eChapters

6.1 Introduction

Biomass pellets are one of the most common types of biomass fuel. It is generally composed of wood waste, agricultural biomass, grasses, and forest residues, and is one of the most popular types of biomass fuel available today. Pelletization of biomass results in significant savings in terms of transportation, and storage, as well as the ease of handling biomass as a whole. In terms of flowability, dense cube pellets are similar to cereal grains in terms of their characteristics of being dense and cube-shaped. Due to their regular geometry and small size, biomass pellets are easily fed through an automatic feed system with fine calibration thanks to their regular shape. Because pellets are so dense, they can be stored in a compact way and transported over a long distance in a rational and efficient manner, because of their density. Furthermore, pellets can also be produced with a low moisture content, even though they are extremely dense. This allows them to burn with a high degree of combustion efficiency due to their low moisture content.

Wafer: A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.

Waffle: A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear: It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat (Plate 331).

Wastage: Wastage is a term that can not be precisely defined by even moral value / judgment and defined on the context / situation on which it is used.

Waste water: Water that has been used in a manufacturing process and goes waste is called waste water. Wastewater i.e. effluent generated from various points at the plant such as outlet of Westfeling separator and Treatment tanks etc. is polluted and it must be given a treatment before draining so that pollution control board norms are met. It is achieved through a specific treatment in a plant called Effluent Treatment Plant. ETP treats the waste/polluted water coming from the plant and make it able to dispose off in the river by neutralizing its toxicity.

Water: Water (H2 O) is a clear transparent, colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid; neutral in reaction; boils at 100oC, freezes at 0oC and has maximum density (1 g/cm3) at 4oC. It exists as snow, ponds, lake, rivers, seas, oceans etc., also occurs as rain and is there in the form of moisture in atmosphere. Pure water is bad conductor of heat and electricity. Water is an essential part of the body structure as a carrier of nutrients and regulator of a number of body functions. Fruit and vegetables contain > 80% water and sometime upto 95% water e.g. cucumber, lettuce, marrow, lettuce, melon. The starchy tubers and seeds, for example yam, cassava and cork, contain less water, but even > 50%. So water content must be optimum at the harvesting time. The human body comprises of about 65 % water, while that of fruits and vegetables 80-90% water.

Introduction
Basil/Tulsi is a popular name given to any aromatic herb that belongs to genus Ocimum and family Lamiaceae (Labiatae). The word ‘basil’ was derived from Greek word ‘Basilica’ which means the royal plant. It comprises over 160 species spread over the tropical, sub-tropical, and warmer part of temperate regions of both the hemisphere ranging from sea level to 2000 m height with their diversity met in West Africa. Tropical Africa has maximum diversity with 59 species, followed by sub-tropical region of South Africa with 19 species and India with 9 species only.
 

Introduction

Any project is undertaken and an investment is made with expectation of realizing benefits out of it. This applies to projects both in the private domain as also in the public domain. Hence, it is imperative to assess the benefits derived from the project investment over its entire economically viable. The extent to which project contribute to various aims of development (benefits) and make use of scarce resource (costs) can differ widely. A proper project preparation requires an assessment of the various benefits and costs associated with execution of a project. Methods to determine, analyze and assess the relevant benefits and costs of a project are known as cost-benefit analysis. The cost- benefit analysis ensures that all the relevant factors that contribute to a project’s net benefits are systematically taken into account, whether they relate to an individual, a firm, a social group, the public sector or the country as a whole.

There are many tools or criteria for the financial evaluation of projects. However, the important and commonly used evaluation criteria are simple Rate of Return, Payback Period, Net Present Worth, Benefit- Cost Ratio and Internal Rate of Return.

Economic appraisal and evaluation helps the decision makers who are saddled with the responsibility to prioritize measures in a situation with enormous needs and quite limited resources. Government planners as well as donor agencies are all in need of enough data in order to make rational choice or decision in selection of investment alternatives. Most of the economists believe that economic analysis cannot give the final answers. There will always be lack of data, uncertainty about the future, disagreement on the methods, and similar issues. However, economic analysis, if properly done, can indeed be of much help to decision makers.

29.1 Introduction

An environmental factor that interferes with the complete expression of genotypic potential of a crop is called stress. The stresses may be biotic (pathogens, insect-pests, etc.) or abiotic. The main abiotic stresses are drought, mineral deficiency/toxicity and heat or cold. The losses due to abiotic stresses can be minimized by:

Crop management: The degree of stress can be reduced by suitable agronomic/soil management practices, e.g., irrigation to relieve drought stress, soil amendments to reduce salinity.

Development of resistant cultivars: This offers the cheapest, easiest to apply and most eco-friendly approach to reduce losses due to any stress.

Indirect breeding: Evaluation of materials under stress often helps in identification of a resistant line that may become an important commercial cultivar.

???????Direct breeding: It is deliberate breeding of materials for stress resistance. When a genetically variable material is grown under the stress environment, selection can be based on survival, yield and other traits contributing to stress resistance.

M13 is a single stranded filamentous DNA phage. Vectors have been developed from M13 phase by Joachim Messing (1983), which are suitable for preparation of single stranded DNA required for sequencing by Sanger’s method. These are derivatives of M13 wild type (size 6.407 kb).

Introduction

Animal behaviour is the study of how animals interact with one another, other living things, and their environment. Animals display a variety of behaviours in response to both external stimulus and their own pathophysiological state. Almost all domestic animals express a variety of behavioural responses throughout their lifespan, like feeding, sexual behaviours, etc. But every species responds to the same stimuli in a different way. This is why; the study of animal behaviour helps in efficient breeding, feeding, and reproductive management. It also serves as a reliable indicator of overall health and well-being.

Background and Technology Intervention

The primary resource affected by the climate change is water. In arid and semi-arid regions of India, any shortfall in water supply due to climate change will enhance competition for water use for a wide range of economic, social and environmental applications. The population growth with the improved living conditions also increases the demand for food production and thereby increasing the demand of water in multiple folds in the river basins (UNESCO-WWAP, 2009). The major portion of water available in the Indian River basins are used for cultivating rice and thus poses major challenges to water management, especially during unfavourable climatic conditions.

Metamorphosis and immature stages

The change in growth and development (form) of an insect during its life cycle from birth to maturity is called metamorphosis. There are four basic types of metamorphosis in insects.

Ametabola: (No metamorphosis) e.g. Silver fish.

These insects have only 3 stages in their life cycle namely egg, young ones and adults. It is most primitive type metamorphosis. The hatching insects resemble the adult in all respects except for the size and called as juveniles. Moulting continues throughout the life.

Hemi-metabola: (Incomplete metamorphosis) e.g. Dragonfly, damselfly and may fly.

These insects also have 3 stages in their life namely egg, young ones and adults. The young ones are aquatic and are called naiads. They are different from adults in habits and habitat. They breathe by means of tracheal gills. In dragonfly naiad, the lower lip (labium) is called mask which is hinged and provided with hooks for capturing prey. After final moult, the insects have fully developed wings suited for aerial life

Urban agriculture is gaining prominence as a viable solution to numerous challenges faced by modern cities, including food security, environmental sustainability, and community well-being. This comprehensive article explores the concept of urban agriculture, its historical development, and its various forms and practices. It examines the benefits of urban farming, such as enhanced food security, reduced food miles, and improved urban environments, while also addressing challenges like space constraints and regulatory issues. Case studies from cities worldwide illustrate the successful implementation of urban agriculture. The article concludes by discussing future trends and the potential of urban agriculture to transform urban landscapes into productive, sustainable, and resilient communities.

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.), a member of the Solanaceae, is a significant spice and vegetable crop in India, extensively cultivated over warm temperate, tropical, and subtropical regions. Approximately 51 insect pests and two mite species from 27 families and 9 orders were discovered to be infesting chillies (Reddy and Puttaswamy, 1983). The yield losses range from 50-90 per cent due to insect pests in chilli (Nelson and Natrajan, 1994)
Chilli thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thripidae, Thysanoptera Biology
The adults are slender, yellowish brown in colour, with long, narrow, and heavily fringed wings. The adult female inserts eggs into the tissues of the leaves and shoots. The nymphs are similar to adults, except they are smaller and wingless. With the exception of the rainy season, the pest is present all year round. The life cycle is completed over a period of two weeks. Over the course of a year, multiple generations overlap.
Recently introduced invasive thrips in chilly is Thrips parvispinus Karny. It causes premature flower drop, shedding of fruits and malformations resulting in severe yield loss. The average fecundity is about 56 eggs with a mean developmental period of 18.8 days (Muray et al., 2009).

Biomass briquetting is the process of compressing loose and low-density biomass materials such as sawdust, agricultural residues, and forest waste into high-density, solid fuel blocks called briquettes. The process involves mechanical compression under high pressure using machines like piston presses, screw extruders, or hydraulic presses, depending on the technology used.
The main purpose of briquetting is to increase the density of biomass to improve its combustion properties, handling, transportation, and storage efficiency. In most modern systems, briquetting is done without the use of binders, as natural lignin present in the biomass acts as a binding agent under pressure and heat.
Importance of Biomass Briquetting
Biomass briquetting holds immense environmental, economic, and social importance.
1. Environmental Protection
• Briquetting reduces deforestation by providing an alternative to firewood and charcoal.
• It minimizes air pollution by producing cleaner-burning fuel with lower particulate emissions and sulfur content.
• The process helps in carbon sequestration by ensuring the
sustainable use of biomass.
2. Waste Management
• Agricultural residues like rice husk, sugarcane bagasse, cotton stalks, and sawdust, which otherwise cause disposal problems, are effectively utilized.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 interconnected goals established by the United Nations in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. These goals aim to address global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice (Fig. 14.1).
14.1. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The SDGs provide a universal framework to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. Following is the list of the 17 SDGs
1. No Poverty: End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
2. Zero Hunger: End hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.
3. Good Health and Well-Being: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

Cardamom thrips: Sciothrips cardamomi: Thripidae

Thysanoptera

This thrips attacks other crops like amomum,  tea, colocasia, grapevine, castor, cotton, ginger and turmeric also. The thrips are minute greyish brown insects with fringed wings. They breed on unopened leaves, spindles, leaf sheath, flower bracts and floral tubes .

Plant mineral nutrition is a sub branch of plant physiology which addresses issues on uptake of elements that plant needs to absorb from air or water or soil to grow and to live. Besides function of nutrient elements in plants, it also includes deficiency symptoms and how to address deficiency symptoms in a plant. Plant mineral nutrition and mechanism of uptake has two major aspects:

Appendix-'E'    :    How can Cummunity Reduce Carbon 
            Footprints

Powdery mildew

Sphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae (Sphaerotheca pannosa)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• A white, powdery fungal growth on the upper, lower or both leaves and shoots.

Introduction The ‘Brussels sprouts’ (Brassica oleracea L. var. gemmifera) coming under Brassicaceae family with chromosome number 2n=18 preferred by farmer for its edible green bud or sprouts (small heads that resemble miniature cabbages). It is a robust, slow-growing, longseason vegetable. The “sprouts” are formed in the leaf axils, beginning at the base of the stem and progressing upward. Brussels sprouts are high in vitamin A and C, as well as folic acid and dietary fiber. It also has anticancer effects due to the presence of sulforaphane. Similarly, to other Brassicas, Brussels sprouts contain indole-3-carbinol, which inhibit cancer cell growth. The temperate regions in the hills have the greatest potential for commercial production of brussels sprouts, followed by coastal regions with prolonged cool falls.

Background and Technology Intervention

To increase the water use efficiency coupling piped network and micro irrigation, Department of Agricultural Engineering along with the Tamil Nadu Government introduced a project on “Water conveyance works of modernization of on-farm irrigation network in 5(R) and 7(R) sluices Parambikulam Aliyar Project (PAP)” covering a total area of 109.86 acres in both the sluices.

Significance of this project is to improve the water use efficiency in canal command areas where the farmers were unable to cultivate annual / long term crop due to alternate supply of water in each zone. PAP command area has 4 zones and each zone receives water once in 135 days in a 2 year span through open channel leading farmers to adopt flood irrigation.

Fruit borer: Helicoverpa armigera, Noctuidae, Lepidoptera
Biology: The adult females are light pale brownish-yellow stout moths while the male moths are pale greenish with V-shaped speck. The eggs are creamy white and sculptured type. They are laid singly. The larva shows colour variation from greenish to brown. It has dark brown grey lines on the body with lateral white lines and also has a dark band. Pupation occurs in soil, leaf, fruit, and crop debris.
Nature of damage and symptoms
• The young larvae feed on tender foliage
• Mature larvae bore into fruit through circular holes
• Larva thrust only a part of its body into fruit and eat the inner content