eChapters

Udder examination is essential in dairy animals because mastitis directly affects animal health, milk quality and farm productivity. This chapter presents practical examination of the udder and teats, including inspection and palpation for abnormalities. Mastitis detection methods include the California Mastitis Test and other milk-based diagnostic procedures. Evaluation of milk characteristics, somatic cell changes and laboratory findings helps identify inflammatory and infectious processes. Appropriate sampling and interpretation support selection of effective treatment. The chapter also emphasizes the importance of early detection and systematic udder examination in maintaining milk quality, preventing production losses and improving overall dairy herd health.

Udder Health Mastitis is a significant and costly disease of udder affecting dairy cows and buffaloes, leading to reduced milk production, increased veterinary costs, and compromised animal welfare. Effective udder hygiene practices are crucial in preventing and controlling mastitis, maximizing milk production, ensuring animal welfare, minimizing costs, and maintaining consumer trust. By focusing on udder health management through preventative measures and the best practices, dairy farmers can enhance the overall sustainability and profitability of dairy operations. There are six major steps that can lead to a better udder health. •     Farm hygiene and udder hygiene •     Hygienic milking procedure •     Dry cow management and therapy •     Appropriate therapy for mastitis cases during lactation •     Culling chronically infected cows. •     Good nutrition to increase the udder resistance to mastitis Farm hygiene and udder hygiene

Udder health, foot health and heat-stress management are major components of dairy herd productivity and animal welfare. This chapter addresses prevention, examination and management of mastitis, including milking hygiene, teat dipping, dry cow therapy, diagnostic testing and appropriate treatment. Foot health is emphasized because neglected feet can result in lameness, reduced milk production, impaired reproduction and increased culling. Heat stress management includes environmental and shed-based interventions to reduce excessive solar and thermal load. The chapter integrates practical management strategies for maintaining udder integrity, sound locomotion and thermal comfort, thereby supporting productivity and overall health of dairy animals.

Introduction and Relevance
UHT processing of milk was developed to produce a shelf-stable product with minimal chemical changes as encountered with sterilized milk. Aseptically packaged UHT milk can have a shelf life of 06 to 12 months and does not need to be stored in a refrigerator. Its role in the market varies by region. In countries like the India, USA and Canada, where UHT milk occupies a smaller segment of the liquid milk market, it is often used as a backup option, reserved for situations when pasteurized milk is unavailable. Conversely, in regions such as Europe, (particularly France, Belgium, Spain and Germany), Asia, (China, Japan, Thailand and Vietnam) Latin America and (Brazil) in UHT milk is the dominant form of milk available and is consumed regularly. In markets where it is a backup option, UHT milk requires long-term stability of 6–12 months, while in regions where it is used daily, a shorter shelf life of three months or less is often sufficient.
Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) treatment involves heating milk to very high temperatures, typically between 130°C and 150°C, for a brief period of few seconds. This process results in commercially sterile milk, meaning that while not all bacteria are destroyed, those capable of growing under ambient storage conditions are effectively eliminated. An essential component of UHT processing is aseptic packaging, where the sterilized milk is filled into presterilized containers in a sterile environment. This combination ensures that the milk remains free from contamination and maintains its extended shelf life without requiring refrigeration.
Standards for UHT processing vary globally. In the European Union, a minimum temperature of 135°C with an appropriate holding time is mandated. In the United States, the standard for ultra-pasteurization is 280°F (137.8°C) for 2 seconds. Many international standards recommend 135°C for at least 1 second, though some countries do not specify minimum conditions. However, this level of treatment is often regarded as insufficient for completely destroying the spores of spoilage organisms, highlighting the importance of precise temperature-time combinations and the critical role of aseptic packaging in ensuring product safety and stability.

Ulcerative dermatitis is one of the primary features of the skin disease in which discontinuity of the skin along with marked inflammation and necrosis are seen.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most important tropical fruits of the world and is commonly known as the ‘King of fruits’ for its high quality fruits which are very popular among the Indians (Sharma et al., 2008). It is the oldest and extensively cultivated fruit crop in India having high socio-economic significance. India is the home of more than 1000 mango varieties, which originated in the Indo-Burma region (Mukherjee, 1958). India is the largest producer of mango, grown in about 2.3 million hectares with an annual production of 15.02 million tones. However, its productivity is only 6.5 tones per ha against 30 tones per ha in Israel (Bijay Jumar, 2010). Improvement of productivity in mango continues to be the foremost issue in mango production (Sauco, 1993). Of late, all the mango importing countries are considering the India as a source of quality mangoes due to its varietal wealth and availability. Hence, it is imperative to improve the productivity and quality of Indian mangoes to meet the global need (Balamohan et al., 2014).

10.1 Introduction
Developed in the 1950s, ultra-high temperature pasteurization typically involves no hold using a temperature range of 135°C to 150°C. Immediate aseptic packaging determines how well UHT heat treatment of milk works.
10.2 Uperization Developed in Switzerland, this is generally known as “ultra – pasteurization”. Milk is heated in this method under direct steam up to 150 °c for a fraction of a second. One is always learning from this. Fore warming milk to 50 °C is the first stage in the uperization process, meant to eliminate most of the dissolved oxygen and volatile off-flavours by vacuum treatment. In the second step, the milk is first preheated to roughly 80–90 °C and then heated on the uperization chamber under high-pressure steam to roughly 150 °C for ½ to ¾ a second. The product moves into an expansion chamber at almost atmospheric pressure after this heating, therefore inducing some evaporation of moisture. The good is then transferred to a chiller and subsequently into a storage chamber.
The advantages of uperization are
• Long keeping quality.
• Removal of feed and other volatile off-flavours:
• Appreciable homogenization effect.
• Reduction in acidity.
• Efficient destruction of microorganisms.
• Effect of uperization on nutritive value and flavour are not greater than that of pasteurization.

Corpus luteum, one of the biological clock of the estrous cycle and pregnancy, is known foremost for its production of progesterone that blocks the pituitary release of gonadotrophins and prepare the uterus for pregnancy. The ovarian follicle wall consists of granulosa cell and theca cells vascularised and luteinize after ovulation to from a corpus luteum. Corpus luteum is temporary steroid- producing gland undergoes marked structural and functional changes far a short time span during its development functional life and regression. During estrous cycle, the corpus luteum undergoes an initial period of growth (metestrus), followed by a period of maximal function (diestus) and finally by a period of regression (proestrus) preceding the next ovulation (Robert, 1986). The most prominent cell in the CL is the large luteal steroidogenic cell.

Ultrasound imaging has been used to detect and measure the corpus luteum throughout the estrous cycle and corpus luteum has been characterized during pregnancy and non pregnancy. Changes in corpus luteum diameter as detected by ultrasonography are highly correlated with progesterone production. A high correlation has been found in the ultrasonographic detection of bovine corpora lutea (Lean et al., 1992) and between luteal tissue area measured ultrasonographically and plasma progesterone concentration (Bergfelt et al., 1989).

Ultrasonography of the GI tract presents problems and challenges for the sonographer. Sonography of the GI viscera was once throught to be impossible because of artifacts created by gas within the lumen but with the technical advancement in the ultrasonography now the problem has been solved. If the animal is kept of feed and adlib water is given to the dog with I/v fluid than ultrasonography becomes helpful in the diagnosis of gastrointestinal tract disorders. Other conditions such as esophageal carcinomas can also been diagnosed by ultrasonographic endoscopy. in human beings.

The normal ultrasonography of the liver, kidney, stomach & spleen in dogs has been standardized and its use in evaluation of pathological lesions has been reported but ultrasonographic evaluation of oesophagus & intestine, both in normal animals and diseased conditions is yet to be established. Therefore normal ultrasonography of the oesophagus & small intestine in dogs and the importance of diagnostic capability of ultrasonography in diagnosis of pathology of these organs have been compiled.

Ultrasonography or sonography is a diagnostic medical procedure that uses echoes of ultrasound pulses to produce images, of the objects or of the areas of different densities in the body, on the screen. This diagnostic procedure is performed through ultrasound machine. Sonogram is a visual image produced from ultrasonography.

Ultrasound is mainly used for reproductive purposes in bovine, now days it is also used for other applications. Ultrasound is an excellent tool for diagnostic imaging in large animals because it is portable, easy to use in the field, produces results at the time of the examination. It is totally non-invasive. Palpation of a gland can only detect certain levels of abnormality. Ultrasound can give an actual perception of mammary health, a picture of the inside anatomy and pathology. Tumors, scarring, stones, trauma, hematoma formation and level of damage due to mastitis can all be evaluated by this technique. Other diagnostic tools are still primary diagnostic tools, ultrasonogram gives yet another dimension to the hard to diagnose case. It will also allow a better estimate of treatment prognosis to aid in deciding whether to cull or treat a dairy animal.

Congenital anomalies at initial stages of the mammary gland development during gestation may result into presence of supernumerary teats or less number of external teats, in place of usual presence of four teats in buffaloes. Hence, cases with two / three / five or six teats are often encountered in the f ield.

Introduction Ultrasonography is well-established technique in human sciences, particularly for diagnosis of pre-natal defects of fetus. In veterinary sciences, this technique is emerging an important tool. This tool is being employed in the small animal practices, particularly bitches for diagnosis of various reproductive disorders and estimation of gestational status. In the past, veterinarians had limited assistance for assessing reproductive status of this animal. Pregnancy diagnosis in a bitch was possible either with the use of X-rays or transabdominal palpation, but that too at an advanced stage of gestation. These methods could provide information either about presence of pups in vitro, or their number, but assessment of fetal viability was not accurately predicted with these traditional methods. With the use of X-rays, there was always risk of harmful effects on the health of mother and fetus. As far as reproductive disorders are concerned, most of them remained either undiagnosed due to the lack of proper access to the internal organs or were diagnosed with a guess. Diagnostic ultrasound is a valuable alternative imaging system that can provide more accurate information about the canine pregnancy and reproductive disorders in comparison to traditional methods.

Ultrasonography is an important non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique in veterinary medicine. This chapter introduces practical principles, patient preparation and imaging approaches for ruminants, horses and dogs. Abdominal ultrasonography can evaluate organs including the liver, gall bladder, spleen, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, urinary bladder and reproductive structures. Transabdominal, transthoracic, transrectal, transvaginal and other approaches are described according to anatomical and diagnostic requirements. Proper preparation, including fasting and acoustic gel application, improves image quality. Ultrasonography supports diagnosis of gastrointestinal, urinary, hepatic, reproductive and other disorders and provides valuable real-time information without ionizing radiation.

Ultrasonography, popularly known as sonography, is a non-invasive, radiation free and safe medical procedure being increasingly used for the imaging different body organs/ structures for the diagnosis of various diseases not only in humans but also in farm, companion and exotic pets. The technique involves ultrasound unit, patient and doctor/veterinarian (trained in sonography). Ultrasound Unit Ultrasound unit has processor (central processing unit commonly known as CPU), transducers, key board, data storage and printer (Fig. 187). •     The CPU (central processing unit) is basically a computer having microprocessor, memory, amplifiers and power supplies for the microprocessor and transducer. The CPU transmits electrical currents to the transducer to emit sound waves, and receives the returning echoes. Returning echoes are processed to form the image on the monitor. The processed data and/or image are

This paper primarily considers the general principles of ultrasound and instrumentation and its application in camel reproduction.

Ultrasound waves are mechanical pressure waves similar to audible sound waves and must have a medium in which to audible sound waves and must have a medium in which to propagate. The “frequency” (f) is the number of high- or low- pressure regions crossing each area of tissue each second. The frequencies of the sound waves used in medical ultrasound are much higher than the human audible range (20 to 16000 Hz); hence the waves are called ultrasound. Ultrasound instrumentation

The gray scale imaging equipment uses only time delay and echo amplitude information in creating the image. Most equipment contains the same basic building- block circuits; transmitter, receiver, display and scan converter.

Transmitter

The first circuit building block, the transmitter circuit produces either a high- amplitude, short- duration voltage shock pulse or a driving voltage waveform. Then an output control attenuates the amplitude of the shock pulse or the driving voltage wave form before it is applied to the transducer.

Mammary glands are important part of body which synthesize and store the milk in between milkings or suckling by the calf. Therefore it attains prime importance in any dairy animal. However, it has received little attention in buffaloes till now. Buffalo presents several unique characteristics in terms of milk production, length and shape of teats and arrangement of duct system in the mammary glands. Development of udder may be related to milk production and the knowledge of changes in its structure in relation to different physiological stages may also have practical implication.

Transducer Selection and Preparation of Scanning

Preparation of the site to be imaged will enhance the quality of the image. Therefore, any loose hair and dirt must be clean off. Ultrasound gel is applied to the area of interest. The gel acts as a coupling agent to prevent air from trapping between the transducer and skin. A 7.5 MHz transducer is ideal for imaging the teats. A 5.0 MHz transducer provides an adequate image. The mammary gland should be scanned with a 5.0-7.5 MHz transducer to give adequate penetration. All structures should be scanned in cross section and longitudinal planes.

Ultrasonography in sheep is becoming popular in the field of reproduction and replacing the other old-age techniques, viz. abdominal ballotment, recto- abdominal probes, X-rays and radioimmuno-assays. The reasons are numerous such as unsatisfactory results, hazardous effects to animal, operator or environment, high cost, long delay in diagnostic results and requirement of sophisticated labs. The ultrasound system has low operating cost and does not need special labs as it can be done at farm itself. Ultrasonography is considered safe to sheep and the operator and provides quick and reliable results. The popular opinion about ultrasonography is that it is noninvasive imaging system and is rapid, safe and practical means of diagnosis of pregnancy in sheep. The B-mode real time ultrasonographic system particularly portable system is popular among sheep breeders. In sheep, B-mode real time ultrasonography was used in 1971, using 5 MHz frequency transducer. A transducer of switchable frequency between 7.5 to 5.0 is more popular in sheep practice.

Transrectal Procedure in Sheep

The procedure is similar to goat, but sheep remain quite during transrectal ultrasonography than goat. Following are some of the steps to obtain good quality image:

Ultrasonographic images of stomach are required to diagnose ingestion of any abanormal materials by dog. When content of stomach are dry or there is gas in stomach then, it is difficult to get proper image of stomach. Offering water to animal or oral administration of water with the help of syring is also helpful in getting the images of content of stomach. Some time, while doing ultrasonography, movement of contents of stomach can be visualized. Stomach can be images between liver and spleen. The size depends upon contents or intake of food by dog. For proper image of gastrointestinal tract including stomach, there should not be gas in GIT. One should remember that ultrasound beam does not travel in gas. The best medium of ultrasound beam is liquid.

Scanning Technique

If possible, fasting for 12 hours is good to diminish the amount of gastrointestinal gas. However, non-fasted dogs, when offered water may show adequate image quality. The water may be administered in quantity of 15 ml per kg of bodyweight. Removing the stomach gas using an orogastric tube has been recommended tto enhance the visualization of lesions of the stomach, however, this is not in practice in India.

Ultrasonography in bull is helpful in diagnosis of problems of testis and accessory glands. This can also be used in assessment of development of these organs. Such developmental assessment, when combined with endocrine data, is useful to know age of puberty, sexual development and dimension of these organs. The ultrasonographic images and data are available for testis, bulbourethral gland, prostate and seminal vesicles in the bull. Ultrasonography of testis of bull can be useful to assess developmental changes, testicular dimensions and pathological conditions of the testis viz. tumors, lesions, abscess etc. Epididymis can also be examined for change in lumen, inflammation, granuloma etc. The accessory sex glands can be better viewed in ultrasonographic scanning to assess their dimensions, normal developmental changes and alterations in their morphology. Before, ultrasonography is undertaken, one should thoroughly revise the knowledge of sectional anatomy and location of these organs.

Testis

Location: The testis, in the bull, is located in the scrotum. In abnormal conditions, the testis might be retained in the inguinal canal or abdomen. Before, ultrasonography, location of the testis should be assured. For this, the testis should be palpated to assess their pliability and rule out adhesions with the scrotal wall. In normal condition, the testis should be freely movable in the scrotum, soft of palpation and both the testis should touch the bottom end of scrotum.

The Liver

The liver is a large and an irregular organ of the body, which extends from the sixth to the eleventh intercostal space. It extends much more caudally on the right side as compared to the left side. Its most caudal part is the caudate lobe whose small portion is visualized encircling the right kidney dorsally at the eleventh intercostal space. The liver of a dog is divided into various lobes namely the left lateral, left medial, quadrate, right medial, right lateral and the caudate lobes which are not identifiable ultrasonographically, except when f luid is present in the abdomen. Otherwise, the position of the different liver lobes can only be approximated. The gallbladder is located to the right of the midline between the quadrate and the right medial lobes of the liver.

Proper preparation of the animal is important to obtain images of abdominal orgnas including that of liver. It is better to keep animal off fed for at east six hours prior to ultrasound scanning. This will avoid interference of gases and solid contents of the gastrointestinal tract. If stomach is taken as landmark of scanning then enough fluid should be given prior to scanning to get good images of stomach. The liver can be easily visualized on one side of stomach. One should be liberal in applying good amount of gel over transducer and body for better image of liver.

Abstract

Application of ultrasound is one of the most promising uses of novel technologies in food processing. Use of ultrasound at various stages of drying has resulted in significant decrease in drying time and improvement in quality characteristics of dried products. The chapter discusses the principle behind use of ultrasound, general application in food industry with detailed description of various drying processes and equipments assisted by ultrasound.

ABSTRACT

Fruits and vegetables are rich source of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, antioxidants and flavonoids. Drying is one of the common methods for preservation of food and agricultural commodities. However, drying may negatively affect the product quality attributes. This article is a capsule overview of current state of art ultrasound (US) assisted drying on technical aspects and bioactivity of fruits and vegetables. US assisted drying is an economical and sustainable technique compared to other existing conventional techniques used for food processing and preservation. US as a pretreatment before drying of agricultural-products enhances drying efficiency, inactivate enzymes and improve overall quality of dried products. Current developments and available solutions in drying have shown that US assisted drying may be used to restrict the loss of crucial bioactive components occurring naturally in fruits and vegetables. US when combined with hot air drying helps in achieving adequate drying rate at lower temperatures and improves overall dehydration process. This technique has found no practical application commercially due to various difficulties in achieving high-intensity US in air. One practical benefit of using US assisted drying is the minimization of the drying time along with reduction in total energy consumption.

Ultrasound is an excellent diagnostic modality for detecting visceral abnormalities. Detection of masses, nodules or effusions through sonography provides non-specific diagnosis. For specific/definite diagnosis tissue samples are necessary for histopathological examination. The techniques of ultrasound guided fine needle aspiration and core biopsy are of great help in establishing etiological diagnosis.

During last two decades significant advances have been made in diagnostic ultrasound .These advances have positively impacted on diagnostic imaging across all species of animals and have made ultrasound as an indispensable diagnostic modality in veterinary medicine. Since equines have been more a sport and pack animals, the ultrasound technique has long been utilized in the diagnosis of equine musculo-skeletal disorders. Recent years have witnessed its utility in the management of equine reproduction beside its use in the diagnosis of colic and other diseases.

Ultrasonography is being routinely practiced in canine and feline medicine for the diagnosis of diseases of the organs and also to confirm pregnancy. Its routine use in ruminant medicine is mainly restricted to pregnancy diagnosis. Recently the potential of ultrasonography is also being explored in zoo and wild animals as well as in exotic pets. Information available in companion and other domestic animals cannot be applied blindly to zoo and wild animals.

For the sake of convenience ruminants are broadly divided into two categories as large ruminants and small ruminants. Large ruminants consist of cattle and buffaloes and small ruminants consist of goats and sheep. Sonography is becoming an important part of diagnostic modalities in ruminants also. Its major use in ruminants is in reproduction and lameness.

Imaging of muscles, tendons, joints and bones is not common practice in canine and feline medicine. However, scanning of tendons and ligaments is extensively done in race horses to see their fitness. Adhesions, ruptures/ tears and inflammation of tendons and ligaments can be detected by sonographic imaging of these structures. These structures are relatively superficial so a high frequency linear or curvilinear transducer (7.5 to 13.0 MHz) is used to scan these structures. For scanning of joints acoustic window is relatively small so micro convex or sector probes are more appropriate.

Sonography of the nervous system in dogs dates back to 1972 when it was employed in experimental studies. Thick bony cage of the brain limits the sonographic evaluation of the brain. It has an important place in human paediatric medicine. Sonography of the brain and the nervous system is not very common in veterinary medicine.

Ultrasound and survey radiography are two important diagnostic modalities regularly employed in the diagnosis of intestinal diseases. Both modalities are complementary to each other in investigating the problems related to intestines. It is always better to have plain survey radiograph of abdomen first and then ultrasound to rule out obstruction or radio-opaque foreign bodies. Wherever barium meal radiograph is indicated, it should be done after sonographic examination as barium may degrade image quality of the sonogram. Assessment of intestinal motility can be done in real time sonography.

Liver is situated in cranial abdomen. Scanning of abdomen is started with the examination of liver. Hepatic ultrasonography is a non-invasive diagnostic modality to evaluate liver parenchyma. Differentiation of focal disease from diffuse disease, cystic lesions from solid masses, and obstructive jaundice from non-obstructive jaundice is possible by hepatic ultrasonography.

The pancreas is a thin and elongated ‘V’ shaped organ having two lobes (right and left) and body. It lies in the right cranial quadrant of the abdomen. It is difficult to visualize normal pancreas sonographically because of its echogenicity similar to that of adjacent mesentery and fat.

Application of ultrasonography has become a routine practice in canine and feline medicine to detect pregnancy, to ascertain foetal wellbeing, to ascertain live/dead status of the foetus, ovarian dynamics, and to diagnose reproductive ailments (uterine, ovarian,) in females. Sonography is also being preferred in males for the diagnosis of diseases of prostate gland, cryptorchid, and testicular diseases.

Spleen is an elongated solid organ located on the left side along cranial and ventral abdominal wall. The size of spleen is variable in dogs. The spleen is larger in German Shepherds and Greyhounds. In cats the spleen is smaller and has fixed size. It is parallel to greater curvature of stomach within greater omentum. The position of spleen in dogs is variable as it is only attached by gastrosplenic ligament.

Ultrasonographic examination of gastrointestinal tract is not very much rewarding in dogs because of gas in the tract but it is crucial for a correct diagnosis. Imaging of stomach plays a significant role in the diagnosis of gastric diseases such as gastric dilatation, gastric foreign bodies, pyloric outflow obstruction, or gastric tumours.

Beside heart, ultrasound of the thorax facilitates the imaging of lungs, pleura, mediastinum, chest wall and diaphragm. Sonographic examination of the heart is discussed in chapter16. Because of nearly total reflection of sound waves at gas interfaces (Fig. 176) thoracic ultrasound has limitations. Pulmonary and mediastinal lesions located deep are difficult to image. Peripheral pulmonary lesions and pleural fluid can be visualized.

Ultrasound has been used to image thyroid and parathyroid glands. It can assist in the diagnosis of hyperthyroidism and hyperparathyroidism in dogs and cats. Recently it has also been used to differentiate cases of primary hypothyroidism or euthyroid syndrome.

The urinary tract is the body’s drainage system. It includes kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. Ultrasound is a most preferred imaging tool for the diagnosis of diseases of urinary tract not only in humans but also in dogs and cats. Little adipose tissue in urinary system of dogs makes the contrast between different planes and anatomical structures poor.

Veterinary ultrasonographer has to write report of ultrasonography in different animals. The proper ultrasound report writing is the moral duty of the vet ultrasonographer. The accuracy of diagnosis must be ensured. The poor resolution/quality of machine may lead to erroneous diagnosis. Therefore, veterinarian must ensure good quality of machine and proper diagnosis. The report might be different in different animals e.g. report writing about uterus will be different in bitch, cows, buffaloes, camel, horse, goat and sheep. However following might be guidelines in writing ultrasound report of uterus. fetus, endometrium

Uterus: Position of uterus, contents in the uterus, shape and size in initial pregnancy and infections, appearance of myometrium, thickening of uterine layers, presence or absence of fluied/pus/masses, left and right horns and their contents. Observations on the images of uterine fluid and its echoicity, membrane appearance in pregnant animals. Special attentions should be paid to endometrium.

Endometrium: Appearance and thickness; any growth on the surface of endometrium. Images of retained portion of placenta can be ascribed in the cases of retained placenta.

Ovary: Ovaries are scanned to assess cyclic structures, size, shape, its Position/ location and internal echo pattern of follicles. This echo pattern will indicate whether follicle is normal, cystic or with any other abnormalities of follclular f luid. Ultrasound reports also include shape and size of corpus luteum. In cows and buffaloes, presence of cavity, looseness/compactness of luteal cells are also mentioned.

Uncertainty : See information.

Underground economy : See black economy.

Underinsured : Refers to livestock which have some type of livestock health insurance, such as catastrophic care, but not enough insurance to cover all their health care costs.

Unemployment trap : When unemployed people who receive benefits, either from the goverment or from private charity, are deterred from taking a new job because the reduction or removal of benefit if they do will make them worse off. Also known as the poverty trap, it can be addressed, to an extent, by continuing to pay benefit for a while to unemployed people returning to work. (See welfare to work).

Unconventional feed ingredients are those feed ingredients that are less commonly used in formulations or whose nutritional properties and feeding value are less well understood. Hence, these feeds are not traditionally used for animal feeding either by farmers or by feed manufacturer.
Unconventional feed resources
Concentrates sources: These are mainly mangoseed kernel, neemseed cake, rubberseed cake, tamarindseed cake, tamarind seed kernel, tapioca waste, salseed cake, safflower cake, nigerseed cake, spent tea waste, mahua cake, karanj cake.
Tree leaves and fallen tree leaves: Banyan, peepal, mango, teak, bamboo, neem, gliricidia, banana, cassava, mulberry.
Other by-products: groundnut shell, paddy husk, maize cobs, bajra cobs, jowar cobs, husk of bengal gram, black gram, green gram, sugarcane tops, bagasse, water hyacinth, molasses etc.
Marine and aquatic waste: Fish waste, frog meal.
Starch industry waste: Maize germ, maize bran, maize gluten.
Brewery waste: Dried brewer’s grain (after extraction of malt)
Slaughter house by-product: Blood meal, meat meal, meat and bone meal, tankage.
Poultry industry by-product: Feather meal, offal meal/ poultry waste meal, hatchery waste.
High moisture agro-industrial by-products: vegetable and food processing residues, apple/tomato/pineapple pomace, citrus processing waste.

Sincehundreds ofyears, Livestockanimals arean integralpart ofcrop–livestock system. In the life style of Indian people, livestock had always been given a special and respectful place and this will continue in the years to come. Despite considerable deficit of feeds, the above may be one of the reasons of steadily increasing livestock production in our country. Almost all assessments made during the past eight decades, have shown deficits of different orders in respect of following for the availability of :

• Dry fodders

• Green fodders and

• Concentrates

Such surprising phenomenon is inviting our attention for reviewing systems of assessment for finding out the status of consumption and the gap between the above. Production of milk, meat, fibre, chicken and eggis increasing, though. Therefore, there is gap between the availability and requirements of different feeds. Because India is facing shortage of both protein and energy rich animal feeds, a large number of agro – forest based unconventional by products have been used. Some of these feeds were found to be promising, while others affected the performance of the animals, due to presence of incriminatingfactors present in them. But after detoxification, these feeds were suitable for animal feeding. Some of these feeds are :

Introduction

Organic substances consumed for nutritional purposes can be called as “food”. Food contains biomolecules, like, protein, lipid and carbohydrate, inorganic minerals as salts, and organic substances, such as, vitamins, emulsifiers, acids, antioxidants, pigments, polyphenols and flavour-producing compounds. They can be of plant or animal origin. Depending on the durability in terms of suitability of consumption, foods can be perishable, semi-perishable and non-perishable. Food spoilage occurs due to chemical, microbial, or physical actions. eventually affecting its nutritional values, colour, edibility and texture (M. Rahman, 2007).

Large number of edible fruits exists in tropics and subtropics of world. Many of such fruit species are identified, domesticated and are being utilized for various purposes, though their full potential has not been exploited. There is yet another group of plants producing edible fruits with great potential in different parts of world, which are not at all being grown and utilized by people other than in a very localized manner. Such under and un-utilized fruits are made the subject for detailed study. They are evaluated for their nutritive value, potential uses for other purposes, for possibilities of commercial cultivation in suitable areas and chances for marketing. Since all of them may not be acceptable for fresh consumption as table fruit, product diversification should be thoroughly evaluated to gain popularity for such plants. Practices and techniques employed for utilizing these fruits by local people where these plant species are seen at present can be scientifically and systematically refined for commercial exploitation.

Broad spectrum of agro climatic conditions and diversity in people’s preference for taste offer great chances to identify right fruit to a particular region for commercial cultivation in India. In this context, significance of under and un-utilized fruits for exploiting potentials become more clear. Identification of such plant species in different regions, extend and method of present utilization, nutritive value and pomological significance of the products, specific climatic and cultural requirements for successful growth and development should be documented as first step for exploitation of lesser known fruit species. Some of the under and un-exploited fruit species prevalent in tropical and subtropical conditions are discussed. In addition to this, attempt is made to incorporate an exhaustive list of plant species, which have potential for utilization as fruits and are rarely exploited at present. These are confined to only limited localities where people use produces for various purposes and are in most cases little known to other parts of world.

While setting up a garden or landscaping an area, the natural floristic wealth is ignored very often. But many of those flora are much adapted to prevailing soil and climatic conditions of the area. Plants with attractive flowers or foliage could be retained to maintain the natural appearance as well as to reduce cost of landscaping.Very familiar plants of our surroundings having good ornamental value are discussed in this chapter.

Goanese Ipecacuanha 
Naregamia alata commonly known as Goanese Ipecacuanha is a member of family Meliaceae. It is known as Tinparni in Hindi, Triparnika in Sanskrit, Nilanarakam in Malayalam, Nilanreagam in Tamil and Nelanaringa in Kannada. Common name was derived from its use of roots in treatment of malaria. Vernacular name, Nilanarakam originated from its morphological resemblance to members of Rutaceae. 

The seed spices are aromatic vegetable products mostly used in whole or ground form for imparting flavour, aroma and pungency to food. The seed spices possess industrial importance and are used in cosmetics, perfumery and pharmaceutical preparations.  The major seed spices , coriander, cumin, fennel and fenugreek are cultivated in larger areas in arid to semi-arid regions covering major parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Besides these four crops, a minor group of under exploited seed spices crops has tremendous scope for their cultivation in arid to semi-arid parts of the country. Such under exploited seed spice crops are ajowan, dill, celery, anise, caraway, black caraway, parsley and nigella.

India produces currently 8.4 lakh t. of seed spices from an area of  5.7 lakh ha. Owing to large domestic demand and stringent export regulations only 10% of total production is exported and earns a foreign exchange of Rs. 225 crores annually. The global demand of seed spices is 1,50000 t. and India  exports only 60750 t. annually. It is suggested that if wide range of seed spice crops are grown across the country, present level of production and export can be doubled. Therefore in addition to major group of seed spices, the minor seed spices, so called under exploited crops should be given emphasis and promoted amongst farmers for earning more profit through  export.

The biosphere or part of the earth and its atmosphere where life is found is made of different size of ecosystem regulated by solar energy. Ecosystems have both biotic and abiotic components. The biotic component comprises closely interacting groups of flora and fauna having varying energy needs which comprise heterotrophic, chemoautotrophic and photoautotrophic microorganisms.

Biodiversity refers to the richness of life as manifested by their morphological, cultural and biochemical characteristics of microorganism and their interdependence in habitat. It is because of biodiversity that each ecosystem functions as the basic life support system of the planet earth. Biodiversity sustains the food and nutrition security of human beings and mediates the ecological process by resisting environmental perturbations in a given soil and climatic conditions.

Presently greater emphasis is being placed on the biodiversity of above ground biotic components belonging to plant and animal kingdom. The living organisms in soil and their diversity in relation to their contribution to sustainable agriculture often do not receive adequate attention. Without taking into considerations the magnitude and understanding of the global diversity will be fragmentary. However, management of below ground biodiversity is being focused presently by several national and international bodies.

An auricle (pinna) and ear canal (external auditory meatus) of external ear play an important rolein the process of hearing. The main function if external ear is to collect vsound waves and divert them towards the middle and inner ear. The external ear I'd prone to different conditions along with inflammation, infections and other disorders. Common conditions of the external ear include otitis external, Carmen impaction. Contact dermatitis, external otitis media. Antibiotics, antifungal, corticosteroids, ear wax softener, analgesics are useful in treating the disordersof external ear. Finally it is concluded that the function of drugs on the external ear is related to a variety of therapeutic approaches aimed atvalleviating symptoms, resolving infections and increasing healing.

Introduction

The external ear, comprising the auricle (pinna) and the ear canal (external auditory meatus), plays a vital role in the process of hearing. While its primary function is to gather sound waves and direct them towards the middle and inner ear, the external ear is also susceptible to various conditions, including infections, inflammations, and other disorders. In such cases, medications are often employed to alleviate symptoms and treat underlying issues. Understanding how drugs interact with the external ear can shed light on their therapeutic mechanisms and potential side effects.

Aluminium is a ubiquitous metal and seen in an environment. Source of aluminium happens through dietary souce, food addivitives, packing materials, medications, environmental exposure as well as occupational exposure. Toxico kinetics is related to the interaction of aluminium with biological systems and toxicity also. Toxico dynamics of aluminium is related to the the oxidatve stress, neuro toxicity and bone toxicity. Diagnosis is based on MRI scan and measurement of serum as well as urine. Treatment is dependent on chelation therapy as well as avoidance of exposure. Finally it is concluded that aluminium toxicity leads to health risks in a significant manner along with potential adverse effects on neurological, gastro, intestinal, renal as well as skeletal systems.

Introduction

Aluminium is a ubiquitous metal observed naturally in the environment. It is widely used in various industrial and consumer products including cookware antacids, vaccines, and food additives. While aluminium is normally considered safe in low concentrations and exposure to high levels can lead to toxicity causing a range of adverse effects on human health. In this comprehensive article, authors will provide information regarding its toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics, clinical signs and symptoms, associated lesions, diagnosis and treatment strategies.

The cold chain is the lifeline of the ice cream industry because the product must remain continuously frozen from factory hardening until consumption. This chapter examines the complete cold-chain network, beginning with hardening and factory cold storage and extending through CFA or distributor cold rooms, refrigerated transport, retail freezers, and final consumer handling. It explains temperature requirements, monitoring systems, equipment selection, cold-room management, stock rotation, and quality assurance. Particular attention is given to Indian challenges such as power interruptions, inadequate freezer maintenance, poor retailer practices, and temperature abuse. The chapter demonstrates how disciplined cold-chain management protects texture, flavour, shape, overrun, shelf life, and ultimately consumer confidence