, based on facts, applicable to practical life situation and need based. Effective teaching-learning process is also affected if physical facilities like place, light, ventilation, seating arrangements, etc., are not properly provided to both teachers as well as to the learners. Besides all these, the transfer of subject matters to the learners requires the help of suitable teaching methods, aids and media. Proper selection and handling of methods and aids facilitate in creating the desirable learning situation. The teaching methods and aids should be simple, easy to handle, suitable to subject matter, readily available, suited to the environment and needs of the learners.

Rural Sociology

Significant proportion of Indian population lives in village and derives their livelihood from villages. India is a land of agriculture and its customs, traditions, social structure, etc. are unique in the world. Understanding of rural society is must for successful implementation of developmental programmes. The understanding of rural people requires study of rural sociology. Rural sociology, as indicated by its name, studies rural society, rural social structures and institutions. The rural society is primarily depending on agriculture and hence rural sociology also concerns itself on the peasant society. There is a stark difference between the social structure, processes, social dynamics and social control in rural society and urban society. Thus, rural sociology has been specially designed to study the rural phenomena and it is a systematic study of the varied aspects of the rural society. It is the study of the rural social networks and how they operate for the smooth functioning of the society. The rural society is generally rooted in the villages, and rural sociology studies the facets of the villages, the way it functions, the various problems it faces and the how it tackles to face the imminent challenges. Rural sociology offers viable solutions and ways of mitigating the problems that hound over the villages.

A pipe is connected to a tank or cistern. It is used to fill (inlet) or empty (outlet) the tank. Therefore, Inlet refers to a pipe which is connected to fill a tank is known as an inlet, while outlet refeRs to a pipe which is connected to empty a tank is known as an outlet. Generally the problems on pipes and cisterns are similar to problems on time and work. In pipes and cistern problems, the amount of work done is the part of the tank of filled or emptied. And, the time taken to do a piece of work is the time taken to fill or empty a tank completely or to a desired level. Following points should be remembered to solve the probles;

Multipurpose trees and shrubs are defined as all woody perennials that are purposefully grown to provide more than one significant contribution to the production and/or service functions of a land-use system that they occupy. In agroforestry systems, different species of trees and shrubs can be planted with many types of crops in a variety of patterns. Thus, it is required to know about the methods of propagation and nursery raising, planting and other silvicultural management practices along with the diverse uses of multipurpose trees and shrubs of tropical and subtropical areas before their selection for forestry and agroforestry activities. It is important to select the most suitable tree species since it is not easy to replace them once they have been planted.

MANGIUM (Acacia mangium)

Acacia mangium is a single-stemmed evergreen tree that grows to 25-35 m in height and up to 60 cm in diameter. The bole is usually straight, often fluted near the base, free of branches for up to half its height. Mangium is native to Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. However, it tolerates varied site conditions and has adaptability to different planting objectives. Mangium shows most vigorous growth on well-drained, fertile soils in high rainfall areas in the humid tropics. It is valued for its rapid growth and has been planted throughout the humid tropics and is a major plantation species in the Asia-Pacific. Provenances from Papua New Guinea consistently show better growth in height and diameter.

Introduction

Eradication of malnutrition and hunger (Sustainable Development Goal, SDG-2) are the major challenges to humanity. Availability of sufficient nutritionally balanced food is the prerequisite for ensuring global food security. Food security is also critical for achievement of SDG 1 (poverty eradication) and SDG 3 (health and well-being) (UNDP, 2019). Changing climatic conditions accompanied by global warming not only acts a major threat for achievement of SDGs but could actually lead to the reversal of the progress already made. The escalating global temperature has jeopardized the food security throughout the world. A great decrease in the global crop yield has been suspected even with a 2°C rise in temperature. On field, it is often associated with crop nutrient loss, less accumulation of micronutrients and low availability of micro-minerals like iron and zinc. Additionally, the effect of the rainfall and temperature has also been observed. The global food prices are projected to increase by 3–84% by 2050 due to the fluctuations in rainfall and temperature (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018).

Millets are the small seeded grains which belong to family Grassacae/Poaceae. Traditionally, millets are used for the food and feed purpose and are among the oldest cultivated crops. The millet species of commercial importance are proso (Panicum miliaceum), foxtail (Setaria italica), barnyard (Echinochloa esculenta), finger (Eleusine coracana), little (Panicum sumatrense) and pearl (Pennisetum glaucum) in different regions of the world. In India, foxtail millet (priyangava), barnyard millet (aanava) and black finger millet (shyaamaka) have been mentioned even in the Yajurveda texts of 4500 BC (Morya et al., 2017). The records of consumption of foxtail and proso millet are as old as 2000 to 1000 BC in China. Cultivation of foxtail millet in Korean peninsula is documented around 3,500–2,000 BC. Foxtail millet is the oldest of all the cultivated millets and is believed to be originated in Southern Asia. From there, it was spread to Europian nations. In the west, cultivation of millets majorly started after 1850 (ICRISAT, 2019)

Plants are exposed to microbial pathogens at all growth stages from seeds to harvested produce. But they are resistant to numerous pathogens that are present in the environment and susceptible only to some of them. In other words, a plant species has built-in resistance mechanism to avoid or resist the invasion by many microbial pathogens. A pathogen may reach several plant species, but it can infect only a few plant species in the particular location or region. The process of pathogenesis or disease development is initiated when the pathogen reaches the plant surface that allows the initiation of infection. An organism is able to derive its nutrition from the susceptible host plant and becomes pathogenic. The physiological functions of such infected plants deviate from those of the healthy (normal) plants and suffer irreversibly to different magnitudes. The organism adversely affecting the plant growth and other functions to obtain nutrition is the pathogen. It develops rapidly or slowly in proportion to the levels of susceptibility / resistance of the host plant to the pathogen species concerned. Thus a plant species may be susceptible to some pathogens, while remains resistant / immune to other organisms that may be pathogenic to some other plant species. Depletion of compounds from the plants to meet the nutritional requirement of the pathogen leads to different kinds of external symptoms and internal changes due to derangement of normal metabolic functions of the host plant. The process of disease development in a susceptible host plant species is known as pathogenesis.

12.1 Assays for molecular diagnosis of Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (AML)

Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (AML), also known as Acute Myelogenous Leukaemia or Acute Myeloblastic Leukaemia or Acute Granulocytic Leukaemia or Acute non Lymphocytic Leukaemia is an aggressive type of cancer which affects blood and bone marrow. AML is a heterogeneous disorder if one considers its clinical status, therapeutic responses and overall prognosis.¹ This disease called acute because it progresses very fast and myeloid as it originates from myeloid cell line in the bone marrow.

In bone marrow blood cells are made in a controlled way. When AML occurs excess numbers of immature leukaemia cells are produced. Overproduction of leukaemia cells in bone marrow disables bone marrow to make mature white blood cells. These accumulated immature cells are unable to function properly (Inability to fight infection).

Diagnosis: Correct diagnosis is important for a successive treatment for AML. There are several tests available to diagnose AML but not all tests will be used for each person. The following tests may be used to diagnose AML.

Groundnut also known as peanut or monkey nut (Arachis hypogaea L. 2n = 4x = 40, allotetraploid, a species of the legume or bean family, Fabaceae, essentially self-pollinated, with genome 1C=2891 Mbp) is one of the five major oilseeds, namely, soybean, sunflower, groundnut, cottonseed and rapeseed. The global acreage, production and yield during 2018-19 have been 27.49 million hectares, 46.81 million tons and 1700 kg per hectare. The preliminary corresponding figures for 2019-20 have been 26.75 million ha, 45.87 million tons and 1710 kg per ha (USDA, 2000). India and China with more than 4.5 million ha each account for nearly one third of total global acreage and fifty percent of global production (China, 17 million tons and India, 6.69 million tons). Other countries in descending order in terms of area are Sudan, Nigeria, Senegal, Myanmar, Niger, Chad, Guinea, Uganda, Congo and Mozambique. Productivity-wise, USA tops the list (4480 kg/ha) followed by China (3750 kg/ ha). India with 1400 kg/ha is at the average position.

The method to preserve foods in sealed glass bottles by heat in boiling water was developed by one among the following scientist?

a) Edward Jenner (1798) b) Francois Nicolas Appert (1804)

c) Lazzaro spallanzani (1765) d) None of the above

Biocompatible, biodegradable, intelligent and responsive materials are currently an emerging area of interest in the field of efficient, safe, and green pesticide formulation. Using nanotechnology to design and prepare targeted pesticides with environmentally responsive controlled release via compound and chemical modifications has also shown great potential in creating novel formulations. Special attention was paid to intelligent pesticides with precise controlled release modes that can respond to micro-ecological environment changes such as light-sensitivity, thermo-sensitivity, humidity sensitivity, soil pH and enzyme activity (Huang et al., 2018).

4.1. Introduction

Presently, in the world, there are 195 countries according to the United Nations, and the number would even go up to 247 if we consider the disputed territories like Isle of Man, Hong Kong, etc. (United Nations, 2016) (Kershner, 2020). But the majority of the countries are still struggling to provide basic life-supporting amenities like nutrition, shelter, and employment. Conjointly, termed as emerging and developing countries such as India, Vietnam, Venezuela, Utopia, etc. (Ahmed and Shimada, 2019). Most of the developing countries are situated mainly in the continent of Africa, Asia and South America. They have got independence for the European countries like England, France, Portugal and Spain in the mid and late 20th century. 

ECONOMICS is the term derived from a Greek word ‘OIKOS’ means a HOUSE and NAMEN means TO MANAGE, i.e. to manage a household using limited funds available in most possible manners. The founders of Economics defined it as-‘The Science of Wealth’. In general, we may say that Economics is the social science that studies economic activities. Economists at different times have emphasized different aspects of Economic activities, and have arrived at different definitions of Economics.

Q. 1 LSU dryer was developed at
(A) London State University       (B) Ludhiana State University
(C) Lucknow State University     (D) Lusiana State University

Soil minerals are naturally formed inorganic compounds with definite chemical composition and characteristic geometric (crystalline) form. They are classified as primary and secondary minerals, silicates and non-silicates minerals, and crystalline and non-crystalline minerals. Primary minerals have not been significantly altered chemically since deposition or crystallization from molten magma and are usually found in the sand and coarse silt fractions. Secondary minerals form as a result of the alteration of primary minerals by weathering and are found in the clay and fine silt fractions.

There is no doubt that after independence, particularly during 1966-68, the use of hybrid and composite seeds of various crops, chemical fertilizers and pesticides resulted in an increase in the Indian agricultural output leading to ìGreen Revolutionî. But quite soon, the deleterious effects of farming based on chemical Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture 105 methods came to fore.

A system is a set of components that are interrelated and interact among themselves. A system may be natural, social or artificial. Natural systems consist
of all the materials both physical and biological and are independent of human beings. Our role in relation to natural systems is to try to understand these
systems and make use of them as per our needs. 

Integrated farming system is a multidisciplinary whole farm approach, which enables the farmers to identify opportunities and threats and act accordingly. It
is a dynamic approach which can be applied to any farming system around the world. It is very effective in solving the problems of small and marginal farmers.
The approach aims at increasing income and employment from small-holding by integrating various farm enterprises and recycling crop residues and by-products
within the farm itself.

Sampling for nematode communities has been the basis for the development of appropriate control strategy. The major purposes of sampling for nematodes include population estimation for general detection, advisory or predictive programme, disease diagnosis and also for research purposes.

Organic soils contain _____ % or more of organic matter.

A. 10       B. 15

C. 20      D. 30

Introduction to Energy Sources

Consumption of nonrenewable energy sources has caused more environmental harm than any other human activity during the last century. Electricity generated from fossil fuels like coal and crude oil has resulted in excessive levels of hazardous gases in the environment. As a result, several issues exist now, such as ozone depletion and global warming. Vehicle pollution has also been a significant issue.

As a result, alternative energy sources have become increasingly vital and relevant in today’s society. These sources, such as the sun and wind, can never be depleted and are hence referred to as renewable. They produce fewer emissions and are readily available locally. Their application has the potential to significantly reduce chemical, radioactive, and thermal pollution. They stand out as a promising source of infinite clean energy. These are also known as non-conventional energy sources.

Measurement of water used in irrigation ensures the application of required amount of water in crops. Knowing the rate of flow the adjustment to period of control at gates, etc. can be done to regulate the water at different branches of canals. To get the total control over the supply of water there should have the provision of water measurement at the critical points in irrigation systems.

Units of Measurement

Water is measured at rest or in motion. The water of reservoir, ponds, tanks, etc. at rest is measured in volumetric unit as liter, cubic meter, hectare-meter and hectare-centimeter. Water flowing in rivers, canals, channel, etc. is measured in litre/sec , liter per hour, meter per sec and hectare-meter per hour or day.

Introduction

There has been a steady increase in the poultry meat and egg production globally during the past few decades. Though the high biological value of eggs and poultry meat have resulted in an increasing demand for these two products, growing awareness for food quality and safety are becoming increasingly significant in determining the market value of such products. The importance of mycotoxins as one of the major detractor of poultry productivity and also of product quality, hence, becomes more relevant now than ever.

2.1 Rice

Rice is the staple food for the largest number of people on the Earth. According to an estimate, the global rice production must reach 800 million tonne from the present 91.04 million tonne in 2005-06 to meet the demand in 2025. It’s area is 37% of the total area under food grains as against 20% under wheat, another important food crop. But globally it stands next to wheat in harvested area. As the irrigated rice contributes more than 75 per cent of the total rice production, enhancing its yield potential would be key to meeting the global rice requirement for an additional 215 million tonne. To achieve the target yield, rice varieties with a yield advantage of about 20 per cent over popular and widely adapted rice varieties under tropical conditions must be developed. Experience in China, India, Vietnam, Philippines, Bangladesh and several other countries clearly indicates that hybrid rice technology offers readily available option to meet this challenge. 

Anatomy is the study of an internal structure of an organism, while morphology is the study of various external features of an organism Anatomy helps in knowing the structural peculiarities of different groups of plants, which help for adaptation to diverse environments. An angiosperm plant is characterized by the presence of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits

Plant cells: Plant cells are multicellular eukaryotic cells that make up a plant (a group of eukaryotes belonging to the Plantae kingdom, with the ability to synthesize their own food using water, sunlight and CO₂). Being eukaryotic cells, they have a defined nucleus with specialized structural organelles that enable it to function in an orderly manner.

There is no plant in this world which is uneconomical/not useful. Medicinal plants have been considered as important therapeutic aid for alleviating aliments of human kind. The WHO estimates that 80% of people living in developing countries rely almost exclusively on traditional medicines for their primary health care needs. Aromatic plants are used for essential oils - volatile material extracted from plants or plant parts usually by stream distillation and used in flavours and fragrances for food, soap, detergents, perfumes, lotions etc. Spices are the dry part of a plant such as roots, leaves and seeds which impart to food a certain flavour and pungent stimuli. Spices contain variable amount of fat, protein, carbohydrates, fibres, minerals and vitamins.

Mango (Mangifera indica Linn.) (Family-Anacardiaceae) is one of the most popular tropical and sub-tropical fruit crops in India and is well known as the “King of Fruits”. Mango is the national fruit of India and Pakistan as well as national tree of Bangladesh. It is cultivated worldwide in 49.46 lakh hectares with a production of 371.20 lakh tonnes. In India, the crop is cultivated in the largest area of 23.12 lakh hectares among all the countries in the world and production is around 150.30 lakh tonnes, contributing 40.48% of the total world production. India exports 59.22 thousand tonnes of mangoes to 40 different countries worldwide, valuing Rs. 162.92 crores (Anonymous, 2019).

Pheromones are neuronal signaling molecules synthesized by various organisms and then excreted into the environment, where they typically stimulate individuals of the same species to react to environmental changes (e.g., temperature shifts, biological stimuli, or nutritional changes) (Jun Young Park et al., 2019). It is thought that most organisms, from prokaryotes to higher animals such as humans, can produce and use pheromones for communication between nonspecific individuals. In most cases, pheromones trigger neuronal events that are linked to various behavioral responses. The outcome of such neuronal stimulation includes the modulation of developmental and/or physiological programs that can support adaptation to new environments. 

The insect body is made up of multicellular tissues. The body is bilaterally symmetrical and is covered by a hard, chitinous exoskeleton. The chitin at the junction of the segments is thinner and pliable and hence insects can bend their bodies. The exoskeleton is made up of several layers of non-living cells produced from the epidermis. Because of the hard chitin us exoskeleton of the body, the growth of the insect is affected beyond a certain extent. So, to facilitate further growth,, this exoskeleton is cast off a few times and this is known as ‘molting’. The number of moultings in a particular species is more or less constant.

3.1. Entrepreneurship and its allied concepts

3.1.1. Concept of entrepreneur

The word “entrepreneur” has its roots in the french verb “entreprendre,” which means “to undertake.” It means “to start a business” in a business environment. Entrepreneurs are self-employed individuals who not only create jobs for themselves but also generate jobs for many others. An entrepreneur is someone who can identify and seize opportunities to transform inventions or technologies into new products. They can also see an invention’s commercial potential and put together the funds, talent, and other resources needed to transform an idea into a product that can be distributed.

1. The word aquarium for the first time was used by ..........

 a) Philip Henry Gosse   b) Anne Thynne

 c) Philip Rottz   d) Britz Carles

 2. Who built the first stable marine aquarium in 1846?

 a) P.H.Gosse       b) Philip Rottz

  c) Britz Carles      d) Anne Thynne

 3. In 1853,the first large public aquarium was opened in .........

  a) Roman empire         b) London zoo

    c) Victoria era       d) None of these

4. Taraporewala aquarium came into existence in .........

 a) Year 1951       b) Year1945

   c) Year 1974        d) Year 1981

7.1 General Description

Shifting cultivation is a type of land use that dates back to the dawn of agriculture. It's done in places where forest resources are still plentiful. It usually refers to the gradual transformation of primary forests into a mosaic of secondary forests at varying stages of growth, rather than the complete abolition of forests. However, primary forest removal occurs gradually in order to preserve the same fallow time despite population development. As no primary forests remain (or as the remaining primary forests are entirely protected by local customs or conservation legislation), secondary forests fade away, and new techniques arise or are adopted, the fallow period shortens. Natural capital is gradually replaced by man-made productive capital, or the system approaches a state of crisis, depending on whether the limitations to these changes can be levered. In theory, the new land uses allow for more forest protection because they require less territory to provide the same output. In practice, they are triggered or triggered by a series of more radical changes, such as infrastructure development, migrations, financial investments, and new consumer habits, all of which frequently end in large-scale deforestation.